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t 
















HOME LIFE IN OLDEN TIMES 

A glance will suggest the contrast of life in colonial times and at the beginning of the 20th century. 































GOLDEN TREASURY 


eOF= 


USEFUL INFORMATION 


Social and Business Forms, Banking and Commerce, The Practical Mechanic, Every 
Day Law, Farm and Stock Book, Useful Science, Rules of Etiquette, History and 
Geography, Biographical Dictionary, Facts for the Curious and 

Handy Dictionary of Common Things 


-EDITOR IN CHIEF- 


U 


CHARLES MORRIS, LL.D. 

Editor of “Twentieth Century Cyclopedia,” “Zell’s Encyclopedia” (Revised 
Edition), “The Handy Dictionary of Biography,” “Thomas’ Biographical Dic¬ 
tionary” (Revised Edition), and Many Olher Books of Reference. Author of 
Numerous Standard Works on History, Biography and Science. : : : 


PROF. E. C. MILLS 

Expert Penman, Rochester, 
New York 


-ASSISTED BY- 

HENRY H.ALBERTSON 

Associate Editor “ Farm Journal,” 
Philadelphia 


PROF. R. S. COLLINS 

Peirce Business College, Phil¬ 
adelphia 


AND OTHER EMINENT SPECIALISTS 


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Profusely Illustrated by Full Page Half-tones and ' 
Beautiful Graphic Charts Printed in Many Colors 


INTERNATIONAL PUBLISHING COMPANY 

PHILADELPHIA -°- PENNSYLVANIA 
















































s 


THE LI 8R ARY OF 
CONGRESS, 
Two COPlfcS R ECSIVED 

SEP. H 1902 

COPYRIGHT ENTRY 

bl,A% CLyCA a No 
COPY 8. 


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, Ml 2 2 


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Entered according to Act of 
Congres s in the ye ar 1902 by 
W. E. SCULL, in the office 
of the Librarian of Congress, 
at Washington, D, C. 

All Rights Reserved 


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PREFACE 


This is an age of great things, great thoughts, great inventions, and great events. 
New ideas are crowding upon the old. The world is at sea, and daily touching upon 
some fresh shore of fancy or fact. What was up-to-date in the closing years of the old 
century is rapidly being left behind in the opening years of the new. Business in all its 
branches, industry in its many departments, have spread and expanded until we scarcely 
recognize them under their new faces and forms. 

To keep up with business and with the race of events we must possess the necessary 
means of progress, and of these means the best are books —books of reference, of infor¬ 
mation, of ways and means, of figures and facts. Success to-day comes first to those who 
are best prepared to take advantage of all opportunities as they offer, and to those who 
have the best practical education. Recognizing this, and realizing that self-help is in all 
cases the best help, and home instruction often the best instruction , publishers, of recent 
years, have been deluging the world with books of ready reference — dictionaries, encyclo¬ 
paedias, compendiums, and works under varied titles, all intended for the one important 
end of supplying this earnest demand of the people at large. In these days of active 
thought and busy enterprise, to live without an encyclopaedia of information is to pass 
through life seriously handicapped. 

You must keep gathering knowledge or you will stagnate. You must fill your mind 
with information if you would be ready to grasp opportunity as it flies. And yet no man, 
no matter how retentive his memory, can keep in mind more than a small fraction of the 
things desirable to know. Facts are accumulating too fast for that. There are thousands 
of events which the best of us cannot hope to keep in our memories, like coins in our 
purse, ready to pay out promptly on demand. It is for this reason that books of reference 
are necessary, works in which facts of all kinds may lie conveniently packed away, 
indexed and ticketed, ready to lay hand upon at a moment’s notice. 

We have been looking through the various works of this kind. There are many of 
them, as we have said. Yet we are constrained to say that those we have seen are disap¬ 
pointing. Here is a glaring omission in one field of information; there a serious defi¬ 
ciency in another. Many of them are most notable for what they fail to tell. They 
promise, but do not fulfil. They bristle with worn-out information, but fail to grasp the 
story of the present, to keep abreast of the fast-flowing tide of the times. We have been 
disappointed, we say. Re-vamped material, obsolete ideas, mossgrown events, collections 
of antiquities, are not what the world wants. A thoroughly up-to-date and fully reliable 
book is sadly needed, a book of the times; one new, fresh, vital in character, twentieth- 
century in tone and style. We have sought in vain for such a work. As we could not 

iii 



iv 


PREFACE 


find one, we have made one. We have felt the demand and promptly responded to it, and 
take pleasure in presenting to the reading public a work which they can accept with the 
fullest confidence, a book of all facts, a brimming compendium of the knowledge and pro¬ 
gress of the world in whose midst we live, a full cabinet of information dealing with every 
phase of modern affairs. 

Facts, we are often told, are stubborn things. They truly are when we call them and 
they will not come; when we seek them and they are not to be found ; when such as we 
have once met hide themselves away in some obscure recess of our brains, and refuse to 
come forth in response to our most earnest demand. Facts are elusive and baffling things, 
escaping us when we most want them, playing about as just out of reach, failing to 
respond to whistle or call. Yet they are things we need daily; hardly an hour passes in 
which there is not something that we wish to know, and we seek in the cells of memory 
in vain. Facts are our tools in trade, the most useful and necessary implements of the 
man of affairs, the daily need of the mistress of the household, the steady demand of the 
growing boy and girl; and nothing is more useful in home and office, in school and library, 
than an ample compendium of the things the world wants to know, a cabinet whose door 
may be opened at a moment’s notice and the stubbornest fact drawn triumphantly forth. 
All must acknowledge that such a compendium is a very convenient thing to have at 
one’s elbow—indispensable would be a better word. Such a compendium we have here, 
a work replete with facts in the most satisfying fullness and variety, brimful of useful 
information suited to all tastes and needs, containing just what every one most wants, 
from bustling housewife to busy merchant or mechanic, from stirring schoolboy to the 
young lady about to be launched upon society. 

Our Twentieth Century Record of Information 

In the whole world of modern books you will find nothing to take the place of this our 
Twentieth Century Record of Information. You will find it a genuine literary telephone. 
Call “ Hello ! ” into it whenever you wish and you can depend on getting a prompt and 
satisfactory reply. Hundreds of wide-awake correspondents, of all times and all profes¬ 
sions, lurk within its pages, ready to be called up at any time, always on hand and at 
leisure, and able to give you the best and most timely information of the day or of the 
ages. Here you have a true multum in parvo , a repertory of sifted, concentrated and 
digested facts, a systematic and compendious collection, containing just what everybody 
wants to know—the farmer, the dairyman, the stock-raiser, the mechanic, the business 
man, the cook and her mistress, the man and woman of society, the writer and reader, the 
lover of sports and games, the devotee of science, the student of inventions, the dweller 
in city or country, in fact, anybody who is in search of anything can scarcely fail to find 
some answer to his demand in these well-filled pages. 

You will find here not alone a time-saver, but a money-saver as well, capable of pay¬ 
ing you back annually ten times the price of the book,—not ten times its value ; it must 
be remembered that value and price are often very different things. Are you in doubt as 
to the proper form to draw a check or note or some other business paper, or whether it 
has the proper endorsement; or do you wish to know how to close an account in your 
Ledger ? Open to the Business Department of this book and you will find it there. If your 


PREFACE 


v 


cow or horse is ailing and drooping, open these pages for your veterinary surgeon. Do 
you wish information on some legal point? You have here your own lawyer, who asks 
no fee for his advice. Are you a householder in a rural residence, and something has 
gone wrong with the plumbing, the woodwork, the furniture, or papering? Well, you 
can, if your time is otherwise occupied, call in carpenter, plumber, or upholsterer, and pay 
their bills ; but if you have leisure and like exercise, you may find here just what you 
want to know about tools and materials and methods of work, and, if the difficulty is not 
a serious one, you will be able to save money and perhaps do as good a job of work as a 
professional mechanic. This is by no means all. You may be invited to some fashion¬ 
able social function, or wish to invite some of your fashionable acquaintances to dinner 
or luncheon, and be in doubt about some small but essential matter of etiquette. You 
may wish to know how to address some important correspondent or to present a letter of 
introduction or recommendation. You might ask your friends to help you in your 
dilemma, but you do not care to confess ignorance on such matters. Nor do you wish to 
buy a book on etiquette for such a minor affair. Well, you have no need, you will find 
all you require to know here, and much other useful information about etiquette and cor¬ 
respondence, all fully down to date, telling how men and women should comport them¬ 
selves in all the social exigencies of life in this new century of the world’s history. 

These are some of the ways in which this work may save you money. They are not 
all the ways. We have dealt here with only a few of its many departments. In a dozen 
ways you may find here information which otherwise you would have to pay for, and 
often to pay for very dearly. As already said, self-help is the best help. 

Having frequently ourselves experienced the various wants above spoken of, we have 
prepared this encyclopaedia for our own convenience as well as for that of others. The 
editor has sought the assistance, in its preparation, of scholars and practical writers, 
thoroughly conversant with the topics placed in their hands, with every confidence in the 
trustworthy results of their labors. Throughout it has been our endeavor to make this 
work a practical aid to those who may have occasion to use it, a guide to success to those 
who apply to it for business purposes, a means of enjoyment to those who seek in it 
knowledge about pastimes, and a channel of important information to those who turn to 
its pages for help in social matters or the many other exigencies of modern life. 

The Phan of This Book 

Realizing fully that it is not sufficient to have an alphabetical treatment of a multi¬ 
tude of subjects, but rather an intelligent and practically complete separate handling of 
the various topics of useful information, we have arranged our work in the form of Depart¬ 
ments, each embracing some broad field of affairs, and each sytematically subdivided into 
convenient sections and paragraphs, in which the several topics under each department 
are clearly and succinctly handled. Thus, in the Department of Business an effort is made 
first to give a sufficient knowledge of Language, —the instrument of all communication, 
_chapters being given on the proper use of English. Then follow lessons on Penman¬ 
ship, illustrated by valuable copy-plates ; on Banking, Money, Business Forms, Bookkeep¬ 
ing, the ready manipulation of figures, helps in Everyday Law, etc. All these form 
trustworthy sources of reference for men in business, and the best possible assistance in 


vi 


PREFACE 


training the young and the inexperienced. By diligent application and earnest study, 
one may obtain from these pages all the essential elements of a business education. 

This is but one of numerous departments. Those interested in Science , for instance, 
may find here a general r£sum£ of the practical applications of scientific discoveries, and 
a succinct account of all that is new and fresh in scientific discovery and application. 
These are matters with which every one should be familiar, and the effort has been made 
to treat the subject broadly and comprehensively. Again, in the field of < Practical 
Mechanics .will be found helps and suggestions that cannot but appeal to every one who 
cares to work with hands and tools, or needs to oversee the work of others. The farmer 
will find his special needs amply dealt with, the schoolboy will require no fuller or more 
carefully prepared cyclopedia than we present, and persons in every field of life cannot fail 
to find something adapted to their special needs. 

Turning from the practical to the social side of life, this will be found as fully dealt 
with. The pleasure of existence is largely enhanced by a recognition of the customs 
prevalent in polished and cultivated society, and the Laws of Etiquette become important to 
all who have to meet others in social intercourse. It will suffice to say that the treatment 
of this important subject is full and all-embracing. The same maybe said of the beautiful 
Industrial and Historical Charts which have been prepared from the latest authorities and 
present to the eye in a most striking manner a comparative view of the great Industries of 
the world and of History of ancient and modern times. We may make passing mention, 
also, of the extended Cyclopedia of General Facts , which rounds up the work and adds 
enormously to its utility. 

Without enumerating the other departments, all of them equally important and 
interesting, what we have said must suffice to show that a book like this cannot fail to 
prove an invaluable Household Companion, appealing to old and young alike, to the cul¬ 
tured and those striving for culture, to both sexes and all conditions. The merits claimed 
for this work are its newness and freshness of material , its width of scope, and its clear 
and logical arrangement. It covers a larger number of practical, every-day subjects, in an 
interesting and intelligent manner, than ever before attempted ; it is written to meet the 
requirements of a manual of instruction and a handbook of reference ; and it cannot fail 
to prove a mine of valuable information to all fortunate enough to possess it. 

In conclusion, we may refer to the wealth of well-chosen illustrations, charts and 
maps, which have been prepared without regard to effort or expense, the purpose being 
to present the best that artistic skill could suggest and execute to supplement the printed 
page. Science, business, mechanics, etiquette, history, biography, etc., all furnish sub¬ 
jects for illustration, our constant effort having been to present a work at once useful and 
beautiful. In this we think all must acknowledge that we have abundantly succeeded. 

THE PUBLISHERS. 


Table of contents 


DEPARTMENT 


BUSINESS 

The Language We Speak 


History of Our Mother Tongue . . 19 
Curious Changes of the Language . . 19 
How the Vocabulary has grown . • 21 

How Foreign Words are Used ... 21 
The English Language for Ten Cen¬ 
turies .22 

The Grammar of the English Lan¬ 
guage .23 

The Parts of Speech.23 

The Structure of a Sentence .... 25 

Mistakes in Grammar.25 

How to use Capital Letters.26 

The use of Punctuation Marks ... 27 

Helps in Spelling.29 

How to Write Clearly.30 

How to Write Forcibly . . . . 31 

The use of Figures of Speech «... 31 

Rapid Business Writing 

Practical Lessons in Using the Pen. 33 

What Materials to use.33 

Position of the Body and Movement . 34 

How to Practice.35 

Plates I. to. X. 3 6- 45 

Instructions on Plates.46 

Vertical Writing.47 

Money and Business 

Money Defined.. . 49 

Gold and Silver Money.49 

Paper Money. 5 ° 

Money of the British Empire .... 50 

Canadian Currency.50 

Money in Foreign Lands.51 

Banks and Banking.51 

How to Open an Account in Bank . 52 
How to make a Deposit Slip .... 32 


Checks. 53 

How to Draw and Endorse Checks . 53 
Drafts and Bills of Exchange .... 56 

Due Bills.58 

Different Forms of Notes.58 

Reckoning Interest.59 

Discounting Note at Bank.59 

Endorsements of Various Kinds . . 60 

Proper Forms for Receipts.60 

Bill of Sale. *•*... 61 

Form of Lease.62 

Business Correspondence.63 

Model Letters.64-65 

Points for Correspondents.66 

The Science of Accounts 

Methods of Bookkeeping.67 

The Object of Keeping Accounts . . 67 

Single Entry.68 

Directions for use of Cash-Book . . 68 

The Books used.68 

Cash-Book.69 and 72 

Trial List of Transactions.70 

Single Entry Journal.71 

The Journal.72 

Ledger. 73 

A Model Set of Accounts, Single 

Entry.72-80 

Bill-Book.81 

Double Entry Bookeeping, Model 

Set.82-92 

Explanation.9 2 

The Cash-Book.92 

Journal. 93 

Ledger. 93 

Closing Books. 94 

Balancing Accounts.94 

Vocabulary of Business Terms . 95-97 

7 


















































8 


TABLE OF CONTENTS 


Rapid Calculations 

Quickness in Figures .98 

In Addition.98 

In Multiplication.99 

The Use of Fractional Numbers . . 99 

Practice with Targe Numbers . . .100 

Lightning Table for Marking Goods . 100 

Convenient Tables.. 101 

Reckoning Board Bills by the Day or 

Week.101 

For Reckoning Wages Under Weekly 

Contract.101 

For Calculating Interest.101 

Every Day Law 

Points of Criminal Law.103 

Embezzlement. ... 103 

Grand Larceny.• .103 

Duties of Police Officer.103 

Murder.103 

The Penalties for Violation of Criminal 
Law.104 


THE WORLD 

For Workers in Wood 


Forests of the Earth.111 

Forest Preservation. .112 

Useful Trees.113 

Ornamental Woods.113 

Useful Trees in the Philippine Islands. 114 

Lumbering Industry.114 

Seasoning Timber.114 

Many Uses of Wood.115 

Annual Rings in Wood.115 

The Manufacture of Wood Paper . .116 
Chemical Wood Pulp.116 

Metals and Minerals 

Science in the Use of Metal . . .117 

Iron and Iron Ores.118 

The Production of Iron •.118 

Coal Production.118 

Bessemer Steel.118 

Uses of Iron.119 

The World’s Gold and Silver Produc¬ 
tion .119 

Gold and Silver production of the 
U. S.120 


Business Law.104 

Laws Governing Negotiable Paper . 104 
Laws Governing Bank Checks . . .104 

Outlawed Debts.104 

Liability of Endorser.104 

C Law of Contracts.105 

Contracts and Agreements . . . .105 
Who Can Make Contracts ? . . .105 

Things to be avoided in Contracts . .106 

Copartnership.106 

Responsibilities of Members of Firms. 106 

Special Partners.106 

Bankruptcy Law.106 

Interest Laws of Various States . .106 

Agents and Attorneys.107 

Landlord and Tenant.107 

Laws Governing Liens.108 

Copyright Laws.108 

Interest Table. ...no 


OF SCIENCE 


Iron and Gold Compared.120 

Gold and Silver Production in U. S. 120 
Approximate amount of Money in the 

World.121 

Gold, Its Character and Sources . .121 

Placer Mining.122 

Vein Mining.123 

Silver Mining.123 

Copper and Tin Production.124 

Lead Production.124 

Zinc.125 

Nickel and Mercury.125 

Aluminum. I2 6 

Other Metals.126 

Petroleum or Rock Oil.127 

Uses of Petroleum.127 

Where Found.127 

Natural Gas.128 

Its Production and Its Value . . . .128 

Asphaltum. 128 

Clay and Stone.128 

How Clay is Utilized.128 

Manufacture of Porcelain.129 

Mineral Productions. I2 q 































































TABLE OF CONTENTS 


9 


Building Stones.129 

Value of Mineral Productions . . .130 

The Deepest Mines.130 

Electricity and its Possibilities 

The Nature of Electricity . . . .131 

Electricity as a Force.131 

Magnetic Attraction.131 

Magnetic Repulsion.132 

Electro-Magnet.132 

Soft Iron Magnet.132 

Art of Electrical Communication 4 133 

History of the Telegraph.133 

Morse and his Invention.134 

Morse Alphabet.134 

Wheatstone Telegraph.135 

Ocean Cables.135 

The Great Eastern.136 

The Cable and its Instrument . . .136 


Overhead and Underground Eines . 137 
Duplex and Multiplex Telegraphy . 137 
The Art of Electrical Communication. 137 


Printing and Automatic Telegraphs . 138 

Wireless Telegraphy.138 

The Telephone.138 

Its History and Principle of Oper¬ 
ation .139 

Telephone Receiver.139 

Telephone Statistics.140 

Long-Distance Telephone.140 

Electro-Metallurgy.141 

Phonograph.141 

Other Uses of Electricity . . . .142 

Electrotyping.142 

Medical Uses of Electricity . . . .142 
Electricity in Agriculture ..... 143 
Electric Light and Electric Motor . .143 
Benefits of Electric Treatment . . .143 

The Dynamo.144 

Electric Motor.145 

The Arc Light.146 

Incandescent Light.147 

Storage Battery.148 

Electric Power and Its Transmission . 148 
Chemical Action in the Storage Bat¬ 
tery . . . -.149 

The Electric Railway.149 

Central Power House.150 

Feeders for Overhead Trolleys . . .150 
Progress of the Electric Railway . .151 
Mileage of Electric Railways . . . .151 
Elevated Electric Railway.151 


Electric Locomotives.151 

Electric Furnace.152 

Heating and Cooking by Electricity . 152 

Electric Blasting.153 

Electrocution.154 

The Forces of Nature 

Heat as a Motive Power.155 

The Steam Engine.156 

Low and High Pressure Engines . .157 

Other Motors.159 

Water Power.159 

Air Motors.160 

Compressed-Air Motors.161 

Hot-Air Engines.161 

Liquid Air.162 

Gas Engine.162 

Air Brake.162 

Wind and Weather 

The Causes of Winds.163 

Trade Winds.163 

Cyclones.164 

Origin and Path of Cyclones . . . .165 

Tornadoes.166 

Temperature and Atmospheric Pres¬ 
sure .167 

The Use of Barometer.167 

Weather Observations.168 

Weather Signals.169 

Latest Scientific Discoveries and 
Inventions 

The Telautograph.171 

Telegraphing from Trains.171 

Wireless Telegraphy.171 

The Telephone Gazette.172 

Long-Distance Telephony.173 

Electric Telpherage.174 

Electric Furnaces. 175 

Carborundum.176 

Welsbach Light.176 

Roentgen Rays.176 

Strange Uses for Liquid Air . . . .177 
New Gases in the Atmosphere . . .178 

Artificial Ice.178 

Automobile.178 

Flying Machines.178 

Submarine Boats.179 

Printing without Ink.179 

Movable Stairways.179 

Mosquitoes and Disease Germs . . .180 
Destroying Mosquitoes.180 









































































IO 


TABLE OF CONTENTS 


THE PRACTICAL MECHANIC 


How to Mark Your Own Repairs . 183 
How to get Practical Knowledge . .184 
Why Carpentry is most Desirable . .184 

Bricklaying and Masonry.184 

Kinds and Prices of Materials . . .185 

Working Drawings.185 

How to Judge Woods used in Car¬ 
pentry . 185-6 

Strength and Breaking Strain of Ma¬ 
terials .•.187 

Toots Used in Carpentry.187 

Striking Tools.188 

Rasping Tools.188 

Paring Tools.• .... 189 

Other Tools.190 

The Glue Pot.191 

Recipe for Making Glue.191 

Directions for Sharpening Tools . .192 

Divisions oethe Building Trade .192 

Work in Metals. 193 

Decorative Work.193 

Practical Points in Excavating . .194 

Making Good Concrete.194 

Bricklaying.195 

Soldering and Brazing.196 

Indoor and Outdoor Painting . . .197 

The several Coats of Paint.197 

Various Coloring Substances Used . 198 
Recipes for Making Varnishes . . .199 


Practical Hints . . 200 

Paper Hanging.• . . 200 

Practical Directions.201-3 

Electric Bells and Telephones . . 204 

Making Connections. t . 205 

Alternating Currents. .205 

Directions for Wiring.206 

Directions for Putting up Instru¬ 
ments .206 

Operating a Telephone.207 

Batteries . . ..207 

Facts and Figures for Every-Day 
Use. 

Wood Work.208 

Stone and Brick Work.209 

Iron Work.210 


Workshop Recipes 

Recipes for the Worker in Wood 21i-i2 

Recipes for the Worker in Metal2 i i-i 2 
Engines and Boilers.213-14 

Tables of Measures and Weights 

Linear, Square and Other Measures .215 


Metric System and Tables.216 

Miscellaneous Tables.217 

Capacity and Volume.218 


FARM AND STOCK BOOK 


Stock on the Farm.221 

Success of American Cattle . . . .221 

Chief Imported Breeds.221 

Notable Milk Producers.222 

A Model Cow Stable.223 

Selection and Breeding.224 

Crossing of Varieties.225 

Care of Animals.225 

Disease of Cattle and their Remedies 226-8 

Care of the Horse.228 

Three Principal Varieties.228 

The Trotter and Racer.229 

The Draught Horse ....... 229 

The Mule 229 


The Treatment of the Horse . . . 229-32 


Judging the Horse.233 

Horse Diseases and Treatment . 234-237 

Care of Sheep.237 

English Breeds.238 

Management of Sheep.238-9 

Diseases of Sheep and Treatment . 240-2 

Care of Hogs.242 

Varieties of Hogs.242 

Diseases of Hogs and Treatment . 243-4 

Care of Poultry.244 

The Breeds of Poultry.244-6 

Care and Management.246 

Artificial Incubation.246 

























































TABLE OF CONTENTS 


II 


Parasites and Diseases.247 

Common Remedies.247-8 

Farm Management.248 

The Soil.248 

Fertilizer for the Farm.249 

Proper care of Manure.250 

Artificial Fertilizers.251 

Rotation of Crops.252 


BOOK OF 

The Art oe Conversation .259 

Practical Rules on Conversation . 260-2 


Principles of Politeness.263 

Flirtation.265 

Etiquette of Travel.267 

Art oe Dress.268 

A Well Dressed Woman.268 

Suitability of Apparel.269 

Public Occasions.. . 269 

A Well Dressed Man.270 

The Shirt Waist.272 

Introductions, Proper Forms . . .272 

The Introducer’s Formula.273 

Calls, Formal and Informal . . . .274 

Visiting and Visitors.276 

Entertaining Guests.277 

Engraved and Printed Cards . . . .278 

Rules for Leaving Cards.278 

Bates and Evening Parties . . . .279 

Subscription Dances.280 

The Question of Toilette *. . . . .281 

In the Ball-Room.281 

Requests to Dance.282 

After the Ball.. 283 

Breakfast, Luncheon and Tea . .283 

Teas and Afternoon Receptions . . .284 

Theatre Parties.285 

Chaperons.286 

Banquets and Dinners.286 

Choosing Guests. 286 

Duties of Hostess.287 

Dress.288 


Speeding, Pronunciation, Deriva¬ 
tion, and Definition of Words 
Standing for Common Things in 


The Dairying Industry .253 

Care of Milk.252 

Butter Making.254-5 

Facts and Figures for the Farmer. 255 
To Measure Grain and Hay .... 255 
How to Measure Land.256 


Weight of Various Products . . . .256 

ETIQUETTE 


Dinner Courses . . . ..289 

General Hints.291 

Courtship and Marriage.292 

Wedding Preliminaries.293 

Bridal Gifts.293 

Flowers. 294 

The Bride.295 

House Wedding.296 

Funerae Etiquette.297 

The use of Flowers and Mourning . 298 
Anniversary and other Occasions . 299 
Etiquette of the Household . . . .301 

Table Manners.301 

In the Electric Car.302 

Etiquette of Traveling.303 

Table Etiquette for Children .... 304 
Forms of Invitation for Parties . 305 
Forms of Invitation for Dinners . 306 


Forms of Invitation for Weddings.307 

Art of Letter Writing.309 

Forms and Styles for Correspond¬ 
ence . 310-13 

Model Letters.314-19 

Etiquette of Beauty 

How to Grow Old Gracefully . . .320 

Care of the Body.320 

The Bath Room.321 

The Complexion.322 

Useful Recipes. 3 2 3~33° 

Good Taste in Dressing.331 

The Art of Appearing Always Young 332 

DICTIONARY 

Daiey Use; Aephabeticaeey Ar¬ 
ranged ; Appropriately Illustra¬ 
ted with Numerous Engravings . 333 


ENCYCLOPEDIC 



























































12 


TABLE OF CONTENTS 


BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY 


Dictionary of Distinguished People 
of the World, Embracing their 
Nationality, Vocation, Great 


Achievements, and Dates of Birth 
and Death ; Alphabetically Ar¬ 
ranged for Ready Reference . 499 


GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY 


Graphic Color Charts 

Comparative Population of Cities .527 
Comparative Railroad Mileage . .528 


Comparative Progress of Cotton 

Manufacture.529 

Comparative Yield of Farm Pro¬ 
ducts, five Charts ........ 530 

Imports, Exports and Debts of Na¬ 
tions, four Charts.531 

World’s Annual Productions in 
Four Great Staples, four Charts .532 

The Money of the World. 533 

Comparative Land Areas and Popu¬ 
lations, four Charts.534 

The History of the World by Cen¬ 
turies 

From 2000 b.c. to 500 b.c. 535 

From 500 b.c. to 1 a.d. 536 

From 1 a.d. to 900.537 

From 900 to 1500.538 

From 1500 to 1750.539 

1750 to 1820.540 

1820 to 1865.541 

1865 to 1900.542 

Geography and Historv Defined . 543 
The Western Hemisphere and East¬ 
ern Hemisphere. 543 


The Continent of Europe 

Table of Population by Continents 544 
Population of the Earth According 

to Races, Table.544 

Climate and Products of Europe . 545 
Growth of European Civilization . 545 
Europe in the Nineteenth Century. 545 
The Governments of Europe . . . 547 
Great Britain and Ireland . . . .547 


The British Empire ........ 547 

Colonies and Dependencies .548 


France 

Population, Government — Foreign 

Possessions. 549 

Spain 

Its Population, Government — Chief 

Cities.549 

Portugal 

Its Area, Population, Government, 

Colonies.550 

Italy 


Its Ancient and Modern History . .550 

Population and Chief Cities . . . .551 

Greece 

Ancient and Modern.551 

Government and Population . . . .551 

Austro-Hungarian Empire 

Its Dual Monarchy—Wealth in Min¬ 
erals . 551 

Its Cities and Government.552 

The German Empire 

Its Boundaries, Government, Chief 

Cities.552 

Switzerland 

Its Ancient Name, Wonderful Physi¬ 
cal Features, Peculiar Government, 
Brave People, Chief Cities, Popula¬ 
tion .Ccr-2 

Belgium 

The Most Densely Settled Country, 

Its Boundaries, Its Religion, Gov¬ 
ernment, Chief Cities, Population . 553 
The Netherlands (The Low Countries) 

Its Peculiar Phyical Features, Area, 
Population, Government, Large Col¬ 
onial Possessions, Its New Queen . 553 
Denmark 

Its Ancient Name, Area, Population, 
Government, Its Mild Climate, Its 

Island Possessions.554 

Sweden and Norway 
Two Kingdoms with one King, Their 
High Latitude, How Education is 
Fostered 


554 






























TABLE OF CONTENTS 


13 


The Russian Empire 
Its Extensive Dominion, Population, 
Area, Its Absolute Government, 
Russia in Europe and Russia in 

Asia . 555 

Turkey 

Its Possessions in Europe and Asia, 
Area and Government, Peculiar Re¬ 
ligion, Its Absolute Monarchy . . 556 
The Countries oe Europe 
Table Showing the Forms of Govern¬ 
ment, Areas and Capitals . . . .556 
The Baekan States —Roumania, Bul¬ 
garia, Montenegro.557 

The Area,* Population, Government 
and Chief Cities.557 

The Continent of Asia 

Its Great Size, —Antiquity in History, 
Variety of Climate, Wonderful Physi¬ 
cal Features.557 

The Principal Divisions of Asia, 

Showing Total Population.558 

The Chinese Empire 

Its Great Area, Dense Population, Its 
Many Divisions, The Commercial 
Activities in China, The Religion of 

the Chinese.558 

The Empire of Japan 

Its Insular Position, Its Area and 
Population, Mineral Wealth, Valu¬ 
able Vegetable Products, Great Com¬ 
mercial Activity, Its Recent Wars 

and Political Influence.559 

India—Great Britain’s Empire in 
the East 

Remarkable Physical Features, Its 
Early History, Its Great Cities . .560 
Indo-China 

Its Location, Its Products, Largest 

Cities .561 

Persia 

Its Great Flocks and Caravan Trade, 
Great Salt Deserts, The Character of 
Its People, Their Religion and Edu¬ 


cation .561 

Turkey in Asia 

Its Interest in Sacred and Profane His¬ 
tory, Its Chief Cities, Its People and 
their Occupation.561 


Arabia—The Hot Desert 
Its Few Inhabitants, Points of Interest 562 
Palestine 

Its Interest in Sacred History, Its Phy¬ 
sical Features, Its History . . . .562 

Oceania 

Its Position in the Pacific, Its Sub- 

Divisions .562 

Australia 

Its Great Size, Its Physical Features, 
Vegetation, People, Government . 563 
Tasmania, New Zealand and New 
Guinea 

Their Location, Population and Other 

Points of Interest.564 

Fiji and Other Islands 
Points of Interest Concerning Each . 565 

The Continent of Africa 

Its Area, Population, Physical Fea¬ 


tures .565 

History and Development.566 

Governments of South Africa . . .567 

Central Africa.’ .... 567 

Portuguese, French and German Col¬ 
onies .567 

Northern Africa.568 

America the New World 

Discovery and Settlements.568 

Table Showing Countries, Area, Popu¬ 
lation and Capital Cities of the 

American Continent.569 

North America ..569 

Area and Physical Features . . . . 57 ° 

Countries of North America . . • .571 

British America, Newfoundland, 

Labrador.571 

Dominion of Canada 

Its Area and Population.571 

Its History and Its Government . . .572 

Table Giving Area, Population and 

Capitals. 57 2 

The United States 

Its Area, Boundaries and Population . 573 

Its Public Domain. 573 

Its Early and Later History . . . .573 


Table Showing Population and Growth 
of the Various States—1890-1900 574 



























4 


TABLE OF CONTENTS 


New Possessions of the United 

States.•. . .574 

Porto Rico.574 

Hawii.575 

Guam.576 

Philippine Islands.576 

Mexico 

Its Early History, Physical Features, 

Occupations and Wealth.577 

Central America 
Political Divisions, Physical Features, 

Inhabitants.578 

The West Indies 
The Numerous Islands, Physical Fea¬ 
tures .578 


South America 

Its Peculiar Shape, Physical Features, 
Wealth in Minerals, Its Climate, 


Inhabitants and Industries .... 579 
Political Divisions.5 80 


Chronology of Great Historical 
Events, from the Founding of 
Carthage, B. C. 878, to 1901 . . 580-82 

Map of the World at the Beginning 
of the 19TH Century.583 

Map of the World at the Begin¬ 
ning of the 20TH Century . . . .583 


FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS 


The Seven Bibles of the World . . .586 
The Nine Religions of the World . . 586 
Distribution of the People of the 


Christian Religion. 586 

The Name of God in Forty-eight 

Languages.587 

The Jewish Religion.587 

Bramanism.587 

Mohammedanism.587 

Curiosities of the Bible.588 


New Testament Chronology . . . .588 
Supposed Fate of the Apostles . . .589 
About Books and Writers of Books 590 
Assumed Names of Well-known 

Writers .590-91 

Great Men’s Readings.592 

Twelve Greatest Books of the Nine¬ 
teenth Century.593 

Newspapers of the United States and 

the World.593 

Statistics of Newspapers for 1900 . . 593 
Lubbock’s List of 100 Best Books . 594 

Ten Greatest Preachers.595 

Ten Greatest Philosophers.595 

Ten Greatest Reformers.595 

Ten Greatest Historians.595 

Ten Greatest Poets.595 


Ten Greatest Painters.595 

Ten Greatest Sculptors.595 

The Largest Things in the World . .595 

The First Things.596 

The Nineteenth Century in a Nut-shell 597 

Paris Exposition, 1900.597 

Owners of Land in America .... 597 
Principal Battles of the Civil War . . 597 
Growth of the United States . . . .597 
How the Great Powers Have,Changed 597 


Politics of the Presidents.600 

Religion of the Presidents.600 

Education of Presidents.600 

Cabinet Facts of Interest.600 

Salaries of United States Officers . .601 
Popular and Electoral Votes for Presi¬ 
dents .601 

Eleven Great Wonders of America . 602 

Noted American Trees.602 

Remarkable Plagues of Modern Times 602 
Great Financial Panics.603 


The Greatest Floods in History . . . 603 
The Greatest World’s Fairs .... 604 
Highest Buildings and Monuments . 604 
Famous Giants and Dwarfs .... 605 
Remarkable Genius in Youth . . . .605 
Remarkable Memories.605 









































LIST OF HALF-TONE ILLUSTRATIONS 


The; Marvels oe Mechanical Invention 

On the Road to Success 

Edison and His Great Invention 

Pasteur in His Laboratory 

The Iron Industry 

Business Centres oe the World 

The Department Store 

Correct Position eor the Penman 

The Wealth oe Commerce 

The Moving Footway 

A Modern Rapid-Firing Gun 

The Model Chicken House 

A Model Upland Sheep Pasture 

Fine Cattle—Standard Breeds 

The Noble Draught Horse and the Pony 

The Thoroughbred Racer 

Choice Grades oe Sheep and Hogs 

Home Life in Olden Times. 

Decorations for Special Occasions in the Home 
Electric Tower Buffalo Exposition 
Inside of Wall Surrounding City of Peking, China 
The Mouth of the Pasig River, the Philippines 
Westminster Parliament Buildings—Clock Tower in 
the Abbey 

Trafalgar Square From the National Gallery, London 

The Forward Deck of a Modern War Vessel 

The Eifel Tower, Paris— A Marvel of Engineering 

Greater New York 

Removing the Irons From the Insane 

Distinguished Men of Canada 

The Great Monarchs of Europe 

Distinguished Authors of the Greatest Books of the 
Nineteenth Century 

Great American Writers at the Close of the Nine¬ 
teenth Century 
The Suez Canal 

A View of the Nicaraguan Canal 



COLOR CHARTS, 


PAGE 

Comparative Population of American Cities over 100,000, Census 1900.527 

Comparative Railroad Mileage of the World. 5 28 

Chart Showing Average Freight Rates. 5 2 & 

Comparative Progress of Cotton Manufactured North and South.529 

Comparative Yield of World’s Great Farm Products: 

World’s Corn Crop.530 

World’s Rye Crop. 53 ° 

World’s Wheat Crop.530 

World’s Sugar Crop.530 

World’s Total Grain Products.530 

Total Imports of Great Nations Compared.531 

Total Exports of Great Nations Compared.531 

Total Wealth of Great Nations Compared.531 

Total Indebtedness of Great Nations Compared.531 

Coal Production of the World.532 

Wool Supply Compared.532 

Cotton Production.532 

Tobacco Crop.532 

Money of the World, Gold, Silver and Paper.533 

World’s Area in Eand and Water.534 

Absolute Monarchies, Areas and Population.534 

Eimited Monarchies, Areas and Population.534 

Republics, Areas and Population .334 

HISTORY OP THp WORTD BY CpNTURIpS 

2000 B. C. to 500 B. C.333 

500 B. C. to 1 A. D.^36 

1 to 900 . . . 537 

900 to 1500.338 

1500 to 1750. . 

1750 to 1820. . 

1820 to 1865. . 

1865 to .. . 

16 
































BOOK I. 

BUSINESS 

PRACTICAL HELPS IN GRAMMAR—SPELLING AND COMPOSITION—LES¬ 
SONS IN PENMANSHIP WITH MODEL COPIES—FORMS FOR ALL KINDS 
OF BUSINESS PAPER—MONEY AND BANKING—BOOKKEEPING PRACTI¬ 
CALLY ILLUSTRATED — HOW TO USE FIGURES QUICKLY — BUSINESS 
LAW—A VOCABULARY OF COMMON BUSINESS TERMS. 

A PRACTICAL BUSINESS INSTRUCTOR AND GUIDE 

Prepared and Edited by 

PROFESSOR E C. MILLS, of Rochester, N. Y., 

PROFESSOR R. S. COLLINS, of Philadelphia, Pa., 
and Other Specialists. 


2 C 


17 



























































































I • 




















- 









































.* 




























. 




























































































1 










































































































The Language We Speak 

ITS INTERESTING HISTORY—ITS FORMATION—ITS MILESTONES 
—ITS DIVISIONS BY POINTS—ITS GRAMMAR—ITS 
SPELLING—ITS CORRECT USE—ITS 
FLOWERS OF SPEECH 


OUR MOTHER TONGUE 


Language has a history just as the liv¬ 
ing being who uses it. It has gone through 
periods of change and development which 
correspond to the many changes in the his¬ 
tory of the race from the few words or 
sounds of man who lived in the cave to the 
complete vocabulary of the most learned 
American. It is of first importance to every 
one aspiring to success in the correct use of 
our language to appreciate fully what a 
wonderful instrument it is. This requires 
that a brief account be given of its history 
and composition. 

We speak of the “ English tongue ” or 
of the ‘ ‘ French language * ’; and we say of 
two nations that they ‘ ‘ do not understand 
each other’s speech.” The existence of 
these three words— speech, tongue, laiiguage 
—proves to us that a language is something 
spoken, —that it is a number of sounds ; and 
that the writing or printing of it upon paper 
is a quite secondary matter. Language, 
rightly considered, then, is an organized set 
of sounds. These sounds convey a meaning 
from the mind of the speaker to the mind 
of the hearer, and thus serve to connect 
man with man. 

It took many hundreds of years—per¬ 
haps thousands—before human beings were 
able to invent a mode of writing upon paper 
—that is, of representing sounds by signs. 


These signs are called letters ; and the whole 
set of them goes by the name of the Alpha¬ 
bet —from the two first letters of the Greek 
alphabet, which are called alpha, beta. 
There are languages that have never been 
put upon paper at all, such as many of the 
African languages, many in the South Sea 
Islands, and other parts of the globe. But 
in all cases, every language that we know 
anything about—English, Latin, French, 
German—existed for a long time before any 
one thought of writing it down on paper. 

Curious Changes in Language. 

Our language has grown ; it is growing 
still ; and it has been growing for many 
hundreds of years. As it grows it loses 
something, and it gains something else ; it 
alters its appearance ; changes take place in 
this part of it and in that part,—until at 
length its appearance in age is something al¬ 
most entirely different from what it was in 
its early youth. If we had the photograph 
of a man of forty, and a photograph of the 
same person when he was a child of one, 
we should find, on comparing them, that it 
was almost impossible to point to the small¬ 
est trace of likeness in the features of the two 
photographs. And yet the two pictures repre¬ 
sent the same person. And so it is with the 
English language. The oldest English, 

19 




20 


THE LANGUAGE WE SPEAK 


which is usually called Anglo-Saxon, is as 
different from our modern. English as if 
they were two distinct languages ; and yet 
they are not two languages, but really and 
fundamentally one and the same. Modern 
English differs from the oldest English as a 
giant oak does from a small oak sapling, 
or a broad stalwart man of forty does from 
a feeble infant of a few months old. 

The English language is spoken by the 
Anglo-Saxon race in all parts of the world, 
including England, most parts of Scotland, 
the larger part of Ireland, the United States, 
Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South 
Africa. In the middle of the fifth century 
it was spoken by a few thousand men who 
had lately landed in England from the Con¬ 
tinent ; it is now spoken by nearly two 
hundred millions of people. In the course of 
the next one hundred years, it will probably 
be the speech of three hundred millions. 

The Family of our English Language. 

Our English tongue belongs to the Aryan 
or Indo-European Family of languages. 
That is to say, the main part or substance 
of it can be traced back to the race which 
inhabited the high table-lands that lie to the 
back of the western end of the great range 
of the Himalaya, or “Abode of Snow.” 
This Aryan race grew and increased, and 
spread to the south and west; and from it 
have sprung languages which are now 
spoken in India, in Persia, in Greece and 
Italy, in France and Germany, in Scandi¬ 
navia, and in Russia. From this Aryan 
family we are sprung; out of the oldest 
Aryan speech our own language has grown. 

Our own language has been in the pro¬ 
cess of formation for centuries, and that it 
still is changing and adding new words in¬ 
dicates it has vitality and is a living lan¬ 
guage. A language is said to be dead when 
it is no longer spoken. Such a language we 
know only in books. Thus, Latin is a dead 
language, because no nation anywhere now 
speaks it. A dead language can undergo 
no change; it remains, and must remain, as 
we find it written in books. But a living 
language is always changing, just like a tree 
or the human body. The human body has 
its periods or stages. There is the period of 
infancy, the period of boyhood, the period 


of manhood, and the period of old age. In 
the same way, a language has its periods. 

We divide the English language into 
periods, and then mark, with some approach 
to accuracy, certain distinct changes in the 
habits of our language, in the inflexions of 
its words, in the kind of words it preferred, 
or in the way it liked to put its words to¬ 
gether. But we must be carefully on our 
guard against fancying that, at any given 
time or in any given year, the English peo¬ 
ple threw aside one set of habits as regards 
language, and adopted another set. It is 
not so, nor can it be so. The changes in 
language are as gentle, gradual, and imper¬ 
ceptible as the changes in the growth of a 
tree or in the skin of the human body. We 
renew our skin slowly and gradually; but 
we are never conscious of the process, nor 
can we say at any given time that we have 
got a completely new skin. 

—Bearing this caution in mind, we can go 
on to look at the chief periods in our Eng¬ 
lish language. These are five in number : 
and they are as follows :— 

I. Ancient English or Anglo-Saxon, 449-#i°° 


II. Early English,.1100-4250 

III. Middle English, . . •.1250-1485 

IV. Tudor English,.1485-1603 

V. Modern English,.1603-1900 


These periods merge very slowly, or are 
shaded off, so to speak, into each other in 
the most gradual way. If we take the Eng¬ 
lish of 1250 and compare it with that of 900, 
we shall find a great difference ; but if we 
compare it with the English of 1100 the 
difference is not so marked. The difference 
between the English of the twentieth and 
the English of the fourteenth century is very 
great, but the difference between the English 
of the fourteenth and that of the thirteenth 
century is very small. 

The Grammar of the Language 

Was fixed betore the seventeenth century, 
most of the case-endings having entirely van- 
vanished. The vocabulary of the language, 
however, has gone on increasing, and is still 
increasing; for the English language, like the 
English-speaking peoples, is always ready 
to offer hospitality to all peaceful foreigners 
—words or human beings— that will land 
and settle within their coasts. And the 









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ANDREW CARNEGIE 


LOUISA NAY aIcGTT 


UPHN 


ON THE ROAD TO SUCCESS 

1 ntiustrv and education are essentials to success. There are avenues open to wealth and distinction for every man and 
y woman who is prepared to grasp the opportunity. Self-help is often the best help. 






























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THE LANGUAGE WE SEE AH 


21 


tendency at the present time is not only to 
give a hearty welcome to newcomers from 
other lands, but to call back old words 
and old phrases that had been allowed to 
drop out of existence. Tennyson, Lowell 
and other of our modern writers have been 
among the chief agents in this happy restor¬ 
ation. 

The Vocabulary Increased. 

When the Angles or English went over 
to the British Isles in the fifth century, the 
number of words in the language they spoke 
was probably not over two thousand. Now, 
however, we possess a vocabulary of per¬ 
haps more than one hundred thousand words. 
And so eager and willing have we been to 
welcome foreign words, that it may be said 
with truth that: The majority of words in the 
English Tongue are not English. In fact, if 
we take the Latin language by itself, there 
are in our language more Latin words than 
E?iglish. But the grammar is distinctly 
English, and not Latin at all. 

We must not forget what has been said 
about a language,—that it is not a printed 
thing—not a set of black marks upon paper, 
but that it is in truest truth a tongue or a 
speech. Hence we must be careful to dis¬ 
tinguish between the spoken language and 
the written or printed language; between the 
language of the ear and the language of the 
eye ; between the language of the mouth and 
the language of the dictio?iary ; between the 
moving vocabulary of the market and the 
street, and the fixed vocabulary that has 
been catalogued and imprisoned in our dic¬ 
tionaries. If we can only keep this in view, 
we shall find that, though there are more 
Latin words in our vocabulary than English, 
the English words we possess are used in 
speaking a hundred times, or even a thou¬ 
sand times, oftener than the Latin words. 
It is the genuine English words that have 
life and movement; it is they that fly about 
in houses, in streets, and in markets; it is 
they that express with greatest force our 
truest and most usual sentiments—our in¬ 
most thoughts and our deepest feelings. 
Latin words are found often enough in 
books ; but, when an English man or woman 
is deeply moved, he speaks pure English 
and nothing else. Words are the coin of 


human intercourse ; and it is the native coin 
of pure English with the native stamp that 
is in daily circulation. 

How Strange Words Come In. 

The different peoples and the different cir¬ 
cumstances with which our race has come in 
contact, have had many results—one among 
others, that of presenting us with contribu¬ 
tions to our vocabulary. Kelts were found 
in England ; and hence we have a number 
of Keltic words in our vocabulary. The 
Romans held the island for several hundred 
years ; and when they had to go in the year 
410, they left behind them a few Latin 
words, which we have inherited. In the 
seventh century, Augustine and his mission¬ 
ary monks from Rome took over a larger 
number of Latin words ; and the Church 
which they founded introduced even more 
and more words from Rome. The Danes 
began to go over to England in the eighth 
century ; there was for some time a Danish 
dynasty seated on the throne of England; 
and hence there are many Danish words. 
The Norman-French invasion in the eleventh 
century took over many hundreds of Latin 
words ; for French is in reality a branch of 
the Latin tongue. The Revival of Learning in 
the sixteenth century gave us several thous¬ 
ands of Latin words. And wherever English- 
speaking sailors and merchants have gone, 
they have brought back with them foreign 
words as well as foreign things—Arabic 
words from Arabia and Africa, Hindustani 
words from India, Persian words from Persia, 
Chinese words from China, and even Malay 
words from the peninsula of Malacca. 

Spanish Words. —The words we have 
received from the Spanish language are not 
numerous, but they are important. The 
following are a few of them :— 

Alligator, Armada, Barricade, Battle¬ 
dore, Bravado, Buffalo, Cargo, Cigar, Cochi¬ 
neal, Cork, Creole, Desperado, Embargo, 
Filibuster, Flotilla, Grenade, Guerilla, Indi¬ 
go, Merino, Mosquito, Mulatto, Negro, Octor¬ 
oon, Quadroon, Renegade, Savannah, Tor¬ 
nado, Vanilla. 

Italian Words. —Italian literature has 
been read and we owe to the Italian langu¬ 
age a large number of words. The follow¬ 
ing are a few of the more common ones 




22 


THE LANGUAGE WE SPEAK 


Alarm, Alert, Alto, Balcony, Bandit, 
Bankrupt, Bravo, Brigade, Brigand, Bust, 
Cameo, Canteen, Canto, Carnival, Cartoon, 
Cascade, Citadel, Concert, Cornice, Corridor, 
Cupola, Ditto, Domino, Folio, Fresco, Gazette, 
Granite, Guitar, Incognito, Influenza, Lava, 
Madonna, Malaria, Manifesto, Motto, Mous¬ 
tache, Niche, Opera, Pantaloon, Pianoforte, 
Piazza, Portico, Ruffian, Serenade, Sonnet, 
Soprano, Stanza, Studio, Tenor, Trombone, 
Umbrella, Vista, Volcano. 

Dutch Words.—T he Dutch are a great 
seafaring people and have given us a num¬ 
ber of words relating to the management of 
ships. The following are a few words which 
we owe to the Netherlands :— 

Ballast, Boom, Boer, Hoy, Luff ’, Reej, 
Skates, Skipper, Sloop, Smack, Smuggle, 
Yacht, Yawl. 

It will be interesting to note a few 
words which come directly from the Latin : 

Antecessor, Benediction, Cadence, Captive, 
Conception, Coffin, Corpse, Debit, Dilate, 
Example, Fabric, Faction, Fact, Fidelity, 
Fragile, Gentile, History, Hospital, Legal, 
Master, Mint, Nutriment, Oration, Particle, 
Pauper, Penitence, Persecute, Quiet, Radius, 
Regal, Respect, Secure, Senior, Separate, 
State, Tract, Tradition, Zealous. 

Also that the following come to us from 
the Latin through the French : 

Ancestor, Benison, Chance, Caitiff, Con¬ 
ceit, Coffer, Corps, Debt, Delay, Sample, 
Forge, Fashion, Feat, Fealty, Frail, Gentle, 
Hotel, Loyal, Mr., Money, Nourishment, 
Orison (a prayer), Parcel, Poor, Penance, 
Pursue, Story. 

Scientific Terms. 

A very large number of discoveries in 
science have been made in this century ; and 
a large number of inventions have intro¬ 
duced these discoveries to the people, and 
made them useful in daily life. Thus we 
have telegraph and telegram; photograph; 
telephone and even photophone and mega¬ 
phone. The word dyna?nite is also modern. 
Then passing fashions have given us such 
words as athlete and aesthete. In general, it 
may be said that, when we wish to give a 
name to a new thing—a new discovery, in¬ 
vention, or fashion—we have recourse not 
to our own stores of English, but to the 


vocabularies ot the Latin and Greek lan¬ 
guages. 

The English Language for Ten 
Centuries. 

We can mark out a few guide posts 
in the path of ten centuries traversed 
by our language each distinguished by a 
great event. A reference to any good 
History of England will give the reader 
particulars which will be fascinating and 
instructive. We give a few of the import¬ 
ant events and dates which we should 
endeavor to remember. 

1. King Alfred translated several 

Latin works into English, 
among others, Bede’s ‘ Eccle¬ 
siastical History of the Eng¬ 
lish Nation ’ . (851) 901 

2. The Norman Conquest, which 

introduced Norman-French 
words.1066 

3. Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, said to 

have been begun by King 
Alfred, and brought to a 
close in.1160 

4. Si? fohn Mandeville, first writer 

of the newer English Prose—in 
his ‘ Travels ’ which contained 
a large admixture of French 
words.1356 

5. Wyclife's Bible .1380 

6. Geoffrey Chaucer, the first great 

English Poet, author of the 
‘ Canterbury Tales ’ ; born in 
134°) died.1400 

7. William Caxton, the first English 

printer, brings out in Germany 
the first English book ever 
printed.1471 

8. First English Book printed in Eng¬ 

land (by Caxton) the ‘ Game and 
Playe of the Chesse ’ .... 1474 

9. William Tyndale, by his transla¬ 

tion of the Bible “fixed our 
tongue once for all.” His New 
Testament has become the 
standard of our tongue: the 
first ten verses of the Fourth 
Gospel are a good sample of his 
manly Teutonic pith ” . . . 1526-30 

10. Edmund Spencer publishes his 
* F aerie Queene. ’ “Now began 











THE LANGUAGE WE SPEAK 


2 3 


the golden age of England’s 
literature ; and this age was to 
last for about fourscore years” 1590 

11. Our English Bible , based chiefly on 

Tyndale’s translation. ‘ ‘ Those 
who revised the English Bible 
in 1611 were bidden to keep as 
near as they could to the old 
versions, such as Tyndale’s ” . 1611 

12. William Shakespeare carried the 

use of the English language to 
the greatest height of which it 
was capable. He employed 
15,000 words. (Born 1564) . 1616 

13. John Milton , “ the most learned of 

English poets,” publishes his 
‘Paradise Lost,’—“a poem in 
which Eatin words are intro¬ 
duced with great skill ” . . . 1667 

14. John Bunyan writes his 4 Pilgrim’s 

Progress ’—a book full of pithy 
English idiom. 4 4 The common 
folk had the wit at once to see 
the worth of Bunyan’s master¬ 
piece, and the learned long after¬ 
wards followed in the wake ot 
the common folk ” (Born 1628) 1688 

15. Dr. Samuel Johnson was the chief 

supporter of the use of the 
‘ 4 long-tailed words in osity and 
action , ’ ’ such as his novel called 
‘Rasselas,’ published, .... 1759 

16. Tennyson , Poet-Eaureate, a writer 

of the best English— 4 4 a coun¬ 
tryman of Robert Manning’s, 
and a careful student of old 
Malory, has done much for the 
revival of pure English among 
us ’ ’.1890 

The Grammar of the English 
Language. 

Whatever may be said of the English 
language in other respects, in simplicity 
it undoubtedly surpasses the rest of Euro¬ 
pean tongues. It is free from intricacies of 
case, declension, mood, and tense. Its 
words are subject to but few terminational 
changes. Its substantives have no distinc¬ 
tions of gender except what nature has 
made. Its adjectives admit of such changes 
only as are necessary to denote the degrees 


of comparison. Its verbs, instead of run¬ 
ning through all the varieties of ancient 
conjugation, suffer few changes. With the 
help of prepositions and auxiliaries, all 
possible relations are expressed, while the 
words for the most part retain their forms 
unchanged. We lose from this, no doubt, 
in brevity and strength ; but we gain vastly 
in simplicity. The arrangement of our 
words is, in consequence, less difficult, and 
our sentences are more readily understood. 
The rules of our syntax are exceedingly 
simple, and the acquisition of our language 
is easy in proportion. 

Parts of Speech. 

Having traced briefly the history of our 
language, considered some of the sources 
from which it is derived, and noted its chief 
characteristics, we shall now proceed to treat 
of its words, viewed with reference to the re¬ 
spective parts they perform in a sentence. 
Some knowledge of grammar from text-books 
being presupposed, we shall here, by a brief 
summary, merely recall to mind its leading 
principles, with such definitions and illustra¬ 
tions only as are absolutely essential for 
practical purposes. 

The classes into which words are divided 
with reference to their use and mutual rela¬ 
tions, are called Parts or Speech. They 
are nine in number. 

Nouns are names of things. They are 
divided into two classes : Common Nouns, 
or names that distinguish one class of 
objects from another—as girl , lake , book; 
and Proper Nouns, or names that distin¬ 
guish one individual of a class from another, 
as Rome, John. 

The term Substantive is frequently used as 
synonymous with noun. Besides nouns, it em¬ 
braces whatever may be used as such ; that is, 
pronouns, verbs in the infinitive, and clauses. 

To nouns belong (a) Gender ; masculine, femin¬ 
ine and neuter. 

(b) Number: singular and plural. 

(c) Case : nominative, possessive, objective and 
vocative. 

Pronouns are words that may be used 
instead of nouns. 

They are comprised in the following classes :— 
1. Personae, or such as show by their form what 

person they are ; that is, whether they repre¬ 
sent the person speaking, the person spoken to, 

or the object spoken of. The Personals are, 





24 


THE LANGUAGE WE SPEAK 


I, thou, he, she, it, and their compounds, my¬ 
self, thyself, himself, herself, itself 

2. Possessive, such as denote possession. They are: 
Substantive possessive: Mine, thine, his, hers, 
ours, yours, and theirs, Adjective possessive : 
my, thy, his, her, our, your, their. 

3. Relatives, or such as relate to a substantive 
going before, called an antecedent. The rela¬ 
tives are, who, which, and that. What, what¬ 
ever, whoever, and whichever, include the 
antecedent, and are called compound relatives. 

4. INTERROGATIVES, or such as are used to ask 
questions. The interrogatives are, who, which 
and what. 

5. Adjective Pronouns, or such as on some occa¬ 
sions take the place of substantives, and on 
others are used with them, like adjectives. 
Under this head fall the words, this, that, each, 
every, either, neither, no, none , any, all, such, 
some, both, other, another. 

Adjectives are words which describe 
or limit substantives ; as, The ten great 
authors. 

The Articles are included as adjec¬ 
tives and are placed before nouns to show 
whether they are used in a particular or 
general sense. We have two articles, the, 
called Definite, and an or a, called In¬ 
definite. 

Verbs or words that express an action 
or state ; as, “ He is sure to succeed.” That 
respecting which the action or state is pri¬ 
marily expressed is called the Subject of 
the verb ; thus, in the preceding example, 
he is the subject of the verb is. 

Verbs are divided into two classes: Transi¬ 
tive, or such as express an act done to an object; 
and Intransitive, or such as express a state, or 
an act not done to an object. “James reads 
Latin,” “James can swim,” “James is asleep ” ; 
in the first sentence the verb is transitive ; in the 
last two,,intransitive. 

To show the relation which the subject bears 
to the action expressed, transitive verbs have two 
distinct forms, called Voices. The Active Voice 
represents the subject of the verb as acting; as, 
“Caesar conquered Pompey.” The Passive Voice 
represents the subject of the verb as acted upon ; 
as, “ Pompey was conquered by Caesar.” 

To verbs belong person, number, Mood, Tense, 
and Voice. In person and number the verb agrees 
with its subject. 

Mood, or Mode, is the form of the verb which 
shows the manner of the action or condition ex¬ 
pressed. The English verb has five moods : indi¬ 
cative, potential, subjunctive, infinitive and im¬ 
perative. 

The indicative mood expresses an absolute 
affirmation. 

The potential mood expresses possibility, 
inclination, ability, duty. Its signs are the auxili¬ 


ary verbs, may, can, must, might, could, would, 
should. 

The subjunctive expresses a condition. Its 
ordinary sign is if. 

The infinitive mood expresses action or con¬ 
dition without restriction of number or person. 
A verb in the infinitive mood has no subject, and 
consequently can make no affirmation. 

The imperative mood expresses a command. 

Tense is the form of the verb which indicates 
the time of the action or condition. 

The English verb has six tenses, the present, 
perfect, present perfect , pluperfect, future, and fu¬ 
ture perfect. 

The PRESENT tense expresses a present action 
or condition ; “It freezes.” 

The PERFECT tense expresses what took place, 
or was taking place in time past; “It froze.” “ It 
was freezing.” 

The present perfect tense expresses an 
action or condition indefinitely passed; “It has 
frozen.” 

The pluperfect tense expresses what had oc¬ 
curred before some time past; “ It had frozen be¬ 
fore my departure.” 

The FUTURE tense expresses what will happen 
in future time ; “ It will freeze.” 

The FUTURE PERFECT tense expresses what 
will have happened after some future time specified 
or implied ; ' T .t will have frozen by four o’clock.” 

Participles, are words which, partaking 
of the nature of adjectives and verbs, de¬ 
scribe a substantive by assigning to it an 
action or a state. Transitive verbs have six 
participles, three in the active, and three in 
the passive, voice ; as, loving, loved, having 
loved, and being loved, loved, having been 
loved. Intransitive verbs, admitting of no 
passive voice, have but three participles; 
as, walking, walked, having walked. 

Adverbs, are words added to verbs, par¬ 
ticiples, adjectives, and other adverbs, to 
express time, place, degree, comparison, 
manner, &c. ; as, ?iow, here, very, so, grace¬ 
fully. Adverbs of manner for the most 
part end with the letters ly. This class of 
words must be carefully distinguished from 
adjectives, which also express manner or 
quality, but are always joined to substan¬ 
tives. 

Conjunctions, used to connect words, 
sentences, and parts of sentences. The 
most common are, 


and, but, if, 

as, except, lest, 

although, either, nor, 

because, for, neither, 


or, 

since, 

that, 

than, 


though, 

unless, 

whether, 

yet, 


Prepositions, which show the relations 
between substantives and other words in a* 





THE LANGUAGE WE SPEAK 


25 


sentence. The following list contains the 
most common ones : 


about, 

at, 

by, 

into, 

above, 

before, 

down, 

out of, 

across, 

behind, 

during, 

of, 

after, 

below, 

except, 

off, 

against, 

beneath, 

for, 

on, 

along 

beside, 

from, 

over, 

among, 

between, 

in, 

save, 


through, 

to, 

touching, 

upon, 

with, 

within, 

without. 


Interjections are used to denote a 
sudden emotion of the mind ; as, ah, alas, 
O, oh, fie, hist, &c. 

Of these parts of speech, the noun, pro¬ 
noun, and verb alone are inflected ; that is, 
undergo changes in termination to denote 
different cases, numbers, persons, &c. 

That we may determine to which of the 
above classes a word belongs, we must ex¬ 
amine the relations it sustains to the rest of 
the sentence ; and, as in different connec¬ 
tions the same word often performs very 
different offices, it follows that in one sen¬ 
tence it may be one part of speech, and in 
another, another, according to its applica¬ 
tion . Reference to the dictionary and the 
meaning of the word will help decide the 
class to which a word belongs. 


About Sentences, 

All written or spoken language arranges 
itself into sentences which are described as 
assemblages of words which make complete 
sense ; as, “ God is love.” 

Every sentence consists of two parts, 
subject and predicate. 

The Subject is that respecting which 
something is affirmed. In the above ex¬ 
ample, God is the subject. 

The Predicate is that which is affirmed 
respecting the subject. In the above ex¬ 
ample, the words is love constitute the predi¬ 
cate. 

As regards their signification, sentences 
are divided into four classes ; viz., Declara¬ 
tive, Interrogative, Imperative, and Ex¬ 
clamatory. 

A Declarative Sentence is one that de¬ 
clares something. The sun shines. 

Declarative sentences constitute the greater 
part of written language. 

An Interrogative sentence is one that 
asks a question, and is generally introduced 
by an interrogative pronoun, who, which, or 


what; or, by an auxiliary, do, am, have, 
shall, may, &c. 

An Imperative sentence is one that ex¬ 
presses a command, an exhortation, an en¬ 
treaty, or permission, and is generally 
introduced by a verb in the imperative 
mood, let being often used for that purpose; 
as, “ Go in peace ; ” “ Let him arise.” The 
subject of an imperative sentence is often 
understood. 

An Exclamatory Sentence is one that 
exclaims something ; as ‘ ‘ How it snows ! ’ ’ 

As regards their construction, sentences 
are divided into three classes, Simple, Com¬ 
pound and Complex. Simple sentence are 
such as make complete sense when used 
alone. 

Compound Sentences are such as have 
two or more simple sentences. 

Complex Sentences are such as have a 
principal or independent sentence modified 
by one or more subordinate clauses or sen¬ 
tences. 


Mistakes in Grammar 

When words are used in improper forms, 
as “seen” for “saw,” and “done” for 
“ did,” or when the use of one word is con¬ 
fused with that of another, we say that the 
user is ungrammatical and ignorant. A 
moderate knowledge of the grammar will 
enable every one to speak and write ordi¬ 
nary sentences correctly. But this should 
be supplemented by careful observation of 
the usage of the best writers and speakers. 
One should correct his own mistakes when 
discovered, and exercise care in not repeat¬ 
ing these mistakes. Note the following 
errors which are to be avoided and test your 
own language and productions to see that 
they are clear of these errors. 

1. Do not use the objective in place of 
the nominative ; as, “ Him and me did it. ” 
Say “ He and I.” 

2. Do not use the nominative for the 
objective of the pronoun ; as, “ who are you 
looking for ? ” instead of whom. This is an 
error that can always be avoided by putting 
the preposition at the beginning of the sen¬ 
tence, not at the end: as, “ For whom are 
you looking ? ’ ’ 

3. Do not use like instead of as ; “ She 
looked like [as] she did a year ago.” 




26 


THE LANGUAGE WE SPEAK 


4. Do not use them for those, or this here 
for this; as “ Give me them books.” 

5. Do not use done for did, seen for saw, 
has went for has gone , and similar improper 
forms of verbs. 

6. Do not confuse use of each other and 
one another. The former should only be 
used in reference to two persons : ‘ ‘ Let us 
all then promise each other [one another.] ” 

7. Do not confuse a transitive verb with 
an intransitive. Say “I lie, lay or have 
lain on the sofa ” and “ I lay, laid or have 
laid the book on the table.” So also in 
the use of sit and set, raise and rise, lean 
and teach , and other verbs. 

8. Do not use singular form of a verb 
with plural subject or more than one sub¬ 
ject; as “The man and woman is at the 
door ; ” “ The theatres is crowded. ’’ 

9. Do not use a plural verb with a sin¬ 
gular subject. This mistake often happens 
when a plural noun or two connected singu¬ 
lar nouns are connected with the subject; 
as, “The Story of all his adventures and 
wanderings make [makes] an interesting 
book.” 

10. Do not use two negatives instead of 
one ; as, “I didn’t see no one.” 

11. Do not say don’t for doesn’t in the 
third person singular of the present indi¬ 
cative; as “It don’t [doesn’t] matter.” 
“He don’t [doesn’t] know.” This is a 
mistake of frequent occurrence even among 
cultured people. 

12. Do not use adjectives for adverbs in 
“ly”; say, “The birds fly swiftly” not 
“swift,” and “He writes well” not 
“good.” On the other hand do not use 
adverbs in “ ly ” for adjectives ; say “ She 
looks beautiful,” not “beautifully.” 

13. Avoid the use of slang ; as, “You 
bet,” “level best,” “go it blind” and 
similar expressions. 

14. Do not use Superlative of the adjec¬ 
tives when Comparative is required; say 
“ He is the stronger of the two,” not 
“ strongest.” 

How to Use Capital Letters 

It is of the greatest importance that the 
Capital Letters be used correctly and in ac¬ 
cordance with some fixed rules, or other¬ 
wise the manuscript will have a very untidy 


appearance, and confusion in meaning may 
arise in the mind of the reader. The cor¬ 
rect use of Capitals in letters is an art easily 
cultivated and will often be the means of 
securing favorable consideration for the one 
who pens the letter. 

We here give the most important rules 
which, if followed, will secure correct use 
of Capital Letters. 

The Small Letters of our Alphabet con¬ 
stitute the great bulk of all kinds of printed 
or written matter. Capitals, however, are 
employed in certain cases at the commence¬ 
ment of words, for the purpose of attracting 
special attention. 

Begin with a Capital, (1) The first word 
of every sentence; (2) All proper nouns, 
and titles of office, honor, and respect; as, 
Rome , Avenue , Mr. Chairman, Dr. Frank¬ 
lin, Gen. Washington. 

Under this head fall adjectives, as well as com¬ 
mon nouns, when joined to proper nouns for the 
purpose of expressing a title; as, Alexander the 
Great, King William, Good Queen Bess. 

(3) All adjectives formed from proper 
nouns; as, Roman , Spanish , Elizabethan. 

(4) Adj ectives denoting a sect or religion, 
whether formed from proper nouns or not; 
as, Catholic , Protestant, Universalist. 

(5) Common nouns when spoken to, or 
spoken of, in a direct and lively manner, as 
persons, that is personified. 

(6) The first word of every line of poetry ; 
as, 

“ Should certain persons die before they sing.” 

(7) All appellations of the Deity, and 
the personal pronouns he and thou when 
standing for His name. 

(8) The first word of a direct quotation ; 
that is, one that forms a complete sentence 
by itself and is not connected with what 
precedes by that, if, or any other conjunc¬ 
tion, as, “Remember the old maxim: 

‘ Honesty is the best policy.’ ” 

(9) The pronoun /, and the interjection 
O, must always be written with Capitals. 

(10) Begin with a Capital every noun, ad¬ 
jective, and verb, in the titles of books and 
headings of chapters ; as, “ Hetvey’s ‘ Medi¬ 
tations among the Tombs.'" “Ernest 
Seton Thompson’s ‘ Wild Animals I Have 
Known.’ ” 

Observe the difference between the interjec¬ 
tions O and oh. The former is used only before 



THE LANGUAGE WE SPEAK 


27 


the names of objects addressed or invoked, is not 
immediately followed by an exclamation-point (!) 
and must always be a capital; the latter is used by 
itself to denote different emotions of the mind, has 
an exclamation-point after it, and begins with a 
Small Letter, except at the commencement of a 
sentence. 

Use a Small Letter in all cases where one 
of these rules does not apply. When in 
doubt, use a Small Letter. 

Use of Punctuation Marks 

Punctuation may be called the art of divid¬ 
ing written language by points, in order 
that the relations of words and clauses may 
be plainly seen, and their meaning be readily 
understood. 

In spoken language, these relations are suffi¬ 
ciently indicated by the pauses and inflections of 
the voice; but as written language has no such 
aids, it is necessary to supply the deficiency with 
arbitrary marks. 

The ancients originally wrote their 
manuscripts without marks or divisions of 
any kind. Points are said to have been first 
used about 200 b. c., by Aristophanes, a 
grammarian of Alexandria, but did not 
come into general use for several centuries. 
The modern system of punctuation was in¬ 
vented by Manutius, a learned printer who 
flourished in Venice at the commencement 
of the sixteenth century. To him we are 
indebted for developing the leading princi¬ 
ples of the art, though in some of their de¬ 
tails they have since that time undergone 
considerable modification. As there is no 
man at whose hands business or friendship 
does not require an occasional letter, so 
there is none that need be unable, by a 
proper use of points, to make his meaning 
intelligible. 

Good usage differs widely in regard to 
punctuation ; it is therefore impossible to 
lay down any fixed rules on the subject. 
Let the following general principles with 
regard to punctuation be constantly borne 
in mind. 

The principal use of points is to separ¬ 
ate words and clauses, and indicate the 
degree of connection between them. Thus, 
clauses between which the connection is 
close must be separated by commas ; those 
in which it is more remote by semicolons. 

(2) They perform another office by show¬ 
ing to what class a sentence belongs. Thus, 


“ George is well,” followed by a period is 
a declarative sentence, asserting that George 
is in good health ; followed by an interroga¬ 
tion-point, it is an interrogative sentence, 
and implies belief that he is well together 
with an inquiry whether it is not so ; in 
other words, it is equivalent to “ George is 
well; is he not ? ’ * This important differ¬ 
ence of meaning can be conveyed in no 
other way than by the use respectively of the 
period and interrogation-point. 

(3) Points are also employed to indicate 

a sudden transition or break in the construc¬ 
tion or meaning. Thus, where a sentence is 
suddenly interrupted or broken off, a dash 
is placed ; as, “ Woe to the destroyer ! woe 
to the-.” 

(4) Finally they are used to denote the 
omission of words. Such is the office of 
the commas in the following sentence: 
“ Reading maketh a full man ; conference, 
a ready man; writing, an exact man.” 
The verb maketh being left out in the last 
two clauses, commas are inserted to denote 
the omissions. 

(5) Never introduce a point unless you 
have some positive rule for so doing. 
Whenever there is any reasonable doubt as to 
the propriety of employing a comma, do not 
use it. The tendency of punctuators at the 
present day is to introduce too many points. 

The characters used in punctuation are 
as follows: 

Period, . Semicolon ; 

Interrogation-Point, ? Comma, , 

Exclamation-Point, 1 Dash, — 

Colon, : Parentheses, ( ) 

Brackets, [ ] 

When to Use the Period. — The 
period should be used, (1) After every 
declarative and imperative sentence; as, 
‘‘Honesty is the best policy.”—‘‘Fear 
God.” 

(2) After every abbreviated word; as, 
Dr. Geo. F. Johnson , F. R. S. 

(3) After Roman capitals and small let¬ 
ters when used for figures; as ‘‘ Charles I. 
was the son of James I.” 

The Colon. — The colon is used to 
separate sentences which are only slightly 
connected and not completely separated as 
in the case of the period. 

It is placed before a formal enumeration 
of particulars, and a direct quotation when 






28 


THE LANGUAGE WE SPEAK 


referred to by the words thus K following , as 
fellows, this , these . 

The Semicolon. — The semicolon is 
used to separate sentences which are closely 
related in memory, (i) When several long 
clauses occur in succession, all having com¬ 
mon dependence on some other clause or 
word, they must be separated by semicolons ; 
as, “ If we neglected no opportunity of doing 
good ; if we fed the hungry and ministered 
to the the sick; if we gave up our own 
luxuries, to secure necessary comforts for 
destitute; though no man might be aware 
of our generosity, yet in the applause of our 
own conscience we would have an ample 
reward.” 

A semicolon must be placed between the 
great divisions of sentences, when minor 
subdivisions occur that are separated by 
commas; as, “Mirth should be the em¬ 
broidery of conversation, not the web ; and 
wit the ornament of the mind, not the furni¬ 
ture.” 

When a colon is placed before an enu¬ 
meration of particulars, the objects enumer¬ 
ated must be separated by semicolons. 

The Comma. —The comma is used in 
various ways to separate the parts of the 
sentence, and to facilitate the reader’s 
comprehension of the sense. The rules for 
the employment of the comma are many, 
and as employed in letters, business forms, 
and in ordinary composition, only the more 
important of the rules are observed. Exam¬ 
ples of its use are so frequent on this and 
other p?ges that special ones need not be 
given here. 

(1) A comma is placed between the 
particulars mentioned in a succession of 
words all in the same construction. 

(2) A comma is placed before and one 
after every parenthetical expression. 

(3) A comma is placed after each pair 
of words, when each pair is in the same 
construction. 

(4) A comma is used before a quotation 
closely connected with the preceding words. 

(5) A phrase or clause which explains, 
in any degree, the meaning of any other 
phrase or clause is separated from it by a 
comma. 

(6) A comma is placed where a word is 
understood, unless the connection is close. 


(7) A comma must be used in sentences 
which would otherwise be misunderstood. 

(8) Expressions repeated must be separ¬ 
ated by a comma. 

(9) All modifying expressions, unless 
closely connected with the rest of the sen¬ 
tence, are separated by commas. 

(10) Use the comma in all places where 
its use will tend to make the sense clearer, 
and where no other mark of punctuation is 
applicable. 

Exclamation and Interrogation 
Points. —The use of Exclamation and In¬ 
terrogation points is governed by a very few 
rules of easy application. 

(1) An exclamation point is placed after 
every sentence, clause, phrase or word ex¬ 
pressing sudden or violent emotion. 

(2) Where special emphasis is required, 
several exclamation points may be used. 

(3) An exclamation point, enclosed in 
parenthesis, is used to denote surprise. 

(4) An interrogation point is placed 
after every sentence, phrase, clause, or word, 
which asks a direct question. 

(5) An interrogation point enclosed in 
parenthesis is often used to denote d?ubt. 

The Use of Quotation and Other 
Marks. —(1) Quotation marks are placed 
before and after words or passages quoted 
from another author, or represented in nar¬ 
ratives as used in dialogue. 

(2) Quotations consisting of more than 
one paragraph have the first quotation mark 
at the beginning of each paragraph, but the 
second is used only at the end of the last 
paragraph. 

(3) When a quoted passage requires 
special attention, the first quotation mark 
may be used at the commencement of each 
line. 

(4) When one quotation includes another, 
the latter has but half the first quotation mark 
before it, and half the second mark after it. 

(5) The Parenthesis encloses matter 
not actually connected with the sentence. 

(6) Brackets are chiefly used to enclose 
corrections. 

(7) The Hyphen is used to separate the 
syllables of a word. 

(8) A sudden turn in a sentence and the 
omission of a word, or part of a word, are 
denoted by a Dash, 




-—r- 


THE DEPARTMENT STORE 

The Department Store is one of the earliest and greatest combinations of many business enterprises under one management. 
These stores as their name implies, have many departments, each complete in itself as will be seen in this illustration 
—Boots’ and Shoes— Clothing—Hardware—House Furnishings—Art Works and other lines are represented. 

It certainly facilitates trade by convenience of arrangement. 









































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THE LANGUAGE WE SPEAK 


2 9 


(9) A Dash is usually placed before the 
answer to a question, when they both be¬ 
long to the same line. 

(10) A Dash is often used instead of the 
parenthesis marks, and commonly used before 
an expression repeated for special emphasis. 

(11) The Apostrophe denotes a con¬ 
traction by the omission of a letter, and also 
is used as the sign of possessive case. 

(12) The Caret is used to show the 
omission of letters or words. 

(13) The Asterisk, Dagger, and simi¬ 
lar marks are used to refer to notes at the 
foot or side of the page. 

The following are marks of reference, 
and are generally used to call attention to 
words, sentences, or notes placed at the 
bottom of the page : 

1. The Asterisk,*. 4. And sometimes the Section, g. 

2. The Dagger,f. 5. The Parallel, ||. 

3. The Double Dagger, f. 6. And the Paragraph, fl. 

Small letters or figures also are used to 
call attention to notes at the foot of the 
page. 

The Section (§) is generally used for sub¬ 
dividing a chapter into lesser parts. 

The Paragraph (•[[) denotes the begin¬ 
ning of a new subject, and in manuscript it 
is often inserted upon a revisal of the matter 
to denote that a paragraph should commence 
in a certain place. 

The Index is used where special 

attention is desired to be called to something 
of importance. 

Helps in Spelling. 

No rules fully meet the requirements 
for satisfactory helps in spelling, as all rules 
have exceptions. Frequent reference to 
the dictionary and careful observation of 
words which occur in daily reading will 
help to give one confidence. One should 
always associate the form of the written 
word with the meaning. The following 
will be found helpful, and should be care¬ 
fully studied : 

Words of one syllable ending in l, with 
a single vowel before it, have double / at 
the close ; as, pill, dell. 

Words of one syllable ending in /, with 
a double vowel before it, have one l only at 
the close ; as, hail , rail. 


Monosyllables ending in double l when 
compounded retain but one l each ; as, skil¬ 
ful, fulfil. 

Words of more than one syllable ending 
in l have but one l at the close ; as, delight¬ 
ful, faithful. But if the accent fall on the 
last syllable, they have a double l; as, befall, 
recall, etc. 

Derivations from words ending in l have 
one l only; as, equality from equal, dulness 
from dull; except they end in er or ly ; as, 
mill, miller, full, fully . 

Words ending in e drop the e before the 
termination able; as, love, lovable; except 
they end in ce or ga, when the e is retained ; 
as in change, changeable. 

The i and e often come together in a 
word, it will be found that in the majority 
of words i and e come together after an l or 
a c. After an l, i takes precedence—after a 
c, e takes precedence; as, believe, deceive. 
When in doubt over an i and e following a 
c or l, remember the word lice, which serves 
as a guide, the i following the l, the e 
the c. 

Participles in mg from verbs ending in 
e, drop the final e; as, have, having, love, 
loving ; unless they come from verbs ending 
in double e, and then they retain both ; as, 
see, seeing, agree, agreeing. The word dye, 
however, is an exception, and retains e 
before ing — dyeing. 

Adverbs ending in ly and nouns in ment 
retain the final e of the primitives ; as, brave, 
bravely; confine, confinement; except ac¬ 
knowledgment and judgment. 

Monosyllables ending in a consonant, 
with a single vowel before it, double that 
consonant in derivatives ; as, sin, sinner. 

Monosyllables ending in a consonant, 
with a double vowel before it, do not double 
the consonant in derivatives; as, troop, 
trooper. 

Words of more than one syllable ending 
in a single consonant, preceded by a single 
vowel and accented on the final syllable, 
double that consonant in derivatives ; com¬ 
pel , compelled, appal, appalling. 

Nouns ending in y preceded by a vowel 
form their plural by adding s t as key , keys; 
if y is preceded by a consonant, the plural 
is formed by changing y into -ies; 2&,fly, 
flies. 



30 


THE LANGUAGE WE SPEAK 


Compound words, whose primitives end 
in y, change jy into i; as, ugly , ugliness. 

How to Write Clearly. 

Almost every one can learn to write 
clearly—that is, so that his meaning may be 
clear—so far, at least, as clearness depends 
upon the arrangement of words. Elegance, 
force and variety of style are far more diffi¬ 
cult to acquire; but the observance of a few 
simple rules will assist much in expressing 
clearly our ideas. Every one who has occa¬ 
sion to express in writing his thoughts for 
the entertainment of himself or friends, or 
to write social or business letters, should at 
least endeavor to express clearly what he 
thinks. Of course, this will not take the 
place of ideas, but will make the ideas of 
the most practical service. 

(1) Use words in their proper meaning. 
—Refer to the dictionary for doubtful cases. 

Do not use address for direct , balance for 
remainder, beat for excel, can for may, couple 
for two , dangerous for seriously sick , drive 
for ride, expect for suppose or believe , gent for 
gentleman, help for avoid , mad for angry, 
reputation for character , settle for pay. 

(2) Avoid exaggerations—as, awfully , 
frightfully , stupendous and similar words 
where “ much ” or “ very ” are meant. 

(3) When using the Relative Pronoun, 
use “ who ” and “ whom ” in referring to 
persons; which,” referring to animals, 
things and young children, and “ that ” for 
both animals and things. 

(4) Observe that appropriate preposi¬ 
tions must follow certain words. 

As this rule is constantly violated, a 
list of a few common adjectives and verbs 
is here presented, together with the preposi- 
sitions properly used in connection with 
them. 

Abhorrence of. 

Accompanied with an inanimate object; by 
anything that has life. 

Accuse of. 

Acquaint with. 

Adapted to. 

Agree with a person; to a proposition from 
another; upon a thing among ourselves. 

Analogy between (when two objects follow the 
preposition); to, with (when on§ of the substan¬ 
tives precedes the verb). 

Arrive at, in. 


Attended with an inanimate object ; by any¬ 
thing that has life. 

Averse to, from. 

Capacity for. 

Charge on a person ; with a thing. 

Compare with (in respect of quality) ; to (for 
the sake of illustration). 

Congenial to. 

Conversant with men; with or in things; 
about and among are sometimes used. 

Copy after a person ; from a thing. 

Correspond with. 

Die of a disease ; by an instrument or violence. 

Disappointed of what we fail to obtain ; in what 
does not answer our expectations, when obtained. 

Entrance into. 

Expert in, at. 

Followed by. 

Militate against. 

Profit by. 

Reconcile (in friendship) to ; (to make con¬ 
sistent) with. 

Reduce (subdue) under; (in other cases) to. 

Between is applicable to two objects 
only ; among , to three or more. “ A father 
divided a portion of his property between his 
two sons ; the rest he distributed among the 
poor.” 

In must not be used for into, after verbs 
denoting entrance. “‘Come into (not in) 
my parlor, said the spider to the fly. ’ ” 

In arranging the words of a sentence, 
observe 

(1) Emphatic words must stand in em¬ 
phatic positions ; i.e., for the most part, at 
the beginning or at the end of the sentence. 

(2) Unemphatic words must, as a rule, 
be kept from the end. 

(3) An interrogation sometimes gives 
emphasis. 

(4) The Subject, if unusually emphatic, 
should often be transferred from the begin¬ 
ning of the sentence. 

(5) The Obj ect is sometimes placed before 
the Verb for emphasis. 

(6) Where several words are emphatic, 
make it clear which is the most emphatic. 
Emphasis can sometimes be given by adding 
an epithet, or an intensifying word. 

(7) Words should be as near as possible 
to the words with which they are gramma¬ 
tically connected. 

(8) Adverbs should be placed next to 
the words they are intended to qualify. 

(9) When ‘ ‘ not only ’ ’ precedes ‘ ‘ but 
also,” see that each is followed by the same 
part of speech. 



THE LANGUAGE WE SEE AN 


3 1 


(io) “ At least,” “ always,” and other 
adverbial adjuncts, sometimes produce am¬ 
biguity. 

(n) Nouns should be placed near the 
nouns that they define. 

(12) Pronouns should follow the nouns 
to which they refer, without the interven¬ 
tion of any other noun. 

How to Write Forcibly. 

This is a swift age. There is no time for 
reading long and tedious communications. 
To command attention, our ideas must be 
expressed forcibly, and at the first reading 
must carry conviction. No better example 
of this can be found than in the advertise¬ 
ments of our large department stores—or 
in the letters written by heads of great 
houses in course of their large correspon¬ 
dence—at the same time force should not 
be sought at the expense of ease and unity 
of style. We can define a forcible sentence 
as one which carries conviction—impres¬ 
sion when read. 

To secure force of expression : 

(1) Choose strong, apt, and meaning 
words. 

(2) Use striking figures or illustrations. 

(3) Place the most important thing last 
and secure an impressive arrangement of 
words. 

(4) Omit needless elements, and secure 
consequent conciseness of expression. 

(5) Employ short, rather than long 
sentences, and select as modifiers single 
words and phrases, rather than clauses. 

Say, “ Henry was inclined to be lazy.” 
Rather than “ Henry’s tendencies were in 
the direction of indolence.” 

Say, “ Wishing me to become a scholar, 
my brother sent me to an academy. ’ ’ Rather 
than, “ My brother felt that he would like 
me to become a scholar, and so he sent me 
to an academy.” 

Say, “ A physician who was called, an¬ 
nounced that the man had smallpox. This, 
of course, caused a panic in the house¬ 
hold.” And not, 

‘ ‘ It having been decided to call a physi¬ 
cian, when he arrived he said that the dis¬ 
ease that the man had was smallpox, and 
this, of course, produced a great deal of 
excitement among the people in the house.” 


An Easy Style) is secured when the 
sentences are agreeable to the ear and are 
easily spoken. Cultivate the habit of fram¬ 
ing sentences mentally before writing them ; 
harsh sounding and awkward words and 
phrases will then be avoided and harmonious 
expressions will be used in their places. 

Avoid the use of high sounding words 
and phrases and disagreeable repetition of 
words or sounds. Avoid also the crowding 
of too many thoughts into one sentence. 

The Use of Figures of Speech. 

The English is a figurative language, that 
is, it is a language in which an idea is ex¬ 
pressed by the use of words which may 
suggest something else than the literal mean¬ 
ing. Unconsciously we use these figures and 
often are unable to define them if asked to 
do so. 

They are the special tools of our lan¬ 
guage, and as such, should be handled with 
care. If used skilfully they add strength 
and beauty, but if awkwardly used they 
make the user appear affected and makes 
him a subject of ridicule. 

The more common figures of speech are 
the following: 

Simile is the comparison of one object 
to another, and is generally denoted by like , 
as, or so; as, “He shall be like a tree 
planted by the rivers of water.”—“Thy 
smile is as the dawn of the vernal day.” 

Metaphor indicates the resemblance of 
two objects by applying the name, attribute, 
or act of one directly to the other ; as, “ He 
shall be a tree planted by the rivers of 
water.” Metaphor is the commonest of all 
the figures. 

Allegory is the narration of fictitious 
events, whereby it is sought to convey or 
illustrate important truths. Thus in Psalm 
lxxx., the Jewish nation is represented under 
the symbol of a vine. Bunyan’s ‘ ‘ Pilgrim’s 
Progress ” is an allegory. 

Metonymy is the exchange of names 
between things related. It is founded, not 
on resemblance, but on the relation of one 
expression used, to the idea ; as “ Hear O 
Israel ”, i. e., descendants of Israel —“Our 
ships next opened a fire,” i. e., our sailors. 
—“ His steel gleamed on high”, i. e., his 
sword. 



32 


THE LANGUAGE WE SPEAK 


Synecdoche is using the name of a part 
for that of the whole, the name of the whole 
for that of a part, or a definite number for 
an indefinite : as, “The sea is covered with 
sails ”, i. e., ships ; “ Our hero was gray, but 
not from age”, i. e., his hair was gray; 
“ Ten thousand were on his right hand ”, 
i. e., a great number. 

Hyperbole is the exaggeration of attri¬ 
butes, or the assigning to a subject of a 
wonderful and impossible act as the result 
of ardent emotion; as, “They [Saul and 
Jonathan] w 7 ere swifter than eagles , they 
were stronger than lions." 

Hyperbolical expressions are of frequent 
occurrence in common conversation ; we 
often say, as cold as ice , as hot as fire , as 
white as snow , etc., in all of which phrases 
the quality is exaggerated beyond the bounds 
of truth. Their frequency is to be attributed 
to the imagination, which always takes 
great pleasure in magnifying the objects 
before it. 

Imagery is the representation of past 
events, or imaginary objects and scenes, as 
actually present to the senses ; as “ Caesar 
leaves Gaul, crosses the Rubicon, and e?iters 
Italy”, i. e., Caesar left Gaul, crossed the 
Rubicon, etc. 

Apostrophe is a turning from the regu¬ 
lar course of the subject, into an invocation 
or address ; as, “ Death is swallowed up in 
victory. O death, where is thy sting ? O 
grave where is thy victory ? ? ’ 

Personification, or Prosopopoeia, is 
the attributing of sex, life, or action to an 
inanimate object; or the ascribing of intel¬ 
ligence and personality to an inferior crea¬ 
ture ; as, “ The Sea saw it and fled." —‘ ‘ The 
Worm aware of his intent, harangued him 
thus.” 


Interrogation is the asking of ques¬ 
tions, not for the purpose of expressing doubt 
or obtaining information, but in order to as¬ 
sert strongly the reverse of what is asked ; 
as, “ Doth God pervert judgment ? or doth 
the Almighty pervert j ustice ? ” This figure 
imparts animation to style. It is constantly 
employed in the book of Job. 

Antithesis is placing of opposites in 
juxta-position, for the purpose of heighten¬ 
ing their effect by contrast, as, “ A good man 
obtaineth favor of the Lord ; but a man of 
wicked devices will He condemn.” This 
figure is used with great effect in the Book 
of Proverbs, x-xv. It is one of the most 
effective ornaments that can be employed 
in composition. 

Climax is the arrangement of a succes¬ 
sion of words, clauses, members, or sen¬ 
tences, in such a way that the weakest may 
stand first, and that each in turn, to the end 
of the sentence, may rise in importance, and 
make a deeper impression on the mind than 
that which preceded it; as, “Who shall 
separate us from the love of Christ ? Shall 
tribulation , or distress, or persecution , or 
famine , or nakedness , or peril , or sword f" 

Irony is a figure by which is expressed 
directly the opposite of what it is intended 
shall be understood ; as when Elijah said to 
the priests of Baal, who were trying to 
induce their false god to manifest himself 
miraculously, “ Cry aloud, for he is a god,” 
&c. This figure is often considered under 
the head of ridicule. 

Onomatopoeia is the use of a word or 
phrase formed to imitate the sound of the 
thing signified ; as when we say, rat tat tat , 
to denote a knocking at the door ; bow wow , 
to express the barking of a dog ; or, buzz , 
buzz , to indicate the noise made by bees. 



Rapid Business Writing 

HOW TO HOLD AND USE THE PEN—THE BEST FORMS FOR ALPHABET— 
HOW TO ACQUIRE RAPIDITY—STYLES FOR BUSINESS AND SOCIAL 
USES—BEGINNING AND CLOSING LETTERS—NOTES, CHECKS 
AND OTHER BUSINESS FORMS 


PRACTICAL LESSONS IN USING THE PEN 

By E. C. Mills, Rochester, New York, 

PRACTICAL PENMAN. 


The time has arrived when good pen¬ 
manship is more of a necessity than an 
accomplishment. But a few years ago many 
believed good writers were born, not made. 
Wherever penmanship has been properly 
taught the results obtained have been very 
gratifying, and we feel justified in saying 
that any one who is not encumbered with 
some physical or mental deformity can learn 
to write rapidly and legibly. To say that 
every one can become an artistic penman 
would be making a broad statement, but it 
is no longer doubted that almost any one 
can learn to write a good business style of 
penmanship. 

In order to accomplish this much time 
and hard work is necessary for those who 
have acquired incorrect habits and who 
have wrong ideas of the meaning of good 
business writing. It is the aim of the 
author of this series of lessons to present 
the subject in such a way that the home 
learner may acquire, during his spare time, 
a rapid and legible style of business writing 
in a comparatively short time. 

Before Beginning Practice. 

It is often desirable to compare your 
work at different times with your previous 
writing, that an accurate estimate may be 
3 C 


made of the improvement made. For this 
reason we would suggest that you write the 
following in your very best style and pre¬ 
serve for future reference : 

Your Place , State, Date. 

This is a specimen of my very best pen¬ 
manship before beginning practiee in writing. 

(Sign Your Name .) 

What Materials to Use. 

Your progress in penmanship will de¬ 
pend largely upon the materials used. Pro¬ 
cure foolscap with a good finish and weight 
not less than twelve pounds to the ream. 
Do not try to economize by using poor 
materials. Ink should be used which flows 
freely and is black, or nearly so, when first 
used. Secure a pen that will make a line 
similar to that of the copies. We would 
suggest Gillott No. 604 or Esterbrook’s A 1 
Pen. 

Pen-Holding. 

The position of the hand and pen in 
learning to write is of great importance. 
Study the position of hand and pen in the cut. 
We do not expect all to assume this position, 
as no two people hold their pens exactly in 
the same way. The size and shape of the 
hand have much to do in regard to this 

33 




34 


RAPID BUSINESS WRITING 


point. It is a pretty safe rule to say that 
the holder should not be held sufficiently 
perpendicular to cross the second joint of 
the first finger, and should not fall much 
lower than that given in the illustration. 



The holder should cross the second finger at 
the root of the nail, or even just a little 
higher. The hand should be turned well 
toward the left, with the third and fourth 
fingers bent under the hand, resting on their 
nails. The wrist should not touch the 
paper. 

Position of the Body. 

The position of the body, as well as the 
hand and pen, is of utmost importance and 
requires the attention of every one who has 
a desire to improve his writing. A good 
position cannot be overestimated, and when 
once acquired is much more healthful and 
conducive to a free action of the muscles of 
the arm than an incorrect position. Then 
let all pay particular attention to the matter 
of position, especially at the beginning of 
this series of lessons. Eye yourself closely, 
as it is not an easy task to rid oneself of 
habits that have been forming for years, 
whether they are good or bad. 

Take a position at the table nearly square 
in front, with both arms resting on table, 
the left with the elbow on the table from two 
to four inches, the right with the elbow pro¬ 
jecting over the edge about two inches. 
The right arm should rest lightly upon the 
table and be free to move in any direction, 
while the body is supported on the left arm. 
The sides of the paper should be placed 
parallel to the right forearm. The paper 
should be held with the left hand above line 
of writing. Do not lean too far forward or 
bend over your work, as such a position is 


injurious to health, but if your eyes are not 
defective keep them from twelve to fourteen 
inches from the paper. Sit rather close to 
the table, but do not lean against it. Keep 
the feet flat on the floor and see that they 
do not become entangled with the legs of 
the table or the rounds of the chair. After 
reading the above instructions several times 
compare with the illustrations, then assume 
this position yourself and be ready for work. 

riovement. 

Muscular movement is the foundation 
for all good, practical writing. Whatever 
may be said about slant or vertical writing, 
the system of penmanship that is not based 
upon free movement for its execution will be 
a failure if rapid business writing is desired. 
While a certain amount of form-teaching is 
commendable, still it is the arm-training that 
will be of service to the young man or 
woman in acquiring a rapid style of pen¬ 
manship. 

It is supposed that every one who takes 
up this series of lessons has a knowledge of 
the formation of all the capitals and small 
letters, although many write with a slow, 
laborious finger movement. It will be our 
aim to change the habit of writing these let¬ 
ters from the slow, labored style to one of 
ease and rapidity, with a few changes in the 
form of some letters. First allow the stu¬ 
dent to obtain a command of the pen, a con¬ 
trol over the muscles of the arm, and he 
will naturally take enough interest in writing 
to improve in form also. 

How to Begin. 

You may now take the position of the 
hand and arm as shown in the illustration 
“ 2, ” without the use of the pen. By holding 



the hand in the correct position before taking 
the pen an easy movement of the arm may 






RAPID BUSINESS WRITING 


35 


be secured, as well as the foundation for 
proper penholding. Rest the hand on the 
nails of the two last fingers, and make the 
same motion that will produce the first exer¬ 
cise in Plate II. 

Practice rapidly, making not less than 
150 pulls toward the body per minute. 
Next practice sliding the hand from left to 
right and from right to left across part of 
the page as shown in Plate I. being sure 
to maintain the same position throughout. 
The arm-rest near the elbow should remain 
in the same place ; the arm at the elbow 
should act as a sort of a hinge. Remember, 
all of this preliminary practice should be 
done without pen and ink. This kind of 
calisthenic practice should be taken until the 
arm will, move readily in any direction. It 
is better if you take up one thing at a time, 
and learn to do that in the very best way- 
possible ; hence we desire to have you learn 
to move your arm before using the pen. Do 
not be in any hurry to take up more advanced 
work, as your progress will not be satisfac¬ 
tory unless the fundamental exercises have 
been thoroughly mastered. 

How to Proceed. 

Penholding will not seem very difficult 
if you have practiced in the manner sug¬ 
gested, and with the hand held in the same 
position as illustrated in Cut 2. Do not use 
ink at first, but practice with a dry pen. 
Make the oblique exercise as given in Plate 
II. This is one of the most essential mo¬ 
tions used in writing, and a great deal of 
time should be spent in practicing it. The 
exercise is made by keeping the sleeve sta¬ 
tionary on the table, and forcing the arm to 
move in and out of the sleeve, using no fin¬ 
ger action whatever. Arm down. Study 
Cut 1, as the dotted lines show the vibration 
of the arm. Make this exercise fill two 
large spaces; we call the distance between 
the two blue lines one large space. Make 
the oblique exercise just twice that size. 
After the movement has become established, 
then you may use ink, but if you find the 
movement degenerating, commence at the 
beginning and repeat the same practice as 
before. Next run the exercise across the 
page, and try to make it black. This should 
not be done by pressing heavily on the pen, 


but by making a series of light lines before 
moving toward the right. 

The Lateral Exercises. 

The ability to write a long word without 
lifting the pen is an accomplishment that 
will promote rapid writing. To accomplish 
this the lateral exercises and wide spacing 
between the letters and words should re¬ 
ceive a good share of your time for several 
months. 

Practice on the first lateral exercise 
given in Plate I. Place the arm about in 
the center of the exercise, lengthwise, and 
make the exercise extend about half way 
across the entire page. Do not allow the 
hand to turn toward the right, but keep it 
in the same position as illustrated in Cut 1. 
Force the hand to slide on the last two 
finger nails. Make a slight pause at the 
end of each exercise, and use a steady, 
swinging motion of the arm. Keep the 
fleshy part of the forearm down on the table 
and in about the same place. The tendency 
at first will be to use the wrist movement; 
be careful to avoid this, and see that the 
larger muscles are used. 

How to Practice. 

Do not practice longer than one hour at 
a time. The first part of the hour should 
be devoted to the practice of movement ex¬ 
ercises, even after you are capable of making 
them well. This will insure freedom of 
motion and smooth lines. This movement 
practice is excellent as long as the arm is 
used as the propelling power. If the fingers 
are used to any extent, the value of the 
practice is practically lost. If your move¬ 
ment at this time takes in a wide scope, 
although difficult to govern, your efforts 
have been directed in the right channel. 

Do not be easily satisfied with your work. 
Criticise your position, your movement, and 
your writing at all times. Do not omit any 
of the work. Although some of the exer¬ 
cises may seem distasteful to you, it is just 
the kind of work that you need, and you 
should master them if you wish to make 
the most of your possibilities. Improve¬ 
ment is only promised to those who faith¬ 
fully follow every detail of the instruction 
as it is given in each lesson. 



RAPID BUSINESS WRITING 






















RAPID BUSINESS WRITING 


37 



t 


i 



<Plate III 



RAPID BUSINESS WRITING 



MODEL COPIES FOR THE PENMAN 

This plate and others of the series have been prepared especially for this work by Professor E. C. Mills, the expert penman and acknowledged authority on Penmanship. 
Thev crive the necessary assistance for acquiring a beautiful style of penmanship. Full and complete instructions will be found in the text. 











RAPID BUSINESS WRITING 39 





<PUte 


40 


RAPID BUSINESS WRITING 

























Opening a Business Letter. 


RAPID BUSINESS WRITING 



\ 


Closing a Social Letter. 



Letter of Application for a Position. 


42 


RAPID BUSINESS WRITING 



<PUte VIII 


RAPID BUSINESS WRITING 

Form of 'Receipt. 


43 



Form of Company or Firm cRote. 



Form of 'Draft. 





























































































s'dTdomibn^ f'H.'be 2 ao &id 


RAPID BUSINESS WRITING 





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RAPID BUSINESS WRITING 


45 


<Pl*tcX ^ 

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4 6 


RAPID BUSINESS WRITING 


Instruction for Plate I. 

A great deal of time should be spent in 
practicing the one space letters. The dif¬ 
ferent parts of each letter are illustrated in 
such a way that any one can see just how 
each letter is formed. Practice the different 
principles that are given for the letter, then 
practice on the letter itself, and after that 
the combination of letters as shown in the 
word copies or groups. The figures and 
commercial abbreviations should be prac¬ 
ticed carefully. First, study the form, get 
a clear conception of the formation of the 
letter or figure, and then write with a free 
movement. There is a tendency sometimes 
with beginners in wanting to slight some of 
the first work in order that more difficult 
copies may be taken up. Be careful to 
work patiently on these small letters, as 
they are the foundation for good, practical 
writing. After the principle.-: are practiced, 
then write a page of each letter, and follow 
with a page of each word containing that 
letter. In writing the page of word copies, 
see that the writing is not spread out too 
much, or that too wide spacing is left be¬ 
tween words. After the proper spacing has 
been decided upon, see that you write the 
same number of words throughout the entire 
page. 

Instruction for Plate II. 

In this plate we have the loop letters. 
Loop letters are easily made if the right 
motion is used in producing them. In the 
formation of the loop we find the right curve 
and the straight line. For exercise work 
we have given the oblique movement exer¬ 
cise. Make this exercise fill one large space 
in height. Take up the letters and words 
in exactly the same order in which they are 
given. Do not omit or hurry over any part 
of this work. 

One of the principal faults in forming 
the loop is in making the first line too 
straight. It should be quite a decided 
curve, then make the downward line practi¬ 
cally straight. The two lines should cross 
about one-third the height of the loop, and 
be careful not to make them too long. Per¬ 
haps a little finger action would help you in 
making these, but let the main motion come 
from the arm. 


Unless you can write all the one space 
letters as found in Plate I with the mus¬ 
cular movement, you will have a very poor 
foundation upon which to build loop letters. 
In your loop letters some space should be 
left between the top of the loop and the 
blue line above. If any letter or word 
seems very difficult, that is the one you 
should practice on most. 

Instruction for Plate III. 

In Plate III all the capital letters are 
presented, and they should be practiced in 
the order in which they are given. First 
practice on the movement exercises and 
then gradually take up one letter at a time. 
At least one page should be filled with each 
word copy. The work grows more diffi¬ 
cult as we advance, therefore will be seen 
the necessity for the thorough working of 
the preliminary exercises before trying to 
make these capital letters. Do not sacrifice 
the movement for form; for, while you may 
gain some in form, you will lose in move¬ 
ment, without which your writing is poor 
indeed. After having practiced all of the 
work given in this plate, it is a good plan 
to return to some of the letters and review 
them. Select several of the most difficult 
capitals and aim to make the greatest im¬ 
provement possible in those letters. Com¬ 
pare your work with the copy often and see 
that precisely the same forms of letters are 
used that are given in the copies. It is 
better to have but one style of capital letter 
and practice that so thoroughly that the 
work becomes almost automatic. You will 
scatter your forces too much if you try a 
number of optional forms in capital lettc*-". 
In giving these letters for practice we have 
selected the very plainest forms and those 
that are used most frequently by business 
men and good business writers everywhere. 

As soon as one letter is learned you 
should make a practical application of that 
form in all of your everyday writing. 

Instruction for Plate IV. 

There are many who can make a word 
or a line appear to advantage, but when it 
comes to a page of miscellaneous work, 
there is something lacking. The remedy 
for this is the practice of miscellaneous page 



RAPID BUSINESS WRITING 


47 


work, and we hope our home students will 
write the work given in Plate IV over 
many times. There are no new capitals in 
this, and it will serve as an excellent copy 
for this class of work. Study the arrange¬ 
ment of your work and be sure to write 
with the free-arm movement. Avoid every 
tendency to shade or flourish, and endeavor 
to cultivate neatness and order in all your 
practice work. We believe the copies pre¬ 
sented contain educational value aside from 
the practice of penmanship, and we can 
make our practice doubly valuable by tak¬ 
ing up only such copies as contain import¬ 
ant statements. 

Instruction for Plate V. 

The copies in this plate are such as will 
help those who have occasion to do work in 
bookkeeping. The first four lines of copies 
are intended to furnish material for the 
practice of ledger headings. The writing is 
made somewhat larger than that used for 
ordinary correspondence work, as the main 
thing in ledger headings is to have the work 
plain and legible in the extreme. Some 
accountants prefer to shade their ledger 
headings, and several examples of this kind 
of shaded writings are given on this plate 
which will show how this work is done. It 
requires more skill to do shading and have 
the work look well, and this should only be 
attempted by those who are quite proficient 
in using the pen. The writing used for ex¬ 
planations in bookkeeping entries should 
always be quite small and should never be 
shaded nor flourished. 

Instructions for Plates VI. and VII. 

In letter-writing great care should be 
taken that the style of writing be perfectly 
plain. Too much care cannot be taken in 
writing signatures, as often very good pen¬ 
men will write their name in .such a way 
that it is difficult to read them. Many pre¬ 
sume that their signature is so familiar to 
the general public that they finish the other¬ 
wise well-written letter carelessly in that 
respect. Do not sign your name with 
flourishes, but endeavor to use the plain 
forms that have been given throughout the 
series of lessons. These forms, in Plates 
VI and VII, offer excellent models for 


practice in letter-writing, and be sure that 
you follow the arrangement in every re¬ 
spect. After practicing on these models 
you may make a little variation in the sub¬ 
ject-matter and sign your own name, and in 
that way you will get practice that will be 
very beneficial to you when it comes to J 
actual letter-writing. The only way to 
make a success of your handwriting is to 
use good writing in your everyday work. 

Instruction for Plate VIII. 

These forms will give you an idea how 
to apply good penmanship in connection 
with business forms. If you have blank 
forms similar to the ones presented here¬ 
with, you may fill them out in oraer to get 
the proper size of writing and correct ar¬ 
rangement of the work. Follow these 
copies in every particular, as they are based 
upon up-to-date models of business forms. 

Instruction for Plates IX.-X.—Vertical 
Writing. 

As vertical writing has been very popu¬ 
lar in different sections of the country dur¬ 
ing the past few years, it has been thought 
advisable to give also instruction and prac¬ 
tice in this style of writing. 

Position for Vertical Writing. 

The position for vertical writing differs 
somewhat from the position advised for 
slant writing. Notice the square front po¬ 
sition and also that about half or three- 
fourths of both forearms are on the desk and 
that the elbows are kept quite close to the 
body. The paper should be held directly 
straight in front of the body in order that 
the lower edge of the paper may be held par¬ 
allel to the edge of the desk. The pen¬ 
holder should point in the direction of the 
elbow, and, as will be noticed, the hand is 
turned more to the right than in the slant 
writing. The wrist should neither be flat 
nor turned to the right until the side of the 
hand touches the paper, but about half way 
between these two positions. Do not try to 
slide the hand on the tips of nails of third 
and fourth fingers, as this forces the hand in 
an upright position which makes it impos¬ 
sible for the student to see his own writing. 





4 8 


RAPID BUSINESS WRITING 


Many try to write the vertical without 
any change in penholding, movement, or 
position of the paper. Experience has 



POSITION FOR VERTICAL WRITING. 


shown that the results will not be satisfac¬ 
tory unless the change is made, so we urge 
that all should conform as near as possible 
to the position illustrated herewith. 

How to Produce Vertical Writing. 

To produce the straight downward 
stroke in vertical writing, draw the pen 
toward the body, rolling the forearm on the 
muscles. To make the broad turns between 
the letters, roll or pull the arm back into 
the sleeve and to the right at the same time. 
As the arm should rest lightly on the desk, it 
may slide very much the same as the third 
and fourth fingers do. This, of course, can¬ 
not be done if the weight of the body is 
thrown forward on the arms. 

Speed in Writing. 

After the student has a good knowledge 
of form and can write all the letters with a 
reasonable degree of speed, it has been found 
advisable to practice on copies for speed 
work alone. Take a sentence-copy and let 


the student time his writing by the 
watch. Each time the sentence is written 
he should endeavor to increase in speed a 
little and at the same time get good form 
to the letters. 

Patience and Perseverance in Writing. 

The home student in learning to write 
should develop patience, and in order to 
secure an acceptable business hand must 
learn perseverance. These are two very 
essential qualities for success in writing. 
Many pupils in starting their practice on 
this series of lessons will perhaps write 
a few words of one copy and then a few 
words of another ; perhaps they will prac¬ 
tice a little on the movement exercises 
and then think that it is about time that 
some substantial improvement should 
show itself. The first few weeks of prac¬ 
tice may tend to discourage the pupil as 
many write with a slow, cramped finger 
movement, and when the change is made 
to the free movement considerable is lost 
in form. Many give up in despair when 
they see that their writing is not improv¬ 
ing perceptibly in form from the start. 
There will be an improvement, however, 
in the freedom of movement, if the in¬ 
structions are faithfully followed; this is 
absolutely essential in learning to write a 
good business hand. That is the time to 
be encouraged, as the manner of writing is 
being changed, and it is right here at this 
critical time that the pupil must learn 
patience and must be persevering in his 
work. A few fitful hours of practice will 
benefit the writing but very little, in fact, it 
is worse than no practice at all. A definite 
plan should be followed as nearly as pos¬ 
sible, and adhered to very closely if the 
student expects to improve the condition of 
his writing. From thirty to forty-five 
minutes a day should be spent in the prac¬ 
tice of writing until a good business hand 
has been attained. 

The student should remember that a good 
handwriting is worth hundreds of dollars to 
its possessor, and that nothing valuable in 
education was ever achieved without hard 
labor and many disappointments. Be 
patient, be persevering, work hard, and a 
good style of writing will be the result. 
















MONEY AND BUSINESS 

THE COMMON MEDIUM OF EXCHANGE—MANY KINDS OF 
MONEY—MONEY OF ALL COUNTRIES—DIFFERENCES 
IN VALUES—BANKS AND BANK FORMS—HOW 
MONEY IS TRANSFERRED—RULES GOV¬ 
ERNING BUSINESS TRANSACTIONS 
—FORMS USED IN BUSINESS 


WHAT IS MONEY 


Francis A. Walker, a distinguished au¬ 
thority, defines money as “that which 
passes freely from hand to hand throughout 
the community in final discharge of debts 
and full payment for commodities, being 
accepted equally without reference to the 
character or credit of the person who offers 
it and without the intention of the person 
who receives it to consume it or enjoy it or 
apply it to any other use than in turn to 
tender it to others in discharge of debts or 
payment for commodities. ’ ’ Currency is the 
name given to the legal medium of exchange 
in every country. 

Various articles have passed current as 
money in various communities at different 
times. Tobacco was used as money by the 
early Virginia settlers; the skins of fur- 
bearing animals served the same purpose in 
some parts of this country at a much later 
date. For ages gold and silver have been 
the first choice of all nations as the stan¬ 
dards of value. Some one has truly said, 
“ Abraham, 1900 years before Christ, 
weighed out uncoined silver in payment for 
land, and 1900 years after Christ gold-dust 
passed current as money among the ‘ forty- 
niners ’ in California.” The standard of 
monetary value of the civilized nations of 

4 C 


the world is a fixed amount of gold or of 
silver, which, taken together, is called 
bullion. 

Gold and Silver Money. 

In the United States the dollar is the 
unit of value, and is equal to 23.22 grains 
of pure gold. Therefore, when we say that 
an article is worth so many dollars we 
mean it is worth so many times as much as 
23.22 grains of pure gold. 

The gold coins of the United States 
actually contain the gold in the proportion 
of 900 parts gold and 100 parts alloy, and 
are the only form of money actually worth 
its face value as a commodity; therefore 
gold is the only money that will be accepted 
in a foreign country at par. The gold coins 
of the United States are the 20-dollar piece 
or double eagle, the io-dollar piece or eagle, 
the 5-dollar piece or half eagle, the 3-dollar 
piece, the 2 % -dollar piece or quarter eagle, 
and the gold dollar, which has not been 
coined since 1890 and which is now not 
much in circulation but considered rare. 

An estimate has been made showing 
there is about $7,000,000,000 in gold in use 
in the world, and this, if put into one place, 
would fill a room 64 feet long, 50 feet wide, 

49 




50 


MONEY AND BUSINESS 


and 20 feet high. In the banks and treas¬ 
uries gold coin are piled in bags each con¬ 
taining $5000 and weighing 22 pounds. 

The silver dollar weighs 412^ grains, 
of which 371^ grains is pure silver and 
41.25 grains alloy. This amount of pure 
silver was at one time equal in value with 
23.22 grains of pure gold. Of late years it 
has been much cheaper, and its relative 
value to gold is no longer 16 to 1, being 
determined by commercial conditions. 

The half dollar, quarter dollar and dime, 
as well as the 5-cent nickel and the copper 
cent, contain still smaller proportions of 
silver, and are intended only for circulation 
in this country as representatives of the 
fractional parts of a dollar. They are legal 
tender for debts not exceeding five dollars 
in amount. 

The standard of value are the gold coins, 
which stand upon their own merits as 
actually worth what they represent on their 
face. All other coins only represent their 
face value, being accepted throughout the 
land because they are by law exchangeable 
for the amour.cs fcr which they stand. 

Paper Money 

There is another medium of exchange 
not having any value in itself, but repre¬ 
senting the credit of the government. It is, 
in fact, a form of “ promise to pay,’ ’ and for 
that reason it is often called “ fiat money ” 
or ‘ * paper money. ’ * Paper money is largely 
in use in this country, and is represented 
by four different kinds. The first and second 
are called respectively Gold Certificates and 
Silver Certificates. These are issued by 
the Treasury, and represent on their face 
the number of gold or silver dollars held in 
the Treasury of the United States payable on 
demand to bearer. These certificates are 
popular on account of their convenience, 
and are always worth par. The third kind 
is the Treasury note or greenback , which is 
a promise to pay the bearer on demand 
(therefore a demand note) without interest. 
There are now in circulation $300,000,000 of 
Treasury notes. This was called into exist¬ 
ence during the Civil War, and for a time 
was not worth par in gold. Now it is 
worth par, as the credit of the government 
insures their payment. 


The fourth class is the National Bank 
note , issued by banks holding a charter 
from the United States, and whose circula¬ 
tion is secured by United States bonds 
deposited with the Treasurer of the United 
States. The payment of these notes is 
guaranteed by the United States Govern¬ 
ment. 

Gold certificates are issued in denomina¬ 
tions of $20 and upwards. 

The Silver certificates in $1, $2, $5 and 
upwards, to $10,000. 

The Treasury notes in $1, $2, etc., to 
$10,000. 

The National Bank notes are issued in 
denominations of $5 and upwards. 

Money of the British Empire. 

Great Britain in actual circulation has the 
gold sovereign (value $4.8665) and half-sove¬ 
reign ; the silver crown (value $1.087), half- 
crown, shilling (value $0,217), six-pence, 
four-pence, and three-pence. It has a paper 
currency, which includes the notes of the 
Bank of England, the smallest denomi¬ 
nation of which is five pounds ; the notes 
of the Scotch and Irish banks, the smallest 
denomination of which is one pound. Cer¬ 
tain joint stock and private banks also issue 
notes. 

Canada has a currency similar in form 
to that of the United States. But she has no 
gold coinage of her own. She uses the gold 
coinage of the United States and Great Bri¬ 
tain, and they are legal tender. The silver 
coins are similar to those of the United 
States except that there are no silver dollars 
and no silver five-cent pieces. There are 
notes issued under the laws of the Domin¬ 
ion of the denominations of $1, $2, and 
$4, and are redeemable in gold on demand. 
The chartered banks issue bank notes in 
denominations not smaller than $5. Unlike 
the laws in the United States, no special 
security in the way of deposit of bonds is 
required, but the notes, in case of the bank’s 
insolvency, become a preferred claim against 
all assets of the bank, and include the double 
liability of the stockholders. The total issue 
rarely exceeds sixty per cent, of the paid-up 
capital of the bank, and in no case must it 
exceed one hundred per cent. 


/ 



MONEY AND BUSINESS 


5i 


Australia has the same monetary sys¬ 
tem as that of Great Britain. 

British India has a silver standard 
unit, which is the rupee, whose value is 
$0,444. It has gold coin of five, ten, fif¬ 
teen, and twenty rupees, respectively. The 
government notes, ranging in value from 
five to ten thousand rupees, are issued and 
secured by deposits of gold and silver. The 
money in circulation in India is said to 
exceed one billion dollars. 

Money in Foreign Lands. 

Germany has a gold standard, and 
the mark, whose value is $0,208, is the 
unit of value. The 5-mark piece is the 
smallest gold coin. The 5-mark, 2-mark, 
1-mark, ^-mark, and |-mark pieces are 
the silver coins. Germany has a paper 
money which includes the imperial treasury 
notes, and the bank notes of the Reichs- 
bank, a corporation owned by individual 
shareholders, but controlled by the govern¬ 
ment. The issue of notes of less than ico 
marks in value is prohibited. 

Austria-Hungary has recently estab¬ 
lished a monetary system making as the 
unit the gold crown, whose value is $0,203. 
The io-crown and 20-crown pieces are in 
gold, and the crown and a half-crown pieces 
are in silver. However, there is very little 
metallic money in circulation. There is 
a paper currency issued by the Austro- 
Hungarian Bank in denominations of 10, 
100, and 1,000 florins, and by the treasury 
in smaller denominations—this money is 
irredeemable. The value of the florin is 
two crowns, or about forty cents. 

The Latin Union, including France, 
Belgium, Italy, Switzerland, and Greece, 
has now a single gold standard, of which the 
franc, whose value is $0.1929, or nearly 
twenty cents, is the unit of value. The 
smallest gold coin is a 5-franc piece, equiv¬ 
alent to a dollar; in silver are the franc, the 
2-franc, the half-franc, and the 20-centimes. 
The latter is one-fifth of a franc, or four 
cents. The coins of one country of 
the Union are received at par in all the 
others. France and Belgium have state 
banks which issue bank notes. In Belgium, 
individuals and associations are also free to 
issue bank notes on their own responsi¬ 


bility. Italy has no state bank, but there 
are in the country six banks which are 
authorized to issue notes payable on demand. 
The smallest denomination is 50-lire, in 
value, about 19 or 20 cents. Switzerland 
uses the coin of the Latin Union, and also 
has a state bank. Its central office is at 
Berne, and there are branches throughout 
the country. 

In Greece there are three banks author¬ 
ized to issue notes. But gold and silver 
reserves are so small that for many years 
gold has been at a premium. 

In Spain the silver peseta, equivalent 
to the franc, or twenty cents in our money, 
is the monetary unit. The gold and silver 
coins are the same in Spain as the other 
countries of the Latin Union. The Bank of 
Spain is the only bank of issue in the 
country. It is a private institution, with 
certain government restrictions. The small¬ 
est note of issue has the value of 25-pesetas, 
in our money equal to nearly five dollars. 

In Mexico there is a silver standard. 
The unit is the Mexican dollar, called 
el peso ; and, under the name of piaster, it 
circulates in several countries in Central 
and South America, Asia, and Africa. 
Mexico has also a few gold coins in circu¬ 
lation, the smallest is equivalent to our 
gold dollar in value. 

Banks and Banking. 

Banks, both national and private, offer 
another means of exchange. Any one having 
money deposited in a bank to his credit may 
give to a third party an order on the bank for 
any number of dollars and cents not exceed¬ 
ing the full amount of his credit. These 
orders on the banks are called Bank Checks. 
They differ from paper money, as their 
acceptance depends upon the credit of the 
one who draws (or signs) the check. It is 
usually made payable “ to the order of” 
some one. The party presenting the check 
must be known in some way to the bank 
authorities. 

The use of checks adds to the circu¬ 
lating medium, and is a benefit to the 
community at large. It leaves actual money 
for minor transactions. They are in far 
more extensive use than any other form 
of money order. Checks often pass from 




52 


MONEY AND BUSINESS 


hand to hand as money before they reach 
the bank, and then are seldom cashed— 
usually deposited. Over a hundred million 
dollars of checks daily in New York alone 
•are not cashed at the paying teller’s window, 
but pass in ‘ ‘ exchanges ’ ’ through the 
Clearing House, which is an association of 
the banks of a large city for the purpose 
of conveniently and quickly transferring 
checks they holdfor collection. This saves 
an immense amount of time and labor, which 
would otherwise be spent in handling and 
counting the money, and also lessens the 
chances for mistakes. 

Utility of Bank Accounts. 

This leads us to consider the advantages 
of keeping an account at bank. 

(i) There is the safe keeping of the 
money, and protection from loss by burg¬ 
lary. (2) It is an easy way of collecting. If 
the business man were obliged to send his 
messengers to various parts of the city or 
neighboring towns to collect the cash for 
the various checks, drafts and money orders 
he received, a great deal of his time would 
be taken. When he deposits the checks 
and drafts the bank does the collecting for 
him. The bank also collects for him such 
drafts as he may draw upon his debtors in 
distant places, charging only a small fee for 
the service, and sometimes without charge. 

(3) It offers facilities for making pay¬ 
ments and for saving of time in handling 
and counting out large amounts in bills and 
coin, and lessens the risk of loss by mistakes. 

The merchant who keeps an account at 
a bank, establishes an acquaintance with the 
institution, and is able to borrow money 
by borrowing upon his notes when needed. 
The lending of money by discounting notes, 
etc., is a prominent part of the business of 
a bank, yet there are times when the bank 
will discount only for its own depositors 
with whose character and responsibility it 
is well acquainted. 

How to Open an Account at Bank. 

A bank will not open an account with 
any one who may desire it. The depositor is 
expected to obtain an introduction to the 
officers of the bank by some one who is well 
known to them, and to satisfy them that he 


is a person of proper character and respon¬ 
sibility. In the interview with the cashier 
he will be asked questions which may be 
answered in confidence, to satisfy the cashier 
of his business habits. The depositor then 
writes his name (just as he will sign his 
checksum the “Signature Book,” so that 
the bank may guard against forgery. The 
depositor then makes his first deposit, and 
the receiving teller gives him a pass book, 
with the amount entered therein. 

DEPOSITED AT THE 

Hanover National Bank 

Fe h uar iJi>. 1001 


John S. Eansandt 



DOLLARS 

CENTS 

BANK NOTES. 

.'£5... 


“ “ i’s and 2’s . 

'3 


SILVER, . 

'5 

50 

GOLD,. 

20 


CHECKS,. 

In New York, name the Bank ; out 
of Town, name the Place. Please 
Enter Separately. 



Chemical National 

43 

75 

First National 

18 

2 5 

Pittsburg, Pa. 

"5 

21 

Columbus, 0 . 

75 

19 

Toledo, 0 . 

84 








Total, . . 

5°9 

90 


The Deposit Seip .—Whenever a deposit 
is made the depositor fills out a deposit slip, 
furnished by the bank, to be retained by the 
receiving teller and by him given to the 
bookkeeper. The above is one form of a 
Deposit Slip. 












































MONEY AND BUSINESS 


53 


Checks. —A Check is a written demand, 
which is addressed to a bank by a person 
who has money deposited therein for the 
payment of a part or the whole of his money 
to a third party. 

The Heading, the Order to pay, the 
Amount Repeated in figures, the Signature, 
and the Number of the check are the parts 
of a check. 

The Heading of the check is in all 
respects the same as that of a letter, and in¬ 
cludes address and date. 

The Order is written beneath the heading 
and fills the line for the full length of the 
check, and usually occupies three lines. 
The name of the bank, printed in bold type, 
is on the first line; on the second are the 


But it is sometimes written in the body of 
the order with the script statement and 
sometimes in the upper left-hand corner of 
the check on a line with the heading. It is 
placed in the lower left-hand corner on a 
line with the signature. 

The cents are expressed fractionally, as 
in the body of the order. 

Most business men number their checks 
in the order they are issued. The number 
is found in one of the corners which is not 
occupied by the value of the check written 
in figures. 

How to Draw a Check. 

Checks are principally of two kinds: 
Negotiable and Non-negotiable. 



CORRECT FORM FOR CHECK 


printed words Pay to , which are followed 
by the name of the person to whom the 
payment is to be made, or the payee. On 
the third is written the amount to be paid, 
the number of dollars to be paid being indi¬ 
cated in script, and the number of cents, 
in figures as a fraction of a dollar. It is 
optional whether the word and be used 
between the dollars and the cents. The line 
generally ends with the printed word Dollars. 

Begin with capitals the words Pay and 
Dollars , and all important words in the 
name of the bank, as well as all words ex¬ 
pressing numbers, except such as may be con¬ 
nected with preceding words by the hyphen. 

The Amount Repeated is in figures, the 
same in amount as mentioned in the order. 


A Negotiable Check is one that may be 
transferred from one person to another, and 
a Non-negotiable Check is one that cannot be 
so transferred. 

In drawing a negotiable check the order 
may be in one of the following forms : Pay 
to Bearer; Pay to the order of So-and-so; 
Pay to So-and-so or order. The first makes 
the money payable to any one that may pre¬ 
sent the check. The second or third makes 
the money payable to any person to whom 
the payee may order it paid. 

When the word Bearer is used, the check 
is negotiable as it stands; but when the 
word order is used, the payee can neither 
collect the money himself nor transfer the 
check to another without writing his name 














54 


MONEY AND BUSINESS 


upon the back. This is called indorsing 
the check. When the payee writes his 
name only, he is said to indorse the check 
in blank. By this indorsement he makes 
the money payable to bearer, and the check 
is still negotiable. When the payee wishes 
the money paid to a particular person only, 
he writes on the back Pay to So-and-so , and 
signs his name beneath. With such an 
indorsement the check is no longer nego¬ 
tiable. But when the payee wishes to 
transfer the check to another, so that it can 
be transferred to still another, he writes on 
the back Pay to the order of So-and-so , or, 
Pay to So-a?id-so or order , and signs his own 
name beneath this. The check is now also 
negotiable. This may be repeated by the 
second person and so on, by indorsing it 


under the other indorsements. The Holder 
is the person who is in legal possession of a 
check. 

How to Indorse Checks. 

For indorsement, first turn the check so 
as to bring the left end to the top, and then 
turn it face downwards and write the in¬ 
dorsement near the top. Each successive 
indorsement should be written under its 
predecessor. 

Checks are usually bound in books. At 
the left of each check so bound, and on the 
same piece of paper, is a ruled form for a 
complete description of the check. Between 
the check and this ruled form there is a line 
of perforations by means of which the check 
can be torn off for use. The paper that 
remains behind is called the stub. 

Before depositing the checks they must 
first be indorsed. The customary form of 
indorsement is to write or stamp across the 


back of the check and about one inch from 
the top : 

For Deposit to Credit of 
Herbert Smith 
OR 

For Deposit Only 
In Hanover National Bank 
For Credit of 
Herbert Smith 

The left end of the face of the check is 
the top of the back. Any person named 
for the purpose may sign an indorsement 
for deposit. Checks thus indorsed can only 
be deposited, and should they be lost on the 


way to the bank the finder cannot use them, 
because as stated the checks are to be 
deposited, and the bank is not authorized 
to pay them to any one. 

If the holder receives a check in which 
his name is incorrectly written, he must first 
indorse the name as it is written and under 
that write his own name correctly. When 
the deposit slip has been made out, it is well 
to keep a copy upon the reverse side of 
the stub of the check book. The checks, 
money, deposit slip and pass book are then 
taken to the Receiving teller, who examines 
the deposit slip to see that it is correct and 
enters the amount in the pass book. This 
entry is his receipt for the amount deposited. 

It is of the highest importance that the 
depositor keep his check book correctly and 
punctually written up. It is his guide to 
his bank account and he should be able to 
tell at once exactly how much money he has 
in bank at any given time. 


No. 974 - 


\ No. 974 

Wilmington, Del., Feb. 15, IQOI 

Feb. 19, 1901 


FIRST NATIONAL BANK OF WILMINGTON 

To P. S. fames 


• Pay to the order of 

. Peter S. fames $94fin 

Rent for Feb., 1901 


I Ninety-four 

Dollars. 


94 

25 i 

William G. Pollock 


The Check Stub and Check showing how record is kept in check book 






















MONEY AND BUSINESS 


55 


When to Balance Pass Books. 

At short intervals, the pass book 
should be left at the bank for settlement. 
The bookkeeper will enter, on the page 
opposite the deposits, the amounts of the 
checks that have been paid by the bank, and 
bring down the balance to depositor’s credit 
in the bank at that time. When the pass 
book is returned compare the stubs in the 
check book and bank book at the date of 
settlement. If the bank book and check 
book do not agree, check off the deposits 
entered in the bank book with those in 
the check book ; if the difference is not 
found, try the additions and subtractions in 
*he check book. The bank book may show 


these checks are returned to the depositor 
and his pass book balanced, the bank is re¬ 
leased from responsibility to that amount. 

It is evident also that a check given in 
payment for goods or for any obligation 
becomes a receipt to the one who drew it; 
for the person in whose favor it was drawn 
by writing his name on the back of the 
check acknowledges the receipt of the 
money. Some persons state on the face of 
the check ‘ ‘ in payment for ’ ’ ; but this is 
not good form, nor does it stand in law for 
more than the plain check. The checks 
cancelled at the bank stand as the bank's 
receipts or vouchers for depositor’s money 
when returned to him or to his order. 

If the drawer fails to take ordinary 



A CASHIER’S CHECK 


a larger balance than the check book on a 
certain date. This may show that some 
check or checks given out by you, and sub¬ 
tracted in the check book, have not yet been 
presented at bank for payment. To find 
the bank’s balance add the amount of the 
check or checks to the check book balance. 
If this prove correct let the check book 
balance remain as it is, for that is really the 
amount there is in bank to be checked 
against. 

Checks are Good Receipts. 

It is evident that money is placed in a 
bank for safe-keeping, and that the bank 
becomes responsible for it. Therefore no 
part of it will be paid out without a check 
or written order of the depositor. When 


precautions to protect his checks from being 
“raised” or changed, the loss falls upon 
him should the bank pay the check for 
wrong amount. 

Write your signature without flourishes 
and as nearly as possible like the specimen 
left at the bank when you opened your 
account. It is always desirable to write 
your first name rather than initial. 

How Checks are Certified. 

In many transactions, involving the 
transfer of a large amount of valuable 
property for cash, an ordinary check 
is not satisfactory to the person who is 
parting with his property, for he is not 
sure that his check will be honored when 
presented, however good the standing of 











5^ 


MONEY AND BUSINESS 


the drawer may be. Therefore the check 
may be presented to the paying teller or 
cashier of the bank on which the check has 
been drawn, who, after finding that the 
amount is still to drawer’s credit, writes or 
stamps across its face the words, “ Good 
when properly indorsed,” or “certified,” 
and signs his name. The amount of the 
check is at once charged to drawer’s 
account, and is the same as cash with¬ 
drawn. The certification of checks is 
largely practiced in large business centres, 
as in Wall Street, New York, where the 
daily sales of stocks and bonds run up 
into the millions, and failures caused by 
fluctuation in prices often come with start- 


There are two kinds of bills of exchange, 
Domestic and Foreign. 

Domestic Bills of Exchange are payable 
in the same country in which they are 
drawn, and are commonly called Drafts. 

Foreign Bills of Exc1ia7ige are payable in 
another country from that in which they are 
drawn, and are called Foreign Drafts. 

The parts of a bill of exchange are the 
Heading, the Order , the Repeated Amount , 
the Signature, and the Address. 

The first four of these parts correspond, 
respectively, in position, arrangement, capi¬ 
talization, and punctuation to the heading, 
the promise, the repeated amount, and the 
signature of a check or promissory note. 


Mountville National Bank, 

JZ - CrL-t — or MOUNTVILLE, PA. 



CERTIFICATE OF DEPOSIT 


ling rapidity. A check which may be good 
to-day, to-morrow may be worthless. 

When a check has been lost, in the mails 
or otherwise, stolen, or given in mistake, 
the payment of the same may be stopped 
by the drawer at any time before it is pre¬ 
sented at bank. Parties holding such a 
check honestly, and for value given, may 
have recourse to law for collection of same. 

Drafts and Bills of Exchange. 

A draft, or bill of exchange, is, in fact, a 
letter written by one person to another living 
in a different place, requesting him to pay a 
sum of money to the order of the drawer or 
to a third person. Commercial usage recog¬ 
nizes particular forms for writing these drafts. 


The Address, preceded by the word To, 
is begun either on the same line as the sig¬ 
nature, or on the next line, but as far to the 
left as possible. It usually includes both 
name and location, each of which occupies 
a line by itself. 

The person who signs a bill of exchange 
(or draft) is called the Drawer or Maker; 
the one to whom it is addressed, the Drawee; 
the one to whom it is made payable, the 
Payee; and the person who is in legal pos¬ 
session of it, the Holder. 

Bills of exchange, like notes and checks, 
are either negotiable or non- 7 iegotiable, ac¬ 
cording as they are payable to the order of a 
person or simply to the person himself. The 
former are the more common. 
















MONEY AND BUSINESS 


57 


A Sight Draft is one paj^able at sight; 
that is, on presentation. 


$ 2 57tVq- Savannah,Ga., March29,1901. 

At sight, pay to the order of Booker 
Washington, Two Hundred Fifty-seven 
Dollars, value received, and charge to our 
account. 

George P. Richards Sr Co. 

To Theodore P. Thomas & Co., 

New York City. 


A Time Draft is one made payable a cer¬ 
tain specified length of time after sight or 
after date. 


$469^%%. Mobile, Ala., March 1, 1901. 

Thirty days after date, pay to the order 
of Sylvester Cutler, Four Hundred Sixty- 
nine Dollars, and charge to the account of 

John G. Cannon. 

To J. B. Smith & Co., 

Phil a., Pa. 


Foreign bills of exchange are usually 
made in sets of three, which are alike 
in all respects except their designations of 
first, second, and third. The three bills are 
usually sent by different mails, and which¬ 
ever arrives first is used. The others are 
then worthless. These bills differ from or¬ 
dinary drafts, by the insertion in each, of 
the condition that it is to be paid if the 
other two of the set are unpaid. 

Drafts are sent through banks, and not 
through the mails, and are used to avoid 
the risk, inconvenience, and expense of 
sending actual money from one place to 
another. The principal object for which 
it is used is to collect money due from 
the drawee to the drawer. For instance, 
if Jones, of Chicago, owes Smith, of Phil¬ 
adelphia, $750, Smith may draw on Jones 
for that amount. He will deposit the 


draft properly drawn with his own bank 
in Philadelphia, which will forward it to 


Exchange for £800 . • 

New York, Sept. 3, 1900. 

Ten days after sight of this First of 
Exchange (second and third unpaid ), pay 
to the order of E. N. Towiie, Eight Hun¬ 
dred Pounds sterling, value received , and 
charge to account of 

fames H. Moody Sr Co. 

To Drexel, Morgan Cf Co., 

London , England. 


the bank with which Jones does business in 
Chicago, and which is called its corre¬ 
spondent. The draft when received in Chi¬ 
cago is presented to Jones at his place of 
business, who pays it by check or cash, or 
stamps or writes across its face : 

Accepted 
June 12, 1900. 

Payable at 
First National Bank. 
fOHN fONES. 

Or, he may write across the face simply 
“ Accepted ” and his name. The draft will 
then be paid at Jones’ office when it falls 
due. 

The draft in the former case becomes 
a check on Jones’ account at the First 
National Bank when it is charged against 
his account. The bank in Chicago then 
credits and advises the bank in Philadel¬ 
phia, which in turn credits Smith. 

By courtesy Smith, when making the 
draft upon Jones, advises him at once of 
the fact, that he may be prepared to pay it. 

If not paid, the draft is protested—that 
is, a formal statement of the fact of pres¬ 
entation is made by a notary and served 
upon drawer and all who have indorsed 
their names to the draft. 








58 


MONEY AND BUSINESS 


But if the drawer does not wish to incur 
the expense of protest fees, or to injure the 
credit of the debtor, there may be pinned to 
the draft a piece of paper with the words 
‘ ‘ No protest ’ ’ upon *it. This is to notify 
the bank presenting the draft that the 
drawer does not wish it protested if not 
paid. It is important that this slip of paper 
be detached before the draft is presented, or 
else the draft would lose its “ force.” 

Drafts Differ from Checks. —When 
a draft is drawn a certain number of days 
after sight, or after date, it has three days of 
grace. 

A check is practically a sight draft upon 
a bank; but there is a marked difference 
between a “check” and a “draft.” For 
example : The form and wording are differ¬ 
ent ; a check is drawn upon a bank or 
banker with whom funds have been depos¬ 
ited ; a draft is drawn upon an individual 
or business house. 

Checks are used for paying money to 
creditors; drafts are used as a means of col¬ 
lecting moneys due to the one drawing. 

Checks, when properly drawn and pre¬ 
sented, must be paid by the bank if it has 
funds belonging to the drawer. 

The party drawn upon is under no obli¬ 
gation to honor a draft, if for any reason he 
chooses not to do so. 

Due Bills. 

A Due Bill is a formal written acknowl¬ 
edgment that a certain amount is due. 

Due Bile for Money. 


$2oo t ° ¥ °o-. Ho Hokus, N.J ., July iy , ipoo. 

Due Charles Stillman, on demand, Two 
Hundred Dollars, value received. 

Henry George. 


It should in capitalization, punctuation, 
and arrangement of parts, follow the same 
rules as are followed for business letters. 

Due bills are often given in settling 
accounts, when it is not convenient to make 
immediate payment. 


Unlike promissory notes, due bills cannot 
properly be made payable to order. They 
are therefore non-negotiable. 

The amount represented by a due bill 
should be expressed twice, as in a receipt, 
check, or note—once in writing, and once 
in figures. 

Due Bile for Merchandise. 


fo T VV • Chicago , III., May 12,1 poi. 

Due Charles F. Thomas, for work done, 
Fifty-five Dollars, payable on demand, 

in merchandise, at my store. 

William C. Edwards. 


Promissory Notes. 

A promissory note is a written promise 
to pay a specified sum of money at a desig¬ 
nated time, both of which are stated in the 
body of the note. 

The holder is the person who is in lawful 
possession of a note, whether he is the origi¬ 
nal payee or has received the note by in¬ 
dorsement. 

Promissory notes are divided, in common 
usage, into three principal kinds : Indivi¬ 
dual Notes, Joint Notes, Joint-and-several 
Notes. Any of these notes may be either 
negotiable or non-negotiable. 

An Individual Note is one signed by a 
single person. 


$ 2 4° T \\. Chicago, III., May 11, ipoi. 

On demand, we promise to pay to the 
order of Samuel Barclay, at his office, Two 
Hundred Forty Dollars, value re¬ 
ceived. Henry Ambrose, 

Walter Williams . 


A foint Note is one signed by two or 
more persons who are together responsible 
for its payment, share and share alike. 

A Jomt-and-several Note is one signed by 
two or more persons, all of whom together, 
or any one of whom separately, may be held 












MONEY AND BUSINESS 


59 


for the whole amount. The words, We 
jointly and severally promise, which are 
found in this note, are equivalent to We 
together and separately promise. Accord¬ 
ingly, when such a note matures, if all the 
signers are able to pay, they contribute 
share and share alike; while if one or more 
cannot pay, the whole amount is paid by 
the remaining one or more. 


$85 1 iW Salem, N.J.,Jan. 13, 1901. 

Three months after date, for value re¬ 
ceived, we jointly a 7 id severally promise to 
pay William fohns or order, at the Second 
National Bank, Eight Hmidred Fifty-one 
iVo Dollars, with interest. 

Henry Swartz. 

Levi Douglass. 


A note is made negotiable, that is sale¬ 
able, by making it payable to a person, or 


A Promissory Note and stub, showing record of note. This record 

his order, or to his assigns, or to bearer, or 
to the cashier of a bank or incorporated com¬ 
pany. A note so drawn may be negotiated, 
or used in payment to another person by the 
holder; but he must indorse his name on 
the back of the note. Should the drawer 
of the note fail to pay it, the holder looks to 
the person or persons who indorsed it for 
payment. 


A note payable on a certain day is usually 
due three days later. These three days are 
called days of grace. Thus a note for one 
month, dated March 1st, need not be paid 
until April 4th, the last day of grace. Notes 
payable on demand are not entitled to any 
grace. Should the last day of grace fall upon 
Sunday or upon a legal holiday, it must be 
paid on the day previous. Thus a note due 
December 25th, must be paid on the 24th of 
that month. 

A note made payable at a bank and held 
there for payment until the usual hour for 
closing, need not be presented to the drawer 
in person to bind the indorser. It may be 
protested as in the case of drafts, immedi¬ 
ately upon the close of bank-hours. Pay¬ 
ment must be immediately demanded of the 
indorser if he resides in the same place ; if 
he is a non-resident he must be notified at 
once by letter. 

Discounting Note at Bank. 

When notes are offered at bank they are 
passed upon by its officers or directors, or 


may also be kept in separate book for notes payable and receivable. 

both,to satisfy themselves that the maker and 
indorsers are good for payment. If accepted 
the bank charges interest or discount at an 
agreed upon rate reckoned upon the face of 
the note for the time for which the note is 
to run from the day it is discounted. For in¬ 
stance a note for $500 drawn and dated April 
1, 1901, payable in 3 months, would be due 
and payable July 1st or 4th. If offered at 


No.JH Amt. $J 3 °° 

To Alfred Sidney 





Payable 

Merchants' N. Bank 

Time _ 

3 mos. 

Due 

fu 7 te 13, 1901 


$1300^$. Nyack, N. Y., Mch. 13, 1901. 

Three months after date, for value received, I 
pro7nise to pay to the order of Alfred Sidney at the 
Merchants' National Bank, Thirteen Hundred 
Dollars. 

No. 114.. 


Wm. B. White. 

















6o 


MONEY AND BUSINESS 


bank for discount on May i, 1901, the bank 
would reckon the interest from May 1st to 
July 4th. It is to be noted that the bank takes 
its interest in advance and pays to holder of 
note the proceeds which is the face value 
less the bank interest or discount. To 
compute the value of a note which reads 
“ with interest ,” you add to the face value 
the interest which will be due at the maturity 
of note. Upon this value the bank reckons 
its discount. 

Indorsements, a Summary. 

Indorsements are entries written on the 
back of any paper, whether checks, notes or 
drafts. They show either a transfer of title, 
a giving of security, or a receipt for a pay¬ 
ment applying on the contract indorsed. 


We give here, plainly marked, the various 
forms of indorsements : 

No. 1 is the more common and safest 
form. It transfers the ownership from Smith 
to Jones, and makes Smith responsible to 
Jones in case the maker or payer of the 
paper fails to pay it. 

No. 2 transfers ownership, but relieves 
Smith from any responsibility if the paper 
is not paid when due. Only under special 
circumstances is this used. 

No. 3 transfers the ownership to any 
party who may hold the paper, making it 
in effect payable to the bearer. Such paper 
should not fall in hands of strangers. 

No. 4 transfers the ownership as in No. 3, 
except that it relieves Smith from further 
responsibility. 



When a paper is written payable to the 
order of John Smith, and he wishes to 
transfer his title to Henry Jones, he writes 
on the back of the paper an order for its 
payment to Jones. 

For the convenience of bank-tellers and 
others who have large numbers of such 
indorsed papers to handle daily, it is well 
to write the indorsement across the left end 
of the paper. 

On negotiable papers that are likely to 
have several indorsements, care should be 
taken to write the indorsements as close 
together as is convenient. If the back of 
the paper should be covered with indorse¬ 
ments, other indorsements can be written 
on blank paper attached to the original. 


No. 5 is a receipt for money paid to 
apply on the promise indorsed. Such in¬ 
dorsements need no signature as it might 
have the effect of a receipt in full. 

No. 6 does not transfer the ownership of 
the paper, but merely gives authority to col¬ 
lect the paper as Smith’s agent and to place 
the amount collected to his account. 

No. 7 relieves bank of responsibily of 
serving notice and protest. 

Receipts. 

A Receipt is a written acknowledgment, 
signed by the receiver and delivered to the 
giver, showing that certain property (money 
or goods, or both) has been received. 



















MONEY AND B US IN ESS 


61 


RENTAL RECEIPT. 



Every word which expresses number, 
unless connected with preceding word by 
a hyphen, may or may not begin with a 
capital. But there should be uniformity in 
this particular in papers drawn by same 
parties. The amount of money received is 
written in figures in the left-hand corner. 

There are three kinds of receipts: (i) Re- 
ceiptsin Full; (2) Receipts on Account , and (3) 
Receipts to Apply on Particular Accounts. 

The first is given when the payment is 
a complete settlement; the second, when 
partial payment of a debt is made ; • the 
third, when there are more accounts than 
one between the persons, and the payment 
is intended to apply to a particular one. 


Hbs::» (1) 

$457jo°o . Akron , O., Jan. 12, 190 1. 

Received from George B. Water son, Four 
Hundred Fifty-seven Dollars , in Full of 
all Demands. 

Albert S. Lucien. 


iVo- Wilmington , Dela., Nov. 16, igoi. 
Receivedfrom Lyman D. Willard, Three 
Hundred Forty-one Dollars, on account. 

Charles F. Gibson, 

Per Anna Brown. 


13 ) 

$J75 iVo* Portland, Ore., Aug. 17, 1901. 

Received from B. Braddock, Three Hun¬ 
dred Seventy-five Dollars, to apply on 

rent of house. 

Frank Berry. 


[BILL OF SALE! 

In Consideration of 
Two Hundred Seventy four . . . Dollars, 
receipt of which is hereby acknowledged, 
I, S. D. Haag, oi County of Erie and State 
of Pennsylvania, do hereby sell and convey 
unto Peter Cline, of County of Erie, and 
State of Pennsylvania, the following de¬ 
scribed personal property. 

Dark Bay Horse, “ Nepos," 1 Hands 
High, 1600 lbs. weight, with star on fore¬ 
head and white on right hind foot. 

And I do hereby covenant and agree to 
warrant and defend the above described 
personal property against the lawful claims 
af all persons. 

Signed this 5 th day of May, A.D. 1902, 
S. D. Haag. 















6 2 


MONEY AND BUSINESS 


Lease—Form A. 


Ubts agreement, Made between.^* Cong don . 

of the County of. New Castle .and State of. Delaware .of the first part, and 

. C. S. Milligan ... 

of. Wilmington , Delaware . 

of the second part, witnessed : That the said party of the first part has this day leased unto the party of the second part 
the following described premises, to-wit: 

. The First Floor and Basement of the Storeroom . 

. No . 199 Market . Street . 

for the term of. One Year .from and after the. -first .day of 

. March .••.A.D., iqoi.. at the. Monthly .rent of 

. Thirty-seven 50-100 Dollars .to be paid as follows, to-wit: 

. On the date of this Lease and on each month thereafter in advance . 

And it is further agreed that if any rent shall be due and unpaid, demand therefor being waived, or if default be made in any 
of the covenants herein contained, it shall then be lawful for said party of the first part to re-enter the said premises and 
remove all persons and property therefrom, or he may recover possession thereof, by action for the forcible detention of said 
property as provided for in the laws of the state pertaining to rented property. 

And Lb- said party of the second part agrees to hire said premises, and to pay the party of the first part therefor the 

\ 

. Monthly .rent of... Thirty-seven 50-100 Dollars . 

to be paid as follows, to wit.. On the date of this lease and on each month thereafter in advance . 

except when said premises are untenable by reason of fire from any other cause than the carelessness of the party of the. 
second part, or of persons of. his .family, or in. his .employ, or by superior force or inevitable necessity 

And the said party of the second part covenants that. he .will use said premises as a. storeroom . 

and for no other purpose whatever; and that. he .especially will not use said premises nor permit the same to be 

used for any unlawful business or purposes whatever; that. he .will not assign this lease or let or underlet said 

premises without the written consent of the lessor, under the penalty of the forfeiture of all. his .rights under the 

lease; and that. he .will use due care and diligence in guarding said property from damage ; that. he .wil 

keep the same in such repair as the same now are. or may at any time be placed in by the lessor, damages by superior force 

inevitable necessity, or fire from any other cause than from the carelessness of the lessee, or persons of. his .family, 

or 5n . h i s .employ, excepted ; and that at the expiration of this lease, or upon a breach by said lessee of any of the 

covenants herein contained. he .will, without further notice of any kind, quit and surrender the possession of said 

premises in as good condition as reasonable use, natural wear and decay thereof will permit, damages by fire as aforesaid, 
superior force, or inevitable necessity, only excepted. 

IN WITNESS WHEREOF, the said parties have hereto subscribed their names on this. ...first . 

day of. March .A.D., 1901. 


Witnesses: 

.Charles Worth . 

.Henry Ryan .. 


.R. B. Cong don. 
.C. S. Milligan. 


. Pise _It is important both for the owner of the property and the one who rents it that the agreement be properly and carefully 

drawn, signed and witnessed. Each party to the agreement should keep a copy duly signed and witnessed: 



















































































MONEY AND BUSINESS 


63 


(ITEMIZED BILL RECEIPTED) 

Los Angeles, Cal.,..190-. 

M r. EBEN HOLDEN 


To R..E. CARTWRIGHT & CO., Dr. 


Accounts Rendered Monthly. 


October 

2 

14. yards Silk 

at $1.60 

$22 

40 





7 ‘ ‘ Lining 

“ .18 

I 

26 





% “ Braid 

“ .20 


10 





26 ‘ ‘ Muslin 

“ .12% 

3 

25 





2 do2. Buttons 

“ - 37 % 


75 





15 yards Flannel 

“ -33 A 

5 

00 









$32 

76 


Received payment , 

Nov. 15, ipo-. R. E. CARTWRIGHT & CO. 

Per. Bowers. 


Making Out an Account and Receipting 
Bill. 

When merchandise is sold or services 
are rendered a detailed statement should be 
made out. This is called a bill, or an 
account. The debtor is the one who owes 
the money, and the creditor the one who 
receives it. Goods are said to be sold on 
account or credit when they are not paid for 
on delivery. 

Business Correspondence. 

Great importance attaches to business 
correspondence, for a large part of the 
world’s business is done through the mails 
or by telegraph. To facilitate the handling 
of so much mail it is important that busi¬ 
ness letters should have a uniform style and 
one which will secure clearness and accuracy 
in statement. Before giving a few model 
forms we would call attention to the fol¬ 
lowing points, which we may term 

Essentials for a Business Letter. 

Use good paper and envelopes and black 

ink. 

Study to arrange your letter to give it 


the best possible appearance, leaving a 
margin of a half inch or more at the' left of 
the page, and dividing the letter into para¬ 
graphs whenever a new subject is to be 
considered. 

Re-write the letter rather than to have 
erasures or blots. 

Do not write the letter with a pencil, 
and do not use foolscap paper. 

Fold the letter neatly to fit the size of 
the envelope. 

Use as few words as possible and state 
clearly what you have to say. 

Give the address plainly, including street 
or post-office box, town, and state, or 
province. Address the envelope carefully 
and examine before sending. 

Read the letter when written to assure 
yourself that there are no omissions or mis¬ 
takes. 

Keep copies of all important business 
letters and file letters received. 

When writing to others for information 
enclose a stamp or prepaid envelope. 

In writing letters requesting payment, 
employ only the most gentlemanly terms- 
and polite language. 


















6 4 


MONEY AND BUSINESS 


When addressing strangers use ‘ ‘ Sir ’ 5 
or “ Dear Sir.” A married lady is addressed 
as “ Madam ” or “ Dear Madam,” an un¬ 
married lady as “ Miss” or “ Dear Miss ; ” 
it is allowable also to say “ Dear Madam.” 
In writing to a firm, company, or a number 
of persons the address is ‘ ‘ Gentlemen ’ ’ or 
“ Dear Sirs.” Never use the abbreviation 
“ Gents.” 

In replying to a letter first acknowledge 
its receipt and mention the date. Use spar¬ 
ingly contractions and abbreviations. 

The closing words of letters should be 
4 ‘ Y ours truly, ” “Yours respectfully, 5 ’ 
“ Respectfully yours,” or “ Respectfully.” 

How to Begin a Letter. 

We give below a few forms for beginning 
letters, where the paper is not provided with 
a printed heading. The first line on ruled 
paper is generally about an inch and a half 
below the top of the page. This is the proper 
place to begin. On the first line, beginning 
near the center of the paper, is written the 
name of the town and state, or the number 
of the street, with the name of the town and 
state on the second line. On the line below 
follows the month, day and year; on the 
succeeding line, at the left, the name of the 
party to whom the letter is addressed ; the 
next line or two lines are occupied with his 
post-office address, and on the following line 
the address proper, “ Dear Sir,” etc. 

Kokomo, Ind. 

October 25, 190$. 

Mr.J. T. Terhune, 

Lancaster, Pa. 

Dear Sir: 

We are pleased to acknowledge the 
receipt of your letter of the 10 th inst., etc. 

Kennet Square , Pemia. 

April 2, 1904. 

Messrs. Kent & Tatnall, 

211 Market Street, 

Philadelphia , Pa. 

Gentlemen : 

Please ship me the following order of 
goods, etc. 

Closing a Letter. 

Never fail to sign a letter, using your 
full name, and write it clearly, that there 


may be no error in sending your reply. If 
a lady is writing to a stranger she should 
sign her name with her proper title ‘ ‘ Miss ’ ’ 
or ‘ ‘ Mrs.’’ preceding in parentheses. There 
are various forms of closing letters, of which 
the following are the more common : 

Yours truly, 

(Miss') Mary fones. 

I remain, 

Yours respectfully, 

E. G. Ziegler . 

I am , 

Yours truly. 

Robert M. Worth. 

To Charles M. fones, 

Ogontz, Pa. 

How to Address an Envelope. 

Commence the name a little to the left 
of the centre of the envelope, and about one- 
half way down from the top. Write the 
name of the party addressed, with the num¬ 
ber of the street on a line below, a little to 
the right, the city or town on a line next 
below and to the right, and last the state or 
province. The county may be placed in the 
lower left hand corner. The following is an 
example: 

/. H. HOUSTON, 

98 Adams Street , 

Toronto , 
Canada. 

We give here a few letters as models of 
the most common forms which occur in 
business. These will be sufficient to sug¬ 
gest what forms may be adopted for others. 

Letter of Application. 

74.9 Monroe St., 

Milwaukee, Wis ., 

December 20 , 1901. 
Messrs. Gerhart & Co., 

J2i La Salle Ave ., Chicago. 

Gentlemen : 

1 notice in this morning's “ Eagle "your 
advertisement for a salesman , in reply to 
which lam pleased to offer'my services. 

I am twenty-nhie years of age, arid have 
had four years' experience in one of the lead¬ 
ing houses of Milwaukee, in the employ of 
Messrs. Galt, Smith & Co., to whom I 




MONEY AND BUSINESS 


65 


respectfully refer you. I also enclose to you 
copies of letters of recommendation, which I 
trust will be satisfactory to you. 

I shall be pleased to arrange for an inter¬ 
view with you, if that be your pleasure. 
Awaiting your early commands, I am, 

Very truly yours, 

Emery Earles. 

A Letter Ordering Goods. 

J 79 Jerome Avenue, 

Guelph, Ontario, 
January 5, 1902. 
Messrs. C. B. Smith & Co., 

Toronto, Canada. 

Gentlemen : 

Please send me by express, as soon as con¬ 
venient, the following books : 

1. Tennyson's Poems (Complete!) 

2. Thomas' Algebra. 

3. Hopkin's History of Canada. 
Please advise me of shipment and send an 

itemized bill, allowing the usual discount. 

Very respectfully yours, 

John A. Hewes. 

Letter Asking for Settlement of Account. 

Toronto, Ontario, 

April 1, 1902. 

Mr. John A. Hewes, 

Guelph, 0 ?it. 

Dear Sir: 

We enclose a statement of your accout some¬ 
what overdue, and shall feel greatly obliged 
for the settlement of the same at an early date, 
as we have several heavy payments to 7 nake. 

Trusting that you will excuse us for t?oub- 
lingyou, we are, 

Very truly, 

C. R. Smith & Co. 

Enclosing Statement of Account. 

Cincinnati, Ohio, 

April 1, 1903. 

Messrs. Allibone & Simmons, 

Terrehaute, Bid. 

Gentlemen : 

We enclose you herewith state¬ 
ment of your account for the last three months, 
which we believe you will find correct. We 
shall be glad to have you examine the same at 
your earliest convenience, and shall be happy 
5 c 


to receive your check for the amount, or instruc¬ 
tions to draw on you in the ordinary course . 
We are,gentlemen. 

Yours very truly, 

R. C. Bancroft & Co. 


Enclosing Remittance. 


Boscobel, 

John Wanamaker, 
Philadelphia. 
Dear Sir: 


Wis., 

June 2 1, 1903. 


The goods ordered of you on the 
5th inst. have been received and are entirely 
satisfactory in both quality and price. I en¬ 
close you herewith my check for $175.91, the 
amount of your bill, which kindly receipt and 
return. 

Very truly yours, 


Thomas Upton. 


Opening an Account. 

Jefferson City, Mo., 

September 13, 1902. 
Messrs. R. B. Smith & Co., 

St. Louis, Mo. 

Gentlemen: 

I desire to open an account with 
you as I expect to have need to order frequently 
goods of the lines you carry, and it will be more 
convenient for me to settle the first of each 
month than to make remittance with each order. 
I am permitted to refer you to Dr. C. F. 
Peterson, 99 Monroe Street, of your city, who 
knows me well, and also Brown & Johnson, 
bankers of this city, who are well acquainted 
with my financial standing. Should my 
references prove satisfactory, will you kindly 
forward me at once by express, the following 
goods: 

3 dozen Napkins at about $3.00. 

2 boxes Ladies' Fine Hose. 

3 dozen Ladies' Hemstitched Handker¬ 
chiefs at about $2.73. 

13yards of Gingham, light color about 18 
cents. 

Hoping my proposition to open an account 
will be satisfactory, and that the enclosed order 
may meet with your prompt attention, I am 
Yours respectfully, 

Peter Andrews . 



66 


MONEY AND BUSINESS 


Acknowledging Receipt of Order. 

OFFICE OF 

R. B. SMITH & CO. 

200-25 DAUPHIN ST. 

St. Louis, Sept. 21, ipo 2. 

Peter Andrews, 

Jefferson City, Mo. 

Dear Sir: 

Your favor of the 15th is received. 

The references are quite satisfactory and we 
shall be pleased to have your account. 

The goods ordered are now bei?ig packed, 
and we will ship them per Illinois Central to¬ 
morrow. 

Thanking you for the order, and hoping 
your goods will reach you promptly and in 
good condition, we remain, 

Very truly yours, 

R. B. Smith & Co. 
per S. 

Practical Points for the Correspondent. 

Abbreviations. —Use only authorized abbrevia¬ 
tions, and attempt no short cuts of your own. 
Consult a dictionary when in doubt. Do not say 
“Phil.” for “Philadelphia,” or “G’n’t’n ” for 
“Germantown.” Use “and,” not the sign 
Abbreviations denoting professional standing, as 
“M. D.,” “D. D.,” “UL. D.,” and “ M. A.” are 
used chiefly on title pages. When used on letters 
the nam es are not preceded by titles such as ‘ ‘ Mr., ’ * 
“ Professor,” etc. 

Address. —The name and address should be 
written plainly so that “ N. Y.” will not be mis¬ 
taken for “ N. J.,” “ Mo.” will not be mistaken for 
“Me.,” “Md.” for “Ind.,” nor “ S. C.” for 
“S. D.” 

Avoid fancy note paper. Avoid postals for pri¬ 
vate correspondence. Avoid flourishes. Avoid 
crooked lines. Avoid unusual colors in inks. 
Avoid grumbling on paper. Avoid slang. Avoid 
the capital “D” in “My dear Sir.” Avoid era¬ 
sures and blots. Avoid writing with pencil. Avoid 
frequent repetition of the same word. Avoid too 
many “and’s” and “very’s” and “so’s” and 
“well’s.” Avoid the use of figures instead of 
words denoting numbers. Avoid awkward folding 
of the letter. Avoid matters of private confidence 
and friendship in business letters. Avoid delays 
in answering invitations. Avoid displaying temper 
in letters. 

Dating Letters. —It is important to date the 
letters at the beginning, that it may not be over¬ 
looked, giving the day of the month and the year. 
The correct contractions for second, third, etc., 
are 2d, 3d, etc. In referring to other dates, “ inst.” 
refers to the present month, “ ult.” to the preced¬ 
ing month and “ prox. ” to the following month, as 
“23dprox.” means the 23d of next month. Care 
should be taken in using these abbreviations. 


Initials. —Full names, not initials, should be 
used. It is difficult to know whether “ R. Jones” 
means” Reuben Jones ” or “ Rebecca,” or whether 
the writer should say “Mr. Jones” or “Miss 
Jones. ” One’s own name should always be written 
legibly. Only cashiers are allowed fancy signa- 
tures. 

Materials. —The best stationary only is good 
enough. Paper and envelopes should correspond 
in color and quality. Business letter sheets are 
either 5x8 (note size) or 8x10 inches (letter size.) 

Mistakes. —Over 5,000,000 letters go astray each 
year on account of mistakes in envelope address¬ 
ing. Letters are sent with money enclosures and 
orders for goods, which the sender never hears 
from, for there is no address in the letter, or the 
signature maybe omitted; therefore, don’t make 
111 1S tel 1c cs • 

Official Letters. —It is better to sav, “To the 
Commissioner of Patents, etc., Sir,” than to say 

“ To the Honorable A-S-, Commissioner 

of Patents, etc.,” and if the writer is an official, it 
is proper for him to place his title after or below 
his signature. 

One Side. —Write on one side only of the paper 
in business correspondence, that copies may be 
easily taken. 

Ordering Goods. —Give complete directions as 
to method of shipment, whether by railway or other 
transportation, and state explicitly the kind and 
amount of goods you wish shipped. Also state the 
amount of money you enclose in your letter, or 
how it will be sent. 

Return Postage. —In writing about your own 
affairs, requiring an answer, it is proper to enclose 
a stamp or stamped envelope. 

Spelling. —A small dictionary of common words 
is an important adjunct to everyone’s writing desk. 
Good spelling only comes from practice and expe¬ 
rience in careful reading. 

Style. —The general appearance of a letter de¬ 
pends upon the degree of attention given it as to its 
legibility, correct spelling, paragraphing and 
punctuating, and also to the freedom from blots, 
interlineations and erasures. Style also depends 
upon the beginning and ending of the letter, that 
they be uniform and artistic in arrangement. 

Telegrams. —Correspondence by telegraph is 
expensive, and such communications are called 
“messages.” They should be brief, concise, and 
give exact meaning. They should not omit neces¬ 
sary words or be capable of more than one mean¬ 
ing. It is always best to write carefully what you 
wish to state, recast it, if possible, to say the same 
thing in fewer words. See that the name and ad¬ 
dress are plainly written, and your own name and 
address are signed. Omit all forms of salutation at 
beginning and close of the message. The follow¬ 
ing shows a concise message : 

Philadelphia, Pa, 

John W. Ferris , 

Central Block 
Pueblo , Colorado. 

Father very ill. Come immediately. Draw on 
me for funds. 

Wittiam Ferris. 





Practical Bookkeeping 

WHY ACCOUNTS ARE KEPT—PROFITS AND LOSSES—RECORDS OF 
BUSINESS TRANSACTIONS—SINGLE ENTRY BOOKKEEPING—A 
MODEL SET OF ACCOUNTS—DOUBLE ENTRY—THE 
BOOKS USED—A MODEL SET OF DOUBLE ENTRY 
ACCOUNTS—TRIAL BALANCES 


THE SCIENCE OF ACCOUNTS 


Bookkeeping is both a science and an 
art. It is based upon custom and utility, 
the principles of which have been formu¬ 
lated into general laws, which have been 
adopted throughout the business world. In 
this sense it is a science. The recording 
and mechanical part, including the accu¬ 
racy in arrangement of business transac¬ 
tions, is the art. To become efficient in 
both the science and the art it is necessary 
to master the principles and laws and apply 
them with accuracy and rapidity. 

The object of bookkeeping is to keep an 
exact record of the amount of money, mer¬ 
chandise and other properties received and 
disposed of, and the amount of each on hand. 

Bookkeeping is practiced in two ways or 
methods, which are known as single and 
double entry. In opening up a business, 
the business itself is the first thing to be 
considered ; the recording or specifying the 
transactions is secondary. The former will 
determine largely the method to be followed. 

Every man, whether he be a laboring 
man, farmer, tradesman, or professional 
man, should keep a record of all dealings 
which require a record of the receipt and 
expenditure of cash. Every wage-earner 
should take a few minutes at the close of 
each day to make a record of his cash, as 
well as the articles he has purchased during 
the day and had charged. When this is done 
there will be great satisfaction in knowing 
how the money has been spent, and oftimes 


much assistance in checking needless ex¬ 
penditure. A farmer can make use of a 
simple form of bookkeeping in keeping a 
record of the cash he receives for the differ¬ 
ent products of the farm, and the cash ex¬ 
pended for improvements, for material, and 
for labor. It will not be difficult for him 
to determine with great certainty which 
department of farming that he has tried 
yields the best returns. He should open an 
account with each one of his laborers, en¬ 
tering under the name a memorandum of 
the terms of the agreement, with the former 
address of the employee. In keeping an 
account with a person to whom goods are 
sold, when the account is paid in full it 
should be closed. If only a part is paid, 
credit should be given and the account 
closed, with the balance brought forward. 
A farmer can also, as we have said, keep an 
account with any department of his work, 
such as his wheat field, his corn field, or his 
cattle, charging to each the labor, seed, fer¬ 
tilizer, etc., and crediting to it the returns 
from the sale of the crop and the value of 
such portions as may have been used on the 
farm. In the same way, a mechanic should 
keep an account of each piece of work that 
he undertakes, especially if it be on con¬ 
tract, that he may ascertain the amount of 
his profit or loss. This will be a good 
guide to him for future estimates. These 
accounts are commonly called Property Ac¬ 
counts, and may be kept in the same form 

67 





68 


PRACTICAL BOOKKEEPING 


as used for Personal Accounts, that is, ac¬ 
counts kept with individuals. 

The Books Used in Single Entry 
Bookkeeping. 

The different books used in bookkeeping 
will be learned as we follow the forms given 
on the succeeding pages. The three im¬ 
portant ones are: 

The Cash Book. This is used to show 
all receipts and payments of cash, and also 
all personal debits and credits for cash, 
which must be entered in the ledger. 

The Day Book. This book is used to 
keep a record of transactions for which cash 
is not paid or received, but the amounts of 
the transactions are to be entered in their 
proper places in the ledger, as indicated in 
the day book. Every transaction entered 
in the day book indicates that the person or 
account so entered is either debtor (Dr.) or 
creditor (Cr.) in reference to the one who 
owns or manages the business represented 
by the book. This book is generally ruled 
with two amount columns, the first being for 
the items of transaction, and the second for 
the total of these items. 

The Ledger. This is not a book of 
original entries, but is a record of what has 
been first entered in another book, such as 
the Cash Book and Day Book , Notes Receiv¬ 
able and Payable Books , Blotter , and such 
other books as may be required, depending 
on the nature and extent of the business ; 
hence, items do not appear in the ledger; 
but in a column ruled for that purpose is 
placed the folio or page of the book from 
which the entry is posted, as entries made 
in day book and cash book give a history 
of the transaction. They are sometimes 
called Historical Entries. 

It is best to observe the following direc¬ 
tions for entering items in the cash book 
and day book : 

1. Be uniform in describing transactions 
of the same kind. 

2. Every transaction should have a7i en¬ 
try made on the day on which it occurs. 

j. The quantity and price of each item 
should be given iu entering sales on accowit ; 
likewise in recordmg purchasos o?i account. 


q. Do not erase or interline any entries 
made in cash book or day book. If any errors 
are made mark them “ Void" and make the 
entry a new one. This will show that no 
fraud was intended if the books are examined 
in court. Corrections and erasures may be 
made in ledger and other books , although 
these should be avoided. 

5. Exercise great care in writing fig¬ 
ures , as corrections cannot be easily made. 

Single Entry Bookkeeping. 

Single entry bookkeeping is simple, and 
is generally adopted by shop people and 
small concerns who deal in a great variety 
of articles and where the sales are small 
and numerous. This method affords some 
knowledge of the condition of the business 
to the proprietor; by this system it often 
seems a tedious method to enter each sum 
singly in the ledger. The ledger contains 
the names of all parties with whom transac¬ 
tions take place. The debtor and the 
creditor accounts of each party are arranged 
on the opposite pages, the debtor being on 
the left-hand side and the creditor on the 
right. Thus, if merchandise is sold to A, 
A is made debtor (Dr.) to merchandise 
and merchandise is made creditor (Cr.) to 
A. The key to bookkeeping is found in 
the following: Debit what is received or 
what costs value; credit what is parted with 
or what produces value. The person from 
whom you buy goods or receive money is 
the Creditor , and those to whom you sell 
goods on credit or pay money is the Debtor. 
When a thing is received its account is 
debited; when cash is received, cash is 
debited ; merchandise, merchandise is deb¬ 
ited ; hence, when a person receives some¬ 
thing of value from us without giving 
value in return we debit that person. 
When cash is paid out, cash is credited; 
merchandise is sold, merchandise is cred¬ 
ited. 

The cash book not only is very use¬ 
ful, but quite essential whether kept by 
single or double entry. When you receive 
money you enter it on the debtor’s side 
or left-hand page; when you pay out 
money you enter the sum on the credit or 
right-hand page; the difference between 
two sides of a cash book will always show 




PRACTICAL BOOKKEEPING 


69 


a debit balance which is equal to amount of 
cash on hand. The credit side of the ac¬ 
count can never be larger (unless your ac¬ 
count is overdrawn) than the debit side, 
since it is impossible to pay out more cash 


and on the credit side $30.00; the differ¬ 
ence is $70.00, the sum he should have on 
hand. In Diagram II the record of transac¬ 
tions appears complete, and no other book is 
required for the business. 


Cash Book. 


190 

Dr. 


April 2. 

“ 5. 

To H. F. B., 

4000.00 

“ Note, 

500.00 

“ 26. 

“ Sundries, 

500.00 



5000.00 

April 30. 

To balance, 

4800.00 


than has been received. To close the cash 
account write on the credit side, in red ink, 
the total amount on hand and the word 
balance , and bring the balance down on the 
opposite side in black ink, as above : 


Cr. 


By Interest, 

“ S. Conrad, 

50.00 

60.00 

“ Expense, 

90.00 

“ Balance, [in red ) 

4800.00 


5000.00 


Suppose, however, you are a merchant 
and your customers keep running accounts. 
You will then find it necessary to have a 
day book, cash book, and ledger. For ex¬ 
ample, a customer, Mr. J. G. Howard, 


Diagram I. 



Dr. 


Cr. 

Jan. 2. 

To Cash, 

X 

100.00 

Feb. 4. 

By Expense, 

“ Balance, 


30.00 

70.00 




100.00 




100.00 


As can be seen, the balance is obtained 
by adding the amount paid out, $200.00, 
and deducting from the total amount re¬ 
ceived, $5,000.00, the remainder being the 
amount on hand, $4,800.00. 


comes in and asks for a statement of his 
account. Looking up the name in the in¬ 
dex to the ledger, we find Mr. Howard on 
folio 78. Turning to his account we dis¬ 
cover the following, as in Diagram III. 


Diagram II. 

Cash. 



Dr. 


O 

Jan. 1. 

“ 1. 

“ 1. 

“ 1. 

To Invest Account, 

“ Cash, 

“ Sales, 

“ Note, 

1000.00 

2000.00 

500.00 

500.00 

Feb. 20. 

By Repairs, 

“ Paper, 

“ Labor, 

“ Expense, 

‘ ‘ Presses, 

“ Equipment, 

150.00 

100.00 

500.00 

50.00 

2,000.00 

1,200.00 



4000.00 



4000.00 


A person doing a strictly cash business 
needs only one book, the cash book, and on its 
proper side all transactions are written. For 
instance, in Diagram I, his cash book shows, 
on the debtor side, a transaction of $100.00, 


The debtor side, or what he owes you, is 
$288.50; the credit side, or what you owe 
him, or what has been paid, is $260.00, the 
difference being $28.50, this being in your 
favor and, therefore, is debit to you ; if he 
















































70 


PRACTICAL BOOKKEEPING 


pays the $28.50, enter it on creditor side of parallel short lines in red as both sides 
ledger, By Cash 28.50 , debit your cash book, of the account will then be the same, 
and then rule off the account with two 


'Diagram III. 

J. G. Howard. 


1901 

Dr. 



1901 

Cr. 


Jan. 1 . 

To Mdse., 

$ 200.00 


Jan. 1 . 

By Cash, 

$60.00 

“ 15. 

i 4 4 { 

30.00 


“ 14. 

“ Note, 

100.00 

“ 25. 

k <( 

58.50 


“ 17. 

‘ ‘ Cash, 

50.00 

• 




“ 19. 

‘‘ Note, 

50.00 






“ Balance, 

28.50 



$288.50 




$288.50 


To Balance, 

$28.50 






A TRIAL LIST OF TRANSACTIONS 


The following items will be found writ¬ 
ten up in the Day Book, Cash Book, Ledger, 
Bills Receivable and Bills Payable Books of 
succeeding pages. They should be care¬ 
fully traced through the respective books 
and the reasons for their being so entered 
will be evident. Then the learner will do 
well to procure paper properly ruled and 
write up the transactions for himself. First 
reproduce by copying and afterward try to 
write up the whole set from the list given 
here ; then compare and correct errors. In 
this way he will be able to master the 
subject. 


Jan. 5. 


190 . 
Jan. 1 . 


Jan. 2 . 


Jan. 3. 


Began business with 

Bought goods as follows of 

$4,000 

E. J. White, 

300.40 

Henry Short, 

482.00 

Mrs. Pearl Cook, 

600.00 

Ralph Wilson, 

248.60 

Sold merchandise for cash, 

29.60 

Paid E. J. White, 

160.00 

Paid Henry Short, 

240.00 

Paid Mrs. Pearce Cook, 

300.00 

Paid Ralph Wilson, 

Gave notes to 

122.00 

E. J. White, 2 mos., 

80.00 

Harry Short, 2 mos., 

180.00 

Mrs. Pearl Cook, 3 mos., 

120.00 

Ralph Wilson, 1 mo., 

Bought merchandise of 

80.00 

M. Young, 

397.28 


Sold to Jones & Co. merchan¬ 
dise as follows : 

Paper, 48.00 

Books, 52.80 

Pads, 44.00 144.80 


Jan. 6 . 

Feb. 5. 
Mar. 5. 

Apr. 5. 

Apr. 7. 

Apr. 8 . 


May 1 . 


Jun, 1 . 


Received Jones & Co. merchan¬ 
dise, 72.40 

3 mos. note, 72.40 

Sold A. Daniel, merchandise, 101.60 
Received from A. Daniel, cash, 40.00 
3 mos. note, 61.60 

Sold to Bowers & Co., merchan¬ 
dise, 148.64 

Received from Bowers & Co., 

2 mos. note, 148.64 

Paid M. Young, note 
paid to me by A. 

Daniel, 61.60 

Also the 2 mos. note 
of Bowers & Co., 148.64 210.24 


Bought of W. Henderson, mer¬ 


chandise, 240.00 

Sold him merchandise, 164.60 

Sold for cash, merchandise, 13.20 

Paid wages, 8.44 

Paid expenses, 13.20 

Paid note, Ralph Wilson, 80.00 

Paid note, E. J. White, 80.00 

Paid note, Harry Short, 180.00 

Paid note, Mrs. Pearl Cook, 120.00 
Received note of Jones & Co., 72.40 
A. Daniel’s note returned by M. 

Young not honored, 61.60 

Paid rent, 160.00 

Paid personal tax, 40.48 

Paid real estate tax, 30.40 

Sold merchandise to 


Mackay & Co., 40.00 

M. H. Smith, 36.48 

A. M. Jenks, 160.00 

E. Soley, 240.00 

F. M. Johnson, 148.40 


Received the following notes at 


3 mos.: 

Mackay & Co., 40.00 

M. H. Smith, 36.48 

A. M. Jenks, 160.00 




















































72 


PRACTICAL BOOKKEEPING 





Single Entry.—Explanations. 

The Journal —On page 75 all the items of the 
trial list that belong to the Journal will be found in 
their proper places. Page 71 is prepared to show 
you how these will appear when neatly written in 
the Journal. As the $4,000.00 item does not appear 
in the Ledger account, but does appear in the cash, 
it is not carried out to the dollars’ and cents’ 
column. You will note that in the Journal in 
the open unruled space at the top is the date of 
opening the business. Each succeeding date of 
that month, as 3, 5, 7, and so on, is written 
down the centre of the page at the opening 
of that day’s transactions. Each transaction 
has below it a line in black, broken in the centre 
with two dots. At the left in a column is the folio 
in the Ledger to which that item is carried. Cr. 
and Dr. indicate on which side of the accouut in 
the Ledger the item is posted. The account is 
credited with what is received from it, and debited 
with what is sold to it, as will be seen. Where two 
or more items are specified, the amount of each 
item appears in the first column for dollars and 
cents, and the total amount is carried to the second 
column. 


The Cash Book. —On pages 72 and 73 is shown 
how the two sides of the Cash Book should be writ¬ 
ten, the debit side being on the left and the credit 
side on the right, facing each other. On pages 
76,77, the single entry cash for this is shown 
complete. Enough should be told in entering 
each account to explain the transaction. It 
will be noticed that there are rulings at the 
left for the date and Ledger folio, and the right 
two columns for dollars and cents, the second of 
which is used in balancing the account at the end 
of the month, or at any given period. The line 
down the centre of the page of the Cash Book is 
usually a pale blue line for convenience of the 
bookkeeper in arranging his explanation to the 
right of it. It is not a necessary line. At the end 
of each month it is well to balance the Cash Book, 
and begin the next month by bringing down the 
balance on hand. The debit side of the cash 
account represents the money received, the credit 
side the money paid out. The debit side should 
always exceed the credit side in the cash account. 
Balance on Hand , marked with a star, is usually 
writtten in red ink, as also is the double line 
drawn beneath. You should also note where the 
single and double horizontal lines begin and en.1. 
































PRACTICAL BOOKKEEPING 


73 



The Ledger. —As the story of each transaction 
is told in the Cash Book, Day Book, or Bills Re¬ 
ceivable Book, the Ledger does not furnish a his¬ 
tory of each transaction ; therefore less space will 
be required, and both sides of the account, the 
debit and credit, may be kept on one page, while 
in the Cash Book two pages are required for the 
accounts. The rulings for the Ledger, as you will 
observe, are entirely different from those of the 
preceding books. Spaces are provided for the date, 
for the folio of the Cash Book or Day Book, and for 
dollars and cents. Every item found in the Ledger 
should have a reference back to another book, 
where explanation can be found of the transaction. 

How Accounts are arranged in the Ledger. 
While you may give one full page of the Ledger to 
each account, it will often be found more con¬ 
venient to arrange two, or even three accounts on 
a page. The first, of course, will be at the top, and 
the second one, half way down. The name of the 
account is always written in large script in the 
centre of the page, from left to right, with Dr. and 
Cr. at the left and right respectively. The year may 
be written either immediately below or above the 
top line. If any one account is an important one, 
which is likely to be used freely, and which may con¬ 
tain many items, it will be best to allow it a full page. 


When all the space on any given page is filled, the 
account is transferred to another page by closing 
it with the words, “To” or “By Balance carried 
to Folio (—)” and beginning the transferred ac¬ 
count on the new page with the words, “ By,” or 
“To Balance from Folio (—).” On page 74 are 
shown three accounts written up as they would 
appear in the Ledger, on three different folios, 
namely, 10, 12 and 13. Taking the first account, 
E. J. White, the first item of $160.06 is brought 
from the Cash Book and indicated by “ 1 ” in the 
folio column. The second item on the debit side, 
$80.00, is from the Bills Payable Book, and on the 
credit side item $300.40 brought from the Day 
Book, as indicated by the folio “ 1.” As the 
credit side exceeds the debit side by $60.40, we 
write on the debit side in red ink, “June 30, Bal¬ 
ance $60.40,” beneath which we draw one hori¬ 
zontal line on each side, in red, bring down the 
total $300.40 beneath, draw double red line, and the 
account is Closed for the half year. The balance of 
$60.40 is brought down under the credit side, 
indicating that we are in debt to E- J. White 
to that amount. It may be observed that in 
writing up this set of accounts the beginner 
should follow particularly the style indicated by 
the script pages of Journal, Cash and Ledger. 



























LEDGER— SINGLE ENTRY. This page should be studied and copied as it is a model for penmanship, arrangement 
and ruling. * Line is written in red. 
















































































PRACTICAL BOOKKEEPING 


75 


January /, ipo— 


1 

Began business this day, investing $4,000 in cash 





10 

E. J. White, Bought of him as per invoice 

Cr. 



300 

40 

12 

Harry Short, Bought of him as per invoice 

Cr. 



482 

00 

13 

1 

Mrs. Pearl Cook, Bought of her as per invoice 

Cr. 



600 

00 

14 

Ralph Wilson, Bought of him as per invoice 

Cr. 



248 

60 

15 

M. Young, Bought of him as per invoice 

Cr. 



397 

28 







16 

J 

Jones Cf Co., 

Dr. 



144 

80 


Sold them the following goods, y 2 cash balance on 






note at j months 







Books 


52 

80 




Paper $48.00 and Pads $44.00 


92 

00 



17 

A. Daniel, Sold him Mdse. 

Dr. 



IOI 

60 

18 

Bowers & Co., Sold them Mdse. 

Dr. 



148 

64 

15 

M. Young, Paid him notes 

Dr. 






A. Daniel 


61 

60 




Bowers & Co. 


148 

64 

210 

24 

19 

W. Henderson, Bought of him Mdse. 

Cr. 



240 

OO 

19 

W. Henderson. Sold him Mdse. 

Dr. 



164 

60 

20 

Mackey & Co., Sold them Mdse. 

Dr. 



40 

00 

21 

M. H. Smith, Sold him Mdse. 

Dr. 



36 

48 

22 

A. M. Jenks, Sold him Mdse. 

Dr. 



160 

00 

23 

E. Solly, Sold him Mdse. 

Dr. 



240 

00 

24 

F. M. Johnson, Sold him Mdse. 

Dr. 



148 

40 

• 

■ Tune 2 D 





25 

Gerhart & Co., Bought of them Mdse. 

Cr. 



104 

40 

26 

Woolson, Williams Co., Bought of them Mdse. 

Cr. 



400 

OO 

27 

George Page, Bought of him Mdse. 

Cr. 



348 

80 

28 

D. Adams, Bought of him Mdse. 

Cr. 



341 

60 


DAY BOOK _SINGLE ENTRY. Sometimes called Journal. Dr. and Cr. indicate the left and right side of Ledger to 

which the different items are posted from Day Book. Ledger Folio is at the left. 







































































76 


PRACTICAL BOOKKEEPING 


Dr. — Cash — 


DATE 

FOLIO 

IN 

LEDGER 

» 



Jan. i 

X 

Capital , cash invested in the business 

4,000 

OO 

Jan. 2 

X 

Cash for sundry sales this day 

29 

60 

Jan. 3 

17 

A. Daniel payment on account 

40 

00 

Jan. 4 

X 

Cash for sundry sales 

13 

20 



• 

4,082 

80 

Feb. i 

X 

To Balance 

3,239 

16 

March i 

X 

To Balance 

3,159 

16 

April i 

X 

To Balance 

2,899 

16 


X 

Bills Receivable, No. / 

72 

40 




2,971 

56 

June 30 


Balance 

2,559 

08 


CASH BOOK —SINGLE ENTRY. All moneys received are entered on this page and posted to the Cr. column of Ledger and 
folio entered in column at left. 













































PRACTICAL BOOKKEEPING 


77 


—Cash — Cr. 


DATE 

FOLIO 

IN 

LEDGER 

• 



Jan. 2 

10 

E.J. White 

' 160 

00 


12 

Harry Short 

240 

00 


13 

Mrs. Pearl Cook 

300 

00 


14 

Ralph Wilson 

122 

00 


X 

Expenses 

21 

64 




843 

64 



Balance [written in red] 

3,239 

16 




4,082 

80 

Feb. 5 

X 

By Bills Payable, No. 4 

80 

00 

- 


Balance [written in red] 

3,159 

16 




3,239 

16 

March 3 

X 

Bills Payable, No. / 

80 

00 



No. 2 

180 

00 




260 

00 



Balance [written in red] 

2,899 

16 




3,159 

16 

April 5 

X 

Bills Payable , No. 3 

120 

00 

April 7 

17 

Protested Note , A. Daniel 

61 

60 

April 8 

X 

Rent 

160 

00 

April 8 

X 

Tax 

40 

48 

April 8 

X 

Tax 

30 

40 




412 

48 



Balance [written in red] 

2,559 

08 




2,971 

56 


CASH BOOK _SINGLE ENTRY. All moneys paid out are entered on this page and posted to the Dr. side of Ledger and 

folio entered in column at left. These pages should be written up on properly ruled paper like the script cash pages preceeding. 













































PRACTICAL BOOKKEEPING 


78 


Folio 10 

Dr. E. J. White Cr. 


Jan. 

2 

Cash 

3 

160 

00 

| 

Jan. 

1 

Day Book 

|i 

300 

40 

Jan. 

2 

Bills Payable , No. 1 


80 

00 







June 

30 

Balance 


60 

40 




j 

300 

40 





300 

40 











June 

30 

Balance 

1 

: 

60 

40 


Folio 12 

Dr. Harry Short . Cr. 


Jan. 

2 

Cash 

3 

240 

00 

Jan. 

1 

Day Book 

1 

482 

OO 

Jan. 

2 

Bills Payable , No. 2 


180 

00 







June 

30 

Balance 


62 

00 





482 

OO 





482 

00 











June 

30 

Balance 


62 

00 











Folio 13 

Dr. Airs. Pearl Cook Cr. 


Jan. 

3 

Cash 

3 

300 

00 

Jan. 

1 

Day Book 

1 

600 

00 

Jan. 

2 

Bills Payable , No. 3 


120 

00 







June 

30 

Balance 


180 

00 





600 

OO 





600 

00 






_ 





June 

30 

Balance 


180 

OO 









Folio 11 


Dr. Ralph Wilson Cr. 


Jan. 

Jan. 

2 

2 

Cash 

Bills Receivable , No. 4 

3 

122 

80 

00 

00 

l 

Jan. 

1 

Day Book 

1 

248 

60 

June 

30 

Balance 


46 

60 





248 

60 





248 

60 











June 

30 

Balance 


46 

60 








. 



Folio 15 


Dr. M. Young Cr. 


Jan. 

5 

Bills Receivable , 

No. 2 and 3 


210 

24 

\jan. 

1 

Day book 

1 

397 

28 

June 

30 

Balance 


187 

04 





397 

28 





397 

28 


\ 







J une 

30 

Balance 


187 

04 








Folio 16 

Dr. 


'Jones Of Co. 


Cr. 

Jan. 

3 

Goods 


144 

80 

Jan. 

3 

Cash 

Bills receivable , No. 1 


72 

72 

40 

^9 





144 


June 







80 

J 


j 

144 

80 


LEDGER— SINGLE ENTRY 






































































































































PRACTICAL BOOKKEEPING 


79 


Folio 17 


A. Daniel Cr. 


Jan. 

3 

Merchandise 

1 

101 

60 

Jan. 

3 

Cash 

2 

40 

00 





101 

60 

June 

3 

Bills Receivable , No. 2 


61 

60 

June 

30 

Note Protested 

3 

61 

60 





101 

60 


Folio 18 

Dr. Bowers Cf Co. Cr. 


Jan. 

5 

Merchandise 

1 

148 

64 

Jan. 

5 

Bills Receivable, No. 3 


148 

64 





148 

64 





148 

64 


Folio 19 

Dr. JV. Henderson 


Jan. 

June 

5 

30 

To Merchandise 
Balance 

1 

164 

75 

60 

40 

Jan. 

5 

Day Book 





240 

00 

June 

30 

Balance 









Cr. 



1 

240 

00 



240 

00 



75 

40 


Folio 20 

Dr. Mackey Cf Co. Cr. 














Jan. 

3 

Merchandise 

1 

40 

00 

June 

1 

Bills Receivable , No. 4 


40 

OO 





40 

00 





40 

00 


Folio 21 

Dr. M. H. Smith Cr. 


May 

1 

Merchandise 

1 

36 

48 

June 

1 

Bills Receivable , No. 3 


36 

48 





36 

48 





36 

48 














Folio 22 

Dr. A. M. Jenks Cr. 


I 

Merchandise 

1 

160 

00 

June 

1 

Note , Bills Receivable , 







160 

00 



No. 6 


160 

00 










160 

00 













Folio 23 

Dr. E. Solly Cr. 


May 

1 

Merchandise 

1 

240 

00 

June 

/ 

Bills Receivable , No. 7 


240 

00 





240 

00 





240 

00 


LEDGER— SINGLE) ENTRY 




























































































































































PRACTICAL BOOKKEEPING 


80 


Folio 24 

Dr. F. M. Johnson Cr. 


May 

i 

Merchandise 

1 

148 

40 

June 

i 

Bills Receivable , No. 8 


148 

40 





148 

40 





148 

40 


Folio 25 

Dr. Gerhart & Co. Cr. 


June 

30 

Bills Payable , No. 5 


104 

40 

June 

20 

Goods as per Invoice 

1 

104 

40 





104 

40 





104 

40 


Folio 26 

Dr. Woolson, Williams Cf Co. Cr. 


June 

30 

Bills Payable , No. 6 


400 

OO 

June 

20 

By Goods 

1 

400 

OO 





400 

00 





400 

OO 


Folio 27 

Dr. George Page Cr. 


June 

30 

Bills Payable, No. 7 


348 

80 

June 

20 

By Goods , per Day 

1 











Book 


348 

80 





348 

80 





348 

80 


Folio 28 

Dr. D. Adams Cr. 


June 

30 

Bills Payable , No. S 


341 

60 

June 

20 

By Goods 


341 

60 





341 

60 





341 

60 


June jo, ig —Balance Sheet — 

£> r - _ Cr. 


FOLIO IN 

LEDGER 


BALANCE AS PER 

LEDGER 

FOLIO IN 

LEDGER 


BALANCE AS PER 

LEDGER 


Cash on Hand 

2,559 

08 

10 

E. J. White 

60 

40 


Notes Due 

624 

88 

12 

Harry Short 

62 

00 


Protested Note 

61 

60 

13 

Mrs. Pearl Cook 

180 

OO 


Stock Estimated at 



14 

Ralph Wilson 

46 

60 


by Inventory 

2,308 

16 

15 

M. Young 

187 

04 





19 

W. Henderson 

75 

40 






Notes Payable 

1,194 

80 







1,806 

24 






Balance 

3,747 

48 



5,553 

72 



5,553 

72 


June jo, Balance 

3,747 

48 
































































































































PRACTICAL BOOKKEEPING 


8 : 


—Bills Receivable — 


FOLIO 

NUMBER 

OK BILL 

ON WHOSE ACCOUNT 

DATE 

TIME 

DUE 

AMOUNT 

16 

1 

Jones & Co. 

Jan. 3 

3 mos. 

April 6 

72.40 

17 

2 

A. Daniel 

Jan. 5 

2 mos. 

March 8 

61.60 

IS 

3 

Bowers & Co. 

Jan. 5 

2 mos. 

March 8 

148.64 

282.64 

20 

4 

Mackey & Co. 

June i 

3 mos. 

Sept. 4 

40.00 

21 

5 

M. H. Smith 

June i 

3 mos. 

Sept. 4 

36.48 

22 

6 

A. M.Jenks 

June i 

3 mos. 

Sept. 4 

160.00 

23 

7 

E. Solly 

June i 

3 mos. 

Sept. 4 

240.00 

24 

8 

F. M. Johnson 

June i 

3 mos. 

Sept. 4 

148.40 

624.88 


—Bills Payable — 


FOLIO 

NUMBER 

OF BILL 

BY WHOM DRAWN 

DATE 

TIME 

DUE 

AMOUNT 

10 

1 

E.J. White 

Jan. 2 

2 mos. 

Mar. 3 

80.00 

12 

2 

Harry Short 

Jan. 2 

2 mos. 

Mar. 3 

180.00 

13 

3 

Mrs. Pearl Cook 

Jan. 2 

3 mos. 

April 3 

120.00 

14 

4 

Ralph Wilson 

Jan. 2 

1 mo. 

Feb. 3 

80.00 

460.00 

25 

5 

Gerhart & Co. 

June 30 

3 mos. 

Sept. 2 

104.40 

26 

6 

Woolsou, Williams & Co. 

June 3 0 

3 mos. 

Sept. 2 

400.00 

27 

7 

George Page 

June 30 

3 mos. 

Sept. 2 

348.80 

28 

8 

D. Adams 

June 30 

3 mos. 

Sept. 2 

341.60 

1,194.80 


BILL BOOK. The above are two pages of a separate book known as the BILL BOOK. In this, under Bills Receivable are. 
entered in regular order, the notes and paper which the owner receives in the course of business. 

Under Bills Payable are entered in regular order the record of the notes given to others or any paper issued. Each note is 
entered with its number, the dates when it was drawn, when due, with time it has to run and the amount of its face, together with 
name of parties signing which are known as the maker or makers of the notes. The folio at the left indicates where the account is 
found in the Ledger; each item in this book must appear in the Ledger. Bills Receivable appear on the Cr. side of Ledger and Bills 
Payable on Dr. side. The BILL BOOK is an important one to the business man and he should be careful in making his entries. He 
should refer to it daily to see what paper he has to pay and arrange therefor; also to see what paper becomes due and see that it is 
presented for payment at proper time and place. He must remember that if a note is made payable in a bank it must be there before 
the appointed time so that, if not paid by the maker, the endorser may be notified and held by a protest. If such notice be not given 
by proper officer the endorser can not be held. On the other hand, if you overlook time of payment for your own note (Bills Payable) 
and it goes to protest it causes annoyance and, if repeated, injuries your credit. 

6 C 























































































FoUo /y. 



LEDGER _DOUBLE ENTRY. This page should be studied and copied as it is a model for penmanship, arrangement 

and ruling. All horizontally and diagonally ruled lines are in red 









































































§4 


PRACTICAL BOOKKEEPING 


Dr. — Cash — 


DATE 

FOLIO 

IN 

LEDGER 




Jan. i 

1 1 

Capital, cash invested i?i the business 

4,000 

00 

Jan . .? 

12 

Cash for sundry sales this day 

29 

60 

Jan. 3 

21 

A. Daniel , payment on account 

40 

00 

Jan. ./ 

12 

Cash for sundry sales 

13 

20 




4,082 

80 

Jan. i 

X 

To Balance 

3,239 

16 

March i 

X 

To Balance 

3,159 

16 

April i 

X 

To Balance 

2,899 

16 


18 

Bills Receivable, No. / 

72 

40 




2,971 

56 

June 30 


Balance 

2,559 

08 


CASH BOOK— DOUBLE ENTRY. All moneys received are entered on this page and posted to the Cr. column of Ledger and 
folio entered in column at left. 








































PRACTICAL BOOKKEEPING 


85 


— Cash — Cr. 


DATE 

FOLIO 

IN 

LEDGER 


1 


Jan. 2 

13 

E.J. While 

160 

00 


14 

Harry Short 

240 

00 


15 

Mrs. Pearl Cook 

300 

OO 


16 

Ralph Wilson 

122 

00 


33 

Expenses 

21 

64 




843 

64 



Balance [written in red] 

3,239 

16 




4,082 

80 

Jan. 5 

IV 

By Bills Payable , No. 4 

80 

00 



Balance [written in red] 

3,159 

16 




3,239 

16 

March 3 

17 

Bills Payable , No. 1 

80 

00 


17 

No. 2 

180 

00 




260 

00 



Balance [written in red] 

2,899 

16 



* 

3,159 

16 

April 5 

17 

Bills Payable , No. 3 

120 

00 

April 7 

21 

Protested Note , A. Daniel 

61 

60 

April 8 

X 

Rent 

160 

00 

April 8 

X 

Tax 

40 

48 

April 8 

X 

Tax 

30 

40 




412 

48 



Balance [written in red] 

2,559 

08 




2,971 

56 


CASH BOOK _DOUBLE EN TRY. All moneys paid out are entered on this page and posted to the Dr. side of Ledger and 

olio entered in column at left. These pages should be written up on properly ruled paper like the script cash pages. 




























































86 


PRACTICAL BOOKKEEPING 


January /, igo-. 


L. F. 



Dr. 


Cr. 


12 

Merchandise 


1631 

OO 



13 


E.J. White 



300 

40 

14 


Harry Short 



48 2 

00 

15 


Mrs. Pearl Cook 



600 

OO 

16 


Ralph Wilson 



248 

60 



2 





13 

E.J. White 


80 

00 



14 

Harry Short 


180 

00 



15 

Mrs. Pearl Cook 


120 

00 



16 

Ralph Wilson 


80 

00 

• 


17 


Bills Payable 



460 

OO 


/ 

/ 





12 

Merchandise 


397 

28 



19 


M. Young 



397 

28 



? 





20 

Jones & Co. 


144 

80 



12 


Merchandise 



144 

80 


/ 

/ 





12 

Merchandise 


72 

40 



20 


Jones & Co. 



72 

40 


- / 

/_ 





18 

Bills Receivable 


72 

40 



20 


Jones & Co. 



72 

40 


_ / 

/ 





21 

A. Daniel 


lOl 

60 



12 


Merc hand ise. 



lOl 

60 


-.- j 

/ 





18 

Bills Receivable 


61 

60 



21 


A. Daniel 



61 

60 

22 

Bowers & Co. 

> -—--—_— -- 

148 

64 



12 


Merchandise 



143 

64 


/ 

f 





19 

M. Young 


210 

24 



18 


Bills Receivable 



210 

24 


// 





12 

Merchandise 


240 

OO 



23 


W. Henderson 



240 

OO 


THE JOURNAL— DOUBLE ENTRY 


























































PRACTICAL BOOKKEEPING 


*7 


January 5 , 190— 


L. F. 



Dr. 


Cr. 


18 

Bills Receivable 


148 

64 



22 


Bowers & Co. 



148 

64 


i 






23 

W. Henderson 


164 

60 



12 

7\/Tn 

Merchandise 



164 

60 


IVICi 

y 1 





24 

Mackey & Co. 


40 

00 



25 

M. H. Smith 


36 

48 



26 

A. M. Jenks 


160 

00 



27 

E. Solly 


240 

00 



28 

F. M. Johnson. 


148 

40 



12 


Merchandise 



624 

88 









Jut 

te 1 





18 

Bills Receivable 


624 

88 



24 


Mackey & Co. 



40 

OO 

25 


M. H. Smith 



36 

48 

26 


A. M. Jenks 



160 

00 

27 


E. Solly 



240 

00 

28 


F. M. Johnson 



148 

40 


-—-—— i” 

0 





12 

Merchandise 


1194 

80 



24 


Gerhart & Co. 



104 

40 

30 


Woolson, Williams & Co. 



400 

00 

31 


George Page 



348 

80 

32 


D. Adams 



341 

60 


3 

0 





24 

Gerhart & Co. 


104 

40 



30 

IVoolson, Williams & Co. 


400 

00 



31 

George Page 


348 

80 



32 

D. Adams 


341 

60 



17 


Bills Payable 



1194 

80 


> 

/ - - 





34 

Loss and Gain 


252 

52 



33 


Expenses Account 



252 

52 


THE JOURNAL— DOUBLE) ENTRY. Each item must be entered twice in the Ledger. Hence the name double entry. 
The Journal provides for this by a double column for dollars and cents, one representing the Dr. and the other Cr. entry in 
the Ledger The folio numbers of the Ledger are entered at the left. The first date is at top of the page and each succeeding 
date follows in its place in centre of page. Each entry in Journal is followed by a broken ruled line. The vertical ruled line 
serves to divide the Dr. from Cr. items. Where several items are charged to one account the sum total only is placed against 
said item as in first entry. Footings in lead pencil should be made of each dollars’ and cents’ column of Journal page to test 

accuracy, as these totals must agree. 















































PRACTICAL BOOKKEEPING 


L Q 

OO 


Folio 10 

Dr. Cash Cr. 


Jan. 

Jan. 

2 

2 

To Capital Account 
“ Hand 

1 

4000 

155 

00 

20 

June 

30 

By Disbursements 
“ Balance 


1596 

2559 

12 

08 

To Balance 

4155 

20 

4155 

20 

June 

30 


2559 

08 







Folio 11 

Dr. 


Capital Account 


Cr. 





Jan. 

1 


By Cash 


4000 


OO 


Folio 12 

Dr. Merchandise Cr. 


Jan. 

1 

To Sundries 

1 

1631 

00 

Jan. 

1 

By Cash 

1 

29 

60 

4 4 

2 

4 < a 

1 

397 

28 

4 4 

3 

“ Jones & Co. 

1 

144 

80 

4 4 

3 

< < a 

1 

72 

40 

4 4 

3 

“ A. Daniel 

1 

101 

60 

4 < 

5 

4 4 (4 

1 

240 

00 

4 4 

5 

‘ ‘ Bowers & Co. 

1 

148 

64 

June 

20 

< a 

2 

1194 

80 

4 4 

5 

‘ ‘ W. Henderson 

2 

164 

60 







June 

5 

“ Cash 

1 

13 

20 







May 

1 

“ Sundries 

2 

624 

88 







June 

30 

“ Balance 


2308 

16 





3535 

48 





3535 

48 

June 

30 

To Balance 


2308 

16 








Folio 13 

Dr. 


Jan. 

2 

To Bills Payable 

Jan. 

2 

‘ ‘ Cash 

June 


“ Balance 


E. J. White 


Cr. 


2 

2 

80 

160 

60 

00 

00 

40 

300 

40 





Jan. 

1 

By Merchandise 

1 

300 

40 











300 

40 

June 

30 

By Balance 


60 

40 


Folio 11 


Dr. Harry Short Cr. 


Jan. 

Jan. 

Ju?ie 

2 

2 

To Bills Payable 

To Cash 

To Balance 

1 

2 

180 

240 

62 

00 

00 

00 

Jan. 

1 

By Merchandise 

1 

482 

00 

482 

00 

By Balance 

482 

OO 





J une 

30 


62 

OO 


LEDGER—DOUBLE ENTRY 









































































































































PRACTICAL BOOKKEEPING 


89 


Folio 15 


Dr. Mrs. Pearl Cook Cr. 


Jan. 

Jan. 

June 

2 

2 

To Bills Payable 
“ Cash 
“ Balance 

1 

2 

120 

300 

180 

00 

00 

00 

Jan. 

/ 

By Merchandise 

1 

600 

OO 

600 

00 

By Balance 

600 

OO 




1 


June 

30 


180 

OO 

Folio 16 











Dr. 



Ralph Wilson 



Cr. 

Jan. 

2 

To Bills Payable 

1 

80 

00 

Jan. 

1 

By Merchandise 

1 

248 

60 

Jan. 

2 

f< Cash 

2 

122 

00 







June 


“ Balance 


46 

60 











248 

60 





248 

60 







June 

30 

By Balance 


46 

60 


Folio 17 


Dr. Bills Payable Cr. 


Jan. 

Mar. 

April 

a 

5 

3 

5 

5 

To Cash 

C i < < 

u „ 

ii ii 

‘ ‘ Balance 

2 

2 

2 

2 

80 

80 

180 

120 

1194 

00 

00 

00 

00 

80 

Jan. 

June 

2 

30 

By Sundries 
“ Su?idries 

1 

2 

460 

1194 

00 

80 

1654 

80 

By Balance 

1654 

80 







June 

30 


1194 

80 


Folio 18 

Dr. Bills Receivable Cr. 


Jan. 

3 

To Jones & Co. 

1 

72 

40 

Jan. 

1 

By M. Young 

1 

210 

24 

i i 

3 

‘ ‘ Cash 

2 

61 

60 

April 

1 

‘ ‘ Cash 

1 

72 

40 

i i 

5 

“ Bowers & Co. 

2 

148 

64 

June 

30 

*• Balance 


624 

88 

June 

1 

“ Sundries 

2 

624 

88 











907 

52 





907 

52 

June 

30 

To Balance 


624 

88 








Folio 19 

Dr. M. Young Cr. 


Jan. 

5 

To Bills Receivable 
“ Balance 

1 

210 

187 

24 

04 

Jan. 

1 

By Merchandise 

1 

397 

28 

June 

30 



397 

28 





397 

28 







June 

30 

By Bala7ice 


187 

04 


LEDGER— DOUBLE ENTRY 















































































































































9 ° 


PRACTICAL BOOKKEEPING 


Folio 20 


Dr. Jones & Co. Cr. 


Jan. 

3 

To Merchandise 

1 

144 

80 

Jan. 

3 

By Bills Receivable 
‘ ‘ Cash 

1 

1 

72 

72 

40 

40 





144 

80 

Jan. 

3 



144 

80 

— 













Folio 21 

Dr. A. Daniel Cr. 


Jan. 

3 

To Merchandise 

1 

101 

60 

Jan. 

3 

By Bills Receivable 

1 

61 

60 

April 

7 

‘ ‘ Protested Note 

2 

61 

60 

June 

3 

‘ ‘ Cash 

1 

40 

00 

June 

30 







“ Balance 

1 

6 1 

60 



163 

20 





163 

20 



To Balance 


61 

60 








Folio 22 

Dr. 


Jan 



To Merchandise 


Bowers Cf Co. Cr. 


1 

148 

64 

Jan. 

5 

By Bills Receivable 

2 

148 

64 


148 

64 





148 

64 


Folio 23 

Dr. IV. Henderson Cr. 


Jan. 

June 

5 

30 

To Merchandise 
“ Balance 

2 

164 

75 

60 

40 

Jan. 

5 

By Merchandise 

1 

240 

00 





240 

00 





240 

OO 







June 

30 

By Balance 

— 

75 

40 


Folio 24 


Dr. Mackey & Co. Cr. 


May 

I 

To Merchandise 

2 

40 

OO 

June 

1 

By Bills Receivable 

2 

40 

00 

:- 

— 



40 

00 


— 



40 

CO 


Folio 25 


Dr. M. H. Smith Cr. 


May 

1 

To Merchandise 

2 

36 

48 

1 

J line 

1 

By Bills Receivable 


36 

48 





36 

48 


TTZZ 



36 

48 


LEDGER— JDOUBUJ ENTRY 




































































































































































PRACTICAL BOOKKEEPING 


9i 

Folio 26 


Dr. A. M. yenks Cr. 


May 

1 

To Merchandise 

2 

160 

OO 

June 

1 

By Bills Receivable 

2 

160 

00 




— 

160 

00 


— 



160 

00 


Folio 27 

Dr. E. Solly Cr. 


May 

1 

To Merchandise 

2 

240 

00 

June 

1 

By Bills Receivable 

2 

240 

00 





240 

OO 





240 

00 














Folio 28 

Dr. F. M. Johnson Cr. 


May 

£ 

To Merchandise 

2 

148 

40 

June 

1 

By Bills Receivable 

2 

148 

40 





148 

40 





148 

40 














Folio 29 

Dr. 


Gerhart Cf Co. 


Cr. 


June 

30 

To Bills Payable 

2 

104 

40 

June 

20 

By Merchandise 

2 




— 

104 

40 







Folio 30 

Dr. Wool son, Williams Cf Co. • Cr. 


June 

30 

To Bills Payable 

2 

400 

(50 

June 

20 

By Merchandise 

2 

400 

00 

— 



-— 

400 

00 

_ 




400 

— 

00 


Folio 31 

Dr. George Page Cr. 


June 

30 

To Bills Payable 

2 

348 

80 

June 

20 

By Merchandise 

2 

' 

348 

80 

- . - - 




348 

80 

■z rrrr-.rzz: 



— 

343 

80 


Folio 32 

Dr. D. Adams Cr. 


June 

JO 

To Bills Payable 

2 

341 

60 

June 

20 

By Merchandise 

2 

341 

60 

— 



— 

34 1 

CO 

- -- 




341 

0 0 


LEDGER -DOUBLE .ENTRY 

























































































































































































PRACTICAL BOOKKEEPING 


92 

Folio 33 


Dr. General Expense Cr. 


Jan. 

6 

To Cash 


21 

64 

June 

30 

By Sundries 


252 

52 

April 

8 

n a 


160 

00 







“ 

8 

a a 


40 

48 







a 

8 

a << 


80 

40 











252 

52 





252 

52 











- 


Folio 34 

Dr. Loss and Gain Cr. 


June 

30 

To Sundries 


252 

52 



By Balance 


252 

52 



Balance 


252 

52 







LEDGER—DOUBLE; ENTRY 


June jo, 19 —Balance Sheet — 


Dr . Cr. 


FOLIO IN 

LEDGER 


BALANCE AS PER 

LEDGER 

FOLIO IN 

LEDGER 


1 BALANCE AS PER 

J LEDGER 

10 

Cash on Hand 

2,559 

08 

11 

Capital 

4,000 

OO 

12 

Merchandise 

2,308 

16 

13 

E.J. White 

60 

40 

18 

Bills Receivable 

624 

88 

14 

Harry Short 

62 

00 

21 

A. Daniel 

61 

60 

15 

Mrs. Pearl Cook 

180 

00 

34 

Loss and Gain 

252 

52 

16 

Ralph Wilson 

46 

60 





18 

Bills Payable 

1,194 

80 





19 

M. Young 

187 

04 





23 

W. Henderson 

75 

40 



5,806 

24 



5,806 

24 





• 





Explanation—Double=Entry Book¬ 
keeping. 

In the single-entry bookkeeping, it will 
be remembered, there is only one record, 
whereas in double-entry each item appears 
twice, once as debit and again as credit ; also 
in the former, cash, stocks, goods, etc., did 
not appear as individual accounts, whereas 
in double-entry each of these is made an indi¬ 
vidual account. As it takes two parties to 
make a transaction, so in the Ledger it re¬ 
quires two entries, one for each party, to 
be made ; for example, the Journal shows 
that Merchandise is debtor to four items, 
$ 1631 . 00 . Turning to the Ledger , folio 
12 , we will find $ 1631.00 entered on the 
debtor side of the Merchandise account, and 


in folios 13 - 14-15 and 16 , we shall find 
the four items entered under their respective 
accounts, which together exactly balance 
the $ 1631 . 00 ; or, if the transaction be a 
cash transaction, and cash is paid out, as in 
the Cash Book on the credit side the item 
“ E. J. White, $ 160 . 00 ,” this item appears 
on the debtor side of one account, folio 13 , 
and on the credit side of Cash account, folio 
10 , under the sum total of “ Disbursements.’ ’ 
These two examples suffice to show how in 
double-entry bookkeeping every item must 
appear twice in the Ledger , once on the 
debtor side and once on the credit side ; con¬ 
sequently, if every entry is made properly 
and accurately, the sum total of the entries 
on the debtor side of the Ledger must equal 
the sum total of the entries on the credit 








































































PRACTICAL BOOKKEEPING 


93 


side of the Ledger. The student should 
first carefully trace every item of the Journal 
and Cash Book to its proper place in the 
Ledger , afterwards write up a set of books 
for himself, copying, on properly ruled paper, 
the set as printed in this book, using the 
rulings indicated by the model script pages 
for each book, where the ruling has been 
accurately made. Afterwards, turning back, 
endeavor to write up the trial list of trans¬ 
actions into a set of double-entry accounts. 

Journal. —We have reproduced a model 
page of the Journal which differs from the 
single-entry only in slight particulars. It 
is more properly a Journal than a Day Book, 
as it is used to indicate by the entries which 
side of the Ledger each, item is to be posted, 
whereas the Day Book is a mere history of 
the daily transactions, without arranging the 
items with reference to their being posted 
to the Ledger. In journalizing the book¬ 
keeper should have clearly in his mind 
which is the debit and which is the credit 
item, beginning his entry always and uni¬ 
formly with the debit item ; for instance, 
“Merchandise, Debtor to 5 - J- White.” 
The word ‘ ‘ debtor ’ ’ is not expressed in the 
Journal , the debit item being to the left and 
the credit item to the right. Debit amount 
in the first column and credit amount in the 
second column. 

Cash Book. —The Cash Book in double¬ 
entry is in all particulars the same in form 
as that of single-entry. (Compare the script 
pages.) It is to be remembered that the 
item entered in Cash on the debtor side ap¬ 
pears on the credit side of the Ledger ac¬ 
count to that particular item, and the second 
entry will be accounted for in the Cash Ac¬ 
count of the Ledger. It is important in 
receiving cash to enter it at the time received 
in the Cash Book , on the debtor side, and 
under the name of the account to which it 
is to be posted in the Ledger; for instance, 
A. Daniel pays his account, $40.00. The 
cash entry is “A. Daniel, Payment on Ac¬ 
count $40.00. ” It is customary in business 
to classify the receipts under one or two 
general accounts, and open in the Ledger 
only such accounts as are desired to keep a 
record of; hence such entries as “ Cash for 
Sundry Sales ’ ’ indicate that these will be 
accounted for in the Ledger in the Cash 


Account. Where there are two or three sources 
from which moneys are received, which are 
necessary to be posted, the Cash contains a 
separate dollar and cents ruling at the right 
for each; hence some Cash Books have as 
many as four or five rulings for dollars and 
cents, and at the top of each ruling is indi¬ 
cated the name of the account, as Rents , 
Hardware, Groceries , etc. And on the credit 
side the money paid out may be for such ac¬ 
counts as Postage, Taxes, Freights. At the 
end of each month these columns should be 
added and the totals posted to their respec¬ 
tive accounts in the Ledger. This is a very 
convenient form, and easily understood. 

Red ink should be sparingly used in 
bookkeeping, and when used it should be 
uniformly done. It is customary in the 
Cash Book to rule all horizontal lines in red, 
and on the credit side the word “ Balance ” 
and the amount opposite to it are written in 
red, but brought down on the debit side in 
black. Note the ruling in the Cash Book , in 
the model pages. It will be seen that the 
single horizontal line extends only across 
one column, the double horizontal line 
across two columns. 

Ledger. —What has been said in the 
single-entry as to the arrangement of the 
accounts on the pages of the Ledger applies 
also to the double entry. The ruling also 
is, in the main, the same in both. It will be 
remembered that in the double-entry book¬ 
keeping we have such accounts as Cash, 
Capital Account, Merchandise, Bills Payable, 
and Bills Receivable, which did not appear 
in the single-entry. The Cash account, folio 
10, is debtor to the Capital account $4,000.00, 
and the Capital account is credited “ By 
Cash $4,000.00.” The Cash account is 
credited ‘ ‘ By Disbursements ’ ’ as indicated 
on the credit side of the Cash Book. It is 
debited again by the amount of cash on 
hand at the time of closing the books, giv¬ 
ing a balance of $2,559.08, which is entered 
on the credit side, which closes the account, 
and appears again on the debit side when 
the account is again opened. Merchandise , 
folio 12, is debited “To Sundries,” which 
means that there are several items, the total 
of which is $1631.00, or whatever the 
amount is written opposite the word, and it 
is credited “By” several individual accounts, 



94 


PRACTICAL BOOKKEEPING 


the folio number being entered in the column 
prepared for that purpose. Bach of these 
items should be accounted for in some one 
of the other accounts. 

In Bills Payable account on the debit 
side are posted the amounts of notes paid out 
and which are our obligations to pay. When 
paid each is entered on the debit side of Cash 
as Bills Payable and posted to credit side of 
Bills Payable account, thus balancing each 
note. The face amounts of the notes must 
always be posted in full on either side of the 
Bills Payable account, and any discount or 
interest will be charged or credited as the 
case may be to Interest and Discount Ac¬ 
counts. 

Closing Books. —In closing the books 
at any given period we rule off all per¬ 
sonal accounts and bring the balance down 
in red ink; if our debtor, the account will 
appear first on the credit side in red 
ink ‘ ‘ By Balance ’ ’ then transfer to the 
debit side “ To Balance" ; if our creditor, 
the reverse of the above operation. In 
closing loss and gain accounts and personal 
accounts uncollected (which become Boss 
and Gain accounts) we charge them to Boss 
and Gain account. But it should be under¬ 
stood that personal accounts are not in fact 
Boss and Gain accounts, as they could be 
charged to Merchandise account with the 
same result, as the profit from the sale of 
our goods would be lessened to the extent 
of our bad accounts, as “To Jones & Co. 
$72.40 ” is a note received from them, posted 
from the Journal; on the credit side ‘ ‘ April 
1, By Cash $72.40 “ is posted through Cash 
when the note was paid. Whenever notes 
are taken the parties giving them must be 
credited and the Bills Receivable debited. 
When notes are given the parties receiving 
them must be debited and the Bills Payable 
credited. When cash is paid out Cash must 
be credited and whatever is paid out must be 
debited. 

In Loss and Gain account the credit side 
shows when there is a gain in business, and 
the debit side shows when there is a loss in 
business. The Loss and Gain account is the 


account where all bad debts must be charged 
by transferring them from the individual 
accounts, through the Journal , into the Loss 
and Gain account. 

In order to see that our entries and post¬ 
ings have been right, the following method 
must be followed, which is called “ balanc¬ 
ing the books : ” 

Balancing Books.—Balance each indi¬ 
vidual account, strike a balance, which is 
done by entering the difference of the 
two sides of the account on the side 
requiring an addition to make it equal to 
the other side, draw two horizontal lines 
under the sum totals, which are placed 
on exactly the same line of the page, and 
bringing down on the opposite side “ Bal¬ 
ance ” with its amount. This will be seen 
in looking at any of the accounts in the 
Ledger. After this has been done, take all 
those balances which appear on the debit 
side of your Ledger and add them together. 
Do the same on the credit side, and if the 
two sums are equal to each other your books 
are correct; however, to give positive proof, 
after the totals of both sides have agreed, 
see that they agree and are equal with those 
of the Journal. This will give you a double 
sure proof that your books are correct. The 
items standing on the debit side of your trial 
balance sheet should be Cash in Hand , Ac¬ 
counts Receivable , Notes Receivable , Equip¬ 
ments and Stock Inventory , and 011 the credit 
side should appear your Liabilities , Notes 
Payable , Projit and Loss, if you have made 
a gain in your business; otherwise Projit 
and Loss will stand on the debit side. 

The balance sheet for the Single-entry 
will be found on previous page, which shows 
that there has been a loss of $252.52, which is 
the difference between the $4000.00 started 
with and the balance, $3747.45, with which 
we close business. This is a little over 6 per 
cent. loss. Had the balance been $4210.00 
there would have been a profit of $210.00. 
On the balance sheet for the Double-entry it 
will appear that there has been a loss of 
$252.52, as entered in the Loss and Gain 
account. 




PRACTICAL BOOKKEEPING 


95 


VOCABULARY OF BUSINESS TERMS 


Acceptance. — Agreeing to the terms 
proposed; the acceptor’s name written on 
the face of a bill of exchange or draft, usu¬ 
ally with the word “Accepted.” 

Accommodation Paper.—Notes or ac¬ 
ceptances drawn for the purpose of being 
discounted, and not founded on an actual 
sale of goods. 

Account Current.—A running account. 
A detailed statement of the transactions 
between two persons or firms. 

Account Sales.—An itemized statement 
of sales and expenses, sent by a commission 
merchant to his principal. 

Actuary.—A registrar ; a clerk ; a person 
skilled in the application of the doctrine of 
chances to financial affairs, more especially 
to insuring of lives. 

Adjust.—To put in order; to bring to 
a satisfactory state, so that parties can agree. 

Administrator.—One that is appointed 
by the court to settle an estate. 

Affidavit.-—A written declaration under 
oath. 

Agent.—A party acting on behalf cf 
another, called his principal; one commis¬ 
sioned to do business for another ; a factor. 

Annuity.—A periodical payment of 
money, amounting to a fixed yearly sum. 

Arbitration.—The adjustment of a dis¬ 
puted point by a person or persons chosen 
by the parties in dispute. 

Assessment.—A call upon the holders 
of stock or policies to pay into the treasury 
a certain sum in order to pay off debts or 
effect a re-organization. 

Assets.—Funds, property, or effects ; 
the stock in trade, cash, and all the available 
property of a merchant, in contradistinction 
to his liabilities or obligations. 

Assignee.—A person to whom the prop¬ 
erty of a bankrupt or an insolvent debtor is 
transferred for the benefit of creditors. 

Assignment.—The act of transferring 
property to the assignee, 

Attachment.—A legal writ for the pur¬ 
pose of seizing a man’s property. 

Auditor.—An officer appointed to ex¬ 
amine and verify claims upon the treasury 
of a company or society and to investigate 
the treasurer’s accounts. 


Balance of Trade. —The difference be¬ 
tween the value of our commercial imports 
and exports. 

Bankrupt. —One unable to pay his debts, 
and takes advantage of the bankrupt law. 

Bear. —A person whose interest it is to 
secure lower prices. 

Bill of Exchange. —An order for the 
payment of money, usually drawn on a 
person living in a foreign country, di'aft be¬ 
ing used to designate bills that are payable in 
the same country in which they are drawn. 

Bill of Lading. —A written account of 
goods shipped, and the conditions of ship¬ 
ment, having the signature of the carrier’s 
agent, and given the shipper as a receipt. 

Bill of Sale. —A writing given by the 
seller to the buyer, transferring the owner¬ 
ship of personal property. 

Bond. —An instrument under seal, by 
which the maker binds himself, and usually 
his heirs, executors, and administrators, to 
do or not to do a specified act. A certifi¬ 
cate of ownership of a specified portion of 
a capital debt due by a government, a city, 
a railroad, or other corporation, to indi¬ 
vidual holders, and usually bearing a fixed 
rate of interest. 

Bonded Goods. —Those which are stored 
in a bonded warehouse, or in bonded cars, 
the owner having given bonds securing the 
payment of import duties or of internal 
revenues, upon their removal or their arrival 
in some inland city of entry, and before a 
specified time. 

Bonus. —A premium given on a loan, 
or for any favor shown. 

Broker. —An agent who effects sales or 
purchases, or who makes loans and con¬ 
tracts for another. 

Bucket Shop. —A place where bets are 
made on quotations of prices established on 
legitimate exchanges and boards of trade. 
Pretended trading. Illegal in most States. 
Recently taxed by Revenue Law. 

Bull. —A person whose interest it is to 
secure higher prices. 

Bulling. —Raising the price of stocks,etc. 

Call Loans. —Money loaned subject to 
the call or demand of lender. It must be 



9 6 


PRACTICAL BOOKKEEPING 


returned the day it is called for before the 
close of banking hours. 

Capital. —The investment in business. 

Cash Sales. —The sales made for ready 
money, in contradistinction to sales on 
which credit is given. 

Certificate. —A written voucher attest¬ 
ing to some fact; as a certificate of deposit, 
a certificate of stock. 

Certified Check. —One which has been 
certified or accepted by the bank on which 
it is drawn, making the bank responsible 
for its payment. 

Charter. — A paper from government, 
defining the rights and privileges of cor¬ 
porations. 

Chattel Mortgage. —A mortgage of per¬ 
sonal property. 

Clearing House. —A kind of banking 
exchange, established in some of the large 
cities for the convenience of daily settle¬ 
ments ; the drafts and checks on each other 
are mutually exchanged without the indi¬ 
vidual presentation of each at the banks, 
and a balance struck, which balance only 
is paid in cash. 

Collaterals. —Pledges of stocks, notes, 
chattels, for security of loans and other 
indebtedness. 

Commercial Paper. —Bills of exchange, 
drafts, and notes given in course of trade. 

Commission, —A percentage given for 
the sale or purchase of goods, or the trans¬ 
action of other business. 

Com pany .—A corporation. A term also 
used in a firm name to designate other part¬ 
ners, whose names are not given. 

Consignee, —One to whom goods aresent. 

Copartnership. — A joining of two or 
more persons into one firm for the purpose 
of carrying on any enterprise. It has the 
same meaning as a partnership. 

Corner. —An artificial scarcity created 
by holding property off the market for the 
extortion of abnormally high prices. 

Coupon. —An interest note or a certifi¬ 
cate attached to a transferable bond, cut off 
from the bond and collected when due. 

Creditor. —One giving credit; one whom 
we owe. 

Customhouse.— A government place 
where imported goods are entered and duties 
collected. 


Days of Grace.—Negotiable promissory 
notes or bills of exchange, payable at a cer¬ 
tain time, are in most places entitled to 
three days’ delay beyond the time expressed, 
which are called days of grace. 

Debenture.—A writing acknowledging 
a debt; a writing signed by a public officer 
or corporation as evidence ot debt. 

Debenture Bonds. — Concentration of 
floating capitalization into convenient 
bonded form. Originally, notes in the 
form of bonds. 

Deed.—A written contract under seal, 
usually transferring the ownership of real 
estate. 

Defalcation. — Deduction or discount. 
Embezzlement of money by an officer hav¬ 
ing it in charge. 

Default.—The failure to pay fixed 
charges or interest coupons. This is a 
serious thing for a corporation, and usually 
causes a heavy shrinkage in value. 

Discount.—An amount deducted from 
the regular price or list. 

Discount Rate,—The rate per cent, of in¬ 
terest charged by banks for the use of 
money loaned. It is always deducted from 
the principal when the loan is made. 

Dishonor.—A failure to pay an obliga¬ 
tion when due; a failure to accept a draft 
when presented for acceptance. 

Dividend.—The proportion of the profits 
alloted to each stockholder in a company. 

Executor. — One appointed to execute 
the will of another. 

Exporting Countries.—Those produc¬ 
ing a surplus of grain which finds a mar¬ 
ket in other countries where there is a 
deficiency. The principal ones are the United 
States, Russia, Argentina, Hungarv, India, 
Roumania, and Australia. 

Extension. —An allowance of further 
time for the payment of a debt. 

Falling Market.—A continuous decline 
in prices. 

Favor. — A note, draft, or check is 
drawn in favor of the party to whom it is 
made payable; a letter. 

Fee Simple.—The absolute ownership 
of real estate. 

F. 0. B.—Free on board or free of all ship¬ 
ping expenses. 



PRACTICAL BOOKKEEPING 


97 


Good Will.— The reputation and patron¬ 
age belonging to an established business. 
The good will of a business is frequently 
the subject of purchase and sale. 

Honor.—To accept or pay draft when due. 

Hypothecating.—Putting up collaterals 
for loans. 

Importing Countries. — The United 
Kingdom, Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, 
Holland, Spain, Brazil, the West Indies, 
China, and Japan, because they produce less 
grain than is required for home consumption. 

Insolvency.—Inability to pay debts or 
meet commercial obligations. 

Insolvent.—Unable to pay one’s debts ; 
one who is insolvent. 

Inventory.—A schedule or list of the 
goods, wares and merchandise generally, 
credits and assets of a merchant. 

Invoice.—An itemized bill of merchan¬ 
dise bought, sold or shipped. 

Jobber.—A wholesale merchant who 
buys goods from the importers and manu¬ 
facturers, and sells to retailers. 

Judgment.—The decree of a court en¬ 
forcing a contract or redressing a wrong. 

Liabilities.—The pecuniary obligations 
of a merchant, which include bills payable 
and all other debts. 

Margin.—Money or collaterals deposited 
with a broker to protect contracts. 

Mortgage.—The written pledge of real 
estate or chattels to secure payment. 

Negotiable. —A term applying to com¬ 
mercial paper, that may be transferred by 
indorsement or simply by delivery. 

Net Proceeds.—The proceeds of a sale 
after all expenses are deducted. 

On Call.—Money loaned ‘ ‘ on call ’ ’ must 
be returned the day it is called for, before the 
close of banking hours, and without pre¬ 
vious notice. 

Open Account.—An unsettled account. 

Option. —Property bought or sold at the 
call or demand of the buyer or seller, as 
may be specified ; a conditional contract. 

Outlawed.—Term applied to a debt or 
note which has run beyond the time when 
payment can be enforced by law. 

Outstanding.—Unsettled ; unpaid. 

Overdrawn. —To draw a greater sum 
than one has to his credit. 

7 c 


Par Value—Nominal value; usually 
the printed or written value of any paper. 

Power of Attorney.—A written instru¬ 
ment giving an agent authority to act for 
his principal. An agent thus empowered is 
called an Attorney in Fact. 

Protest.—A formal declaration made by 
a notary public of the non-payment, non- 
acceptance of a note or a draft. 

Receiver.—A person appointed to take 
charge of the affairs of a corporation on its 
dissolution, and to distribute its property 
according to law. 

Resources.—Money, property, or that 
which can be converted into property. 

Renewal of a Note.—Extending the time 
of its payment by giving a new Note in ex¬ 
change for it. 

Sinking Fund.—A sum of money set 
apart for the redemption of the debts of a 
corporation or government. 

Solvent.—Able to pay one’s liabilities. 

Spot Cash.—A term applied to a sale of 
goods to be paid for on delivery, i. e. , C. O. D. 

Stock.—Certificates issued by a corpora¬ 
tion certifying that the person in whose 
name they are written and stand registered 
on the corporation books is entitled to share 
in the company’s profits, to vote, etc. 

Syndicate.—A number of capitalists who 
unite together to dispose of a large loan, or 
to conduct some great financial enterprise. 

Trade Discount.—A discount from cer¬ 
tain list-prices, or from the amount of pur¬ 
chases, made to a dealer on account of a 
change in the prices, or for cash payments. 

Trust.—A combination of manufactur¬ 
ers or dealers for the purpose of limiting 
production and advancing prices for their 
own benefit. 

Valid.—A term applied to a contract that 
is properly executed; that is, legal or binding. 

Void.—Having no legal or binding force. 

Watered Stock.—An increase in capi¬ 
talization without a corresponding increase 
in assets. 

Without Recourse—Not liable as an 
indorser if written over an indorser’s signa¬ 
ture on the back of commercial paper. 

Warranty.—An agreement to become 
responsible, if certain facts do not turn out 
to be as represented. 



Rapid Calculations 

SHORT CUTS TO RESULTS—TIME-SAVING PROCESSES— 
INTEREST TABLES AND WAGES CALCULATIONS— 

HOW TO HANDLE FRACTIONS 


QUICKNESS IN FIGURES 


Book-keepers, bank clerks and others 
who have constant calculations to make 
need to be both expert and rapid. There 
are many short cuts practiced which every 
person should know, and a few of the most 
important are here explained. 

Adding Quickly. 

The art of adding quickly is acquired by 
learning to read a column of figures as you 
would a sentence of words, and those words 
composed of letters. 

By Practice we may become so familiar 
with figures that when we see a group of 
them, we can tell at a glance what the sum 
of them reads, without spelling the figures 
at all. In practicing the reading of a col¬ 
umn of figures in this way, we do not let 
the brain work at all, but simply pass the 
eye over the figures slowly at first, but in¬ 
crease the speed as proficiency is acquired. 

A few minutes’ daily practice will pro¬ 
duce astonishing results in a very short 
time; beginning with two figures, then 
three, four, and so on until finally we be¬ 
come able to write the Sum total of long 
columns. For example, when we see the 
figures 9, 8, 6, 4, we know at a glance that 
the sum is 27 without reading the figures 
themselves or spelling them out. 

Reading a column of figures is done by 
dividing a large group of figures into smaller 
ones and from group to group through the 

93 


column, just as from word to word we read 
through a sentence. 

The most important qualities of an ac¬ 
countant are accuracy and speed. The 
most speedy calculators are usually the 
most correct. 

No labor should be regarded too great 
to master this, the key to all numerical as 
well as business transactions. 

2. To multiply by numbers ending or 
beginning with 1; as 21, or 31, or 13, or 17, 
or 51, or 501, or 103, or any number of two 
figures where one of them is 1, or of three 
figures where two of them are o and 1, a 
good deal of time can be saved by abbrevi¬ 
ating the ordinary process, as below : 

Rule I- When the 1 sta?ids at the right, 
multiply by the figure at its left, and place 
the product under the place of tens under 
the number to be multiplied. Add the two 
together, and their sum is the product. 

If the multiplier is 201, or 301, or 401, or 
any number of hundreds, place the product 
two places to the left. If the multiplier is 
2001, or any number of thousands, place the 
product three places to the left. In other 
words, the product of hundreds under hun¬ 
dreds’ place ; of thousands under thousands’ 
place, etc. 

Rule II. When the 1 stands at the leftoj 
the multiplier , multiply by the number at 
the right, and place the product under the 
multiplicand one place to the right of the 




RAPID CALCULATIONS 


99 


units’ place. The second figure of the 
product under units’ place of the multipli¬ 
cand. 

Examples . 231423 x 21 = 4859883 . 

231423 = 231423 X 1 
4628460 = 231423 X 20 


4 8 59883 =product. 

20213 X 13 20213 X 201 

60639 40426 


262769=product. 40628 i3=product. 

Examples for Practice. 2134X11; 
6215X11; 2143X11; 3212X11; 4215X11 ; 
2153X21; 1024X3 1 ; 8461X41; 2222X14; 
3120X19; 2132X201; 2146X102; 9842X 
301; 8002X402; 4621X105. 

3 . Short Cuts in General multiplication. 
Example i. Multiply 96 by 97 . 

96 . . .4 (Complement.) 

97 . . .3 (Complement.) 


9312 

The complement of a number is the difference be¬ 
tween the number and the unit of the next higher 
order, thus the complement of 96 is 4 (100-96) ; of 97 
is 3 ; of 987 is 13, etc. To multiply these two 
numbers, multiply the complements 4 and 3, and 
place the product, 12, in the answer. For the 
remaining two figures subtract across, either the 4 
from the 97, leaving 93, or the 3 from the 96, leav¬ 
ing 93. Apply this rule to the first and second 
lines of exercises below. 

Example 2 . Multiply 37 by 43 . 

The mean number—that is, the number which 
is as much greater than 37 as it is less than 43—is 
40. Forty squared, or multiplied by itself, gives 
1600. The square of 3, the difference between the 
mean number and one of the numbers is 9. 1600— 

9=i59i=the product of 37 and 43. Apply this rule 
to the exercises below. 

Example 3 . Multiply 76 by 46 . 

46 6 X 6 = 36 , carry 3 . 

76 6X ( 7 + 4 )= 6 Xh= 66 , and 3 

■- carry 69 . 

3496 4 X 7 = 28 , and 6 to carry, 34 . 

Multiply units by units for the first figure of the 
product, the sum of the tens by units for the second 
figure, and tens by tens for the third figure, carrying 
when necessary. A similar rule applies to numbers 
having the left-hand figures the same. Work the 
following exercises. 

Exercises. 97X98; 95X94; 97X96; 
95 X 93 ; 93 X 97 ; 97 X 94 ; 99X89; 994X 
995 ;• 993X994; 989X998 ; 992X995 ; 9 88 
X 997 ; 97^X999; 954X99 3 ; 8 7X73; 63 
L. of C. 


X57; 42X38; 45X35; 116X124; 1012X 
988; 1025x975; 56X56; 72X32; 87X37; 
61X63; 114X114; 137X177; 125X112. 

4 . Short Cuts in Hultiplication and 
Division by Special Numbers. 

To multiply any number by 25, add two 
ciphers, and divide the number by 4. 

To multiply any number by 125, add 
three ciphers, and divide the number by 8. 

To multiply a number by any number of 
nines , add as many ciphers to the number as 
there are nines , and from this subtract the 
original number. 

5. Short Multiplication and Division 
in Fractional Numbers. 

To multiply any number by 2 ) 4 , add 
one cipher, and divide by 4. 

To multiply any number by 3 ) 4 , add one 
cipher, and divide by 3. 

To multiply by 33 ) 4 , add two ciphers 
and divide by 3. 

To multiply any number by if, add one 
cipher, and divide by 7. 

To multiply by i 6 ) 4 , add two ciphers, 
and divide by 6. 

To multiply by 14!, add two ciphers, 
and divide by 7. 

To multiply by 875, add three ciphers, 
multiply by 7 and divide by 8. 

To divide by 25, multiply by 4, and cut 
off two figures. 

To divide by 125, multiply by 8, and cut 
off three figures. 

To multiply by 12 ) 4 , add two ciphers, 
and divide by 8. 

To divide by 12 ) 4 , multiply by 8, and 
cut off two figures at the right. 

To divide by 3 3)4 multiply by 3, and 
cut off two figures at the right. 

Practical Applications. —To find the 
value of any number of articles at 75 
cents each, say 248 yards of cloth at 
75 cents a yard, deduct one-quarter of 248 
from it, and call the remainder dollars. At 
a dollar a yard the result will be $248 ; then 
at 75 cents it must be $248—(X of 248)= 
$186. 

Find the cost of 84 yards of cloth at 12 A cents 
a yard. 

What will 328 bags of potatoes cost at 75 cents 
a bag ? 

Find the cost of 20 gross of pen-handles at 25 
cents each. 










TOO 


RAPID CALCULATIONS 


What will 216 pounds 01 raisins cost at 16% 
cents a pound ? 

A railway charges a cent a mile, for the first 50 
miles, for carrying a cord of wood, and then 3 cents 
for every 4 miles beyond the 50 ; what will it cost 
to carry 250 cords 90 miles ? 

If a clerk receives $640 a year, and his expenses 
are $325 a year, how many years will it take him 
to pay for a 56-acre farm at $45 an acre ? 

A fruit dealer bought 5 bushels of cherries at 
$2.50 a bushel, and sold them at 15 cents a quart; 
did he gain or lose, and how much ? 

6 . Other Short Fractional Multiplication. 

To multiply any number containing )£, 
such, as 7 )+ 19 ) 4 , 1 2)4, etc., by itself, mul¬ 
tiply the whole number by the next higher 
whole number, and annex )4 to the 
product. Thus, 7)4 X 7 % =7 X8+)^ =■ 
56 % ; and 19)4 X 19 /^= 19 X 20 +)4=3 8 °/^- 

Apply this rule to the first column of exer¬ 
cises below. 

To multiply two fractional numbers, 
such as 7)4 and 7 )+ multiply 7 by 8, and 
add to the product the product of )4 and % > 
or T 3 6 , and you have the correct product. 
Apply this rule to the second column of 
exercises below. 

To multiply two fractional numbers, each 
containing ) 4 , such as 5)4 by 7 ) 4 , add the 
product of the whole numbers, plus % to )4 
of the sum of the whole numbers. Thus, 
5X7=35; 35+/4 (5+7)=35+6=4i, and 
to this add ) 4 , making 41 )+, the product. 
Apply this rule to the third column of exer¬ 
cises below. 

To multiply two fractional numbers each 
containing ^4 > such as 11 Y\ by 13 )4 I to the 
product of the whole numbers add the prod¬ 
uct of their sum by %, after which add 
the product of by %. This rule applies 
in all cases where both fractions are the 
same. Apply it in working the fourth 
column of exercises below. 

Examples for Practice. 

6)4X 6)4 5^X5^ 2)4X5^ 2)<X4)4 
4^X 4 ^ 8^X8^ 4 ^X 6 ^ 3 ^X 3 ^ 
5/^X 5 'A 9^X9^ 2^X8J4 8^X2J4 
8 ^X 8 'A X 6 i 9 ^X 8 ^ 8| X4! 

12^X1214 2§ X2f 2 } 4 X 7 l A 9 ^X 4 ^ 
19 ^X 19 ^ 9^X9l 1 ^X 9 ^ SY3X2/3 

7. To Multiply Numbers Ending in 5. 

To multiply two small numbers each of 
which ends in 5, such as 35 and 75, take the 
product of the 3 and 7 , increase this by one- 


half of the sum of these figures, and prefix 
the result to 25. Thus, 

35 5X5 = 25 

75 7 X 3 — 21, 2i+)4 (7+3)=26 

2625 

This rule will be found to hold good with 
any two numbers each of which end with 5. 
Apply it to the examples below : 

Examples for Practice. 45X85 ; 
95X25; 35X65; 75 X 95 ; 85X55- 

8. To Multiply Special Large Numbers. 

In the multiplication of large numbers, 
where one part of the multiplier is a multiple 
of the remainder, the work can always be 
considerably abbreviated. See the exam¬ 
ples below : 

2043 

427 = 420 +7= (7X6o)+7 


14301 = 2043X7 

858060 = 2043X420 = 14301X60 


872361 = product. 

3142 

972 = 900+72 = 900+(9X8) 


2827800 = 3142X900 
226224 = 3142X72 = 28278X8 


3054024 == product. 

We first multiply by 7, then by 420, thus taking 
the number 2043, 427 times. The contraction is 
made in multiplying by 420. We take its factors, 
7 and 60 ; we have already multiplied by 7, so that 
all that remains to be done is to multiply 14301 by 
60 and place it under. The sum of the two partial 
products gives the whole product. As a test exer¬ 
cise, multiply some number by 14412 so as to have 
only two lines instead of five to add. See exer¬ 
cises in second and third columns below : 

Remember, that any number is divisible by 3 if 
the sum of its digits is divisible by 3; that any 
number is divisible by 5 if its right-hand figure is 5 
or o ; that any number is divisible by 9 if the sum 
of its digits is divisible by 9. 

Exercises. — 2013X927; 1214X279; 

3135X728; 2146x287; 3210X189; 21401 

X729; 31252X14412 ; 42001X70357 ,*15421 
X81273 ; 30012X94572. 

Lightning Table for Marking Goods 
Bought by the Dozen. 

Retailers buy most of their articles by the 
dozen, such as boots, shoes, hats, caps, and notions 







GREATER NEW YORK 

On January i , 1898, Greater New York was created by the union of New York, Brooklyn, Long Island City, and Staten Island, into one municipality. The city now covers 

nearly 318 square miles, contains over three and one-half millions inhabitants, and, next to London, is the largest city in the the world. 


y 
























































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RAPID CALCULATIONS 


101 


of various kinds. A vast amount of time is em¬ 
ployed in marking goods by the old process, and 
errors are frequent, owing to the unnecessary 
figures used. If the purchaser will commit to mem¬ 
ory the following table, he can instantly find the 
retail price of a single article with any desired busi¬ 
ness per cent*.added. The following per cents, are 
those generally used in business: 



Divide the cost 


To make 

per doz. by 


20 percent. IO 


33 yi 

“ 9 


50 

“ 8 


100 

“ 6 


40 

10, and add 

1-6 itself. 

35 

“ 10 

1-8 “ 

37^ 

“ 10 

1-7 “ 

30 

“ 10 “ 

1-12 “ 

25 

“ 10 “ 

1-24 “ 

I2>^ 

“ 10 and subtract 

1-16 “ 

l6^ 

“ 10 

1-36 “ 

00 

w 

it IQ n 

1-96 " 


S. T. Jones purchased one dozen hats for $27.00, 
and marked them to sell at a profit of 33 X P er 
cent. What was the retail price of a single hat ? 

Explanation .—According to table, 9 ) $27.00 

simply divide the cost per dozen by 9. - 

Ans. $3.00 

For how much must I sell books bought at 
$28.00 per dozen, to gain 25 per cent ? 

Explanation .—Removing the point 24) 2.800 
one place to the left, on $28.00 we get .11 

$2,800. Now add 1-24 itself and we - 

have $2.91 =ans. $2,914- 

The above table should be committed to mem¬ 
ory. 

Board Bills, Day or Week. 

The following tables will also answer 
for calculating the amount of wages by the 
week or month of hired girls, servants, etc., 
who are compelled to labor on the Sabbath ; 
being calculated for seven days in the week 
instead of six. 

Multiply these tables by 4, and you have 


wages by the month : 

At I2.00 a wk. At $2.25 a wk. 

At $2.50 a wk. 

At $3.00 a wk. 

Dy 

s. $ Cts. 

Dys. 

$ Cts. 

Dys. 

$ Cts. 

Dys. 

$ Cts. 

I 

28X 

I 

32 

I 

35 X 

I 

43 y 

2 

57 

2 

64X 

2 

7 *X 

2 

85X 

3 

85X 

3 

96X 

3 

1 01X 

3 

1 28X 

4 

1 14 % 

4 

I 28X 

4 

1 43 , 

4 

1 7 *X 

5 

1 42 

5 

I 60X 

5 

1 7834 

5 

2 14X 

6 

1 71 A 

6 

I 92 ^ 

6 

2 h'A 

6 

2 57 

7 

2 OO 

7 

2 25 

7 

2 50 

7 

3 00 


Note— 

-To find the daily rate at $4 per week, 


double the $2 rate ; at $4.50, double the $2.25 rate, 
etc., etc. This table thus suffices for all the usual 
rates of board from $2 to $15 per week. 


Wages per Hour Under a Daily Contract. 


At 50 cts. a 

At 75 *ts. a 

At $1.25 a 

At $1.75 a 

day. 


day. 


day. 

day. 


Showing the 

Showing the 

Showing the 

Showing the 

rate of 

wages 

rate of 

wages 

rate of wages 

rate of wages 

per hour, for 12 

per hour, for 12 

per hour, for 12 

per hour,for 12 

hours a day. 

hours a 

. day. 

hours a day. 

hours a day. 

Hrs. $ 

Cts. 

Hrs. $ 

Cts. 

Hrs. $ Cts. 

Hrs. 

$ Cts. 

I 

4X 

I 

6X 

I IO>£ 

I 

I4X 

2 

8A 

2 

12^ 

2 21 

2 

29 

3 

I 2 J 4 

3 

18# 

3 31 A 

3 

43X 

4 

16A 

4 

25 

4 41 A 

4 

58 A 

5 

21 

5 

3*X 

5 52X 

5 

72 A 

6 

25 

6 

37 A 

6 62 X 

6 

87 A 

7 

29X 

7 

43X 

7 73 

7 

1 02 

8 

33 A 

8 

50 

8 83X 

8 

1 16X 

9 

37 A 

9 

56 A 

9 93X 

9 

1 31 A 

10 

41 A 

10 

62 X 

10 1 04X 

10 

1 45X 

11 

46 

11 

68 X 

11 114X 

11 

1 6oX 

12 

50 

12 

75 

12 125 

12 

1 75 


Note.—T o find hourly rate at $1 per day, double 
the 50c. rate; at $1.50 per day, double the 75c. 
rate; at $2 per day, multiply 50c. rate by 4; at 
$2.50 per day, double the $1.25 rate ; at $3 per day, 
multiply 75c. rate by 4 ; at $3.50 per day, double 
the $1.75 rate, etc. 

Daily Rate of Wages Under a Weekly 
Contract. 


At 62% cts per 

At $1.00 per 

At $1.25 per 

At $1.50 per 

day, or $3.75 

day, or $6,00 

day, or $7.50 

day, or $9.00 

per week. 

per week. 

per week. 

per week. 

Dys. $ 

Cts. 

Dys. $ Cts. 

Dys. $ Cts. 

Dys. $ Cts. 

A 

15 # 

A 25 

X 31X 

A 37 A 

A 

3 lA 

A 50 

X 62X 

X 75 

A 

47 

A 75 

X 93 X 

A 1 12X 

1 

62^ 

1 1 00 

I I 25 

1 1 50 

1 A 

78 , 

1 A 1 25 

i A 1 56X 

1 A 1 87X 

*A 

93 X 

1 A 1 50 

1 A 1 87X 

iX 2 25 

1 A 1 

09 A 

iA 1 75 

iA 2 18X 

1 A 2 62X 

2 1 

25 

2 2 00 

2 2 50 

2 3 00 

2X 1 

40 A 

2 A 2 25 

2% 2 81X 

2X 3 37 X 

2 l A 1 

56 A 

2 A 2 50 

2A. 3 12 y 2 

2X 3 75 

2 A 1 

7 2 

2 A 2 75 

2 A 3 43 A 

2X 4 12X 

3 I 

87 A 

3 30° 

3 3 75 

3 4 50 

3 A 2 

03 A 

3 A 3 25 

3X 4 06% 

3 X 4 87X 

3A 2 

18# 

3 A 3 50 

3 A. 4 37 A 

3 X 5 25 

3A 2 

34 X 

3 A 3 75 

3 A 4 68X 

3 X 5 62X 

4 2 

50 

4 4 00 

4 5 00 

4 6 00 

4 A 2 

65X 

4 A 4 25 

4 X 5 3 iX 

4 X 6 37X 

4A2 2 

81 A 

4 A 4 50 

4A2 5 62X 

4X 6 75 

4 A 2 

97 

4 A 4 75 

4 X 5 93 X 

4 X 7 12X 

5 3 

12# 

5 5 00 

5 6 25 

5 7 50 

5 A 3 

28X 

5 A 5 25 

5 A 6 56X 

5 X 7 87X 

5 A 3 

43A 

5 A 5 5o 

5 A 6 87 A 

5X 8 25 

5 A 3 

59 A 

5 A 5 75 

5 A 7 18 A 

5X 8 62X 

6 3 

75 

6 6 00 

6 7 50 

6 9 00 


Rapid Method for Counting Interest. 

The method of reckoning interest gene¬ 
rally used by the best accountants and book¬ 
keepers is what is known as the sixty-day 
method. By this method 360 days are rec¬ 
oned as a year and 30 days as a month. Six 







102 


RAPID CALCULATIONS 


per cent, for 12 months, or 1 year, is equiv¬ 
alent to 1 per cent, for 2 months, or 60 days, 
and 1 per cent, of any number is easily 
found by moving the decimal point two 
places to the left. Therefore, the interest 
on any amount at 6 per cent, per annum 
for 2 months, or 60 days, may be found 
by moving the decimal point two places 
to the left. Having found the interest for 
60 days, in order to find it from that amount 
for any number of days, simply divide them 
into aliquot parts of 60. 

Example i : Interest on $128 for 90 
days. 

1.28 = interest for 60 days. 

.64= interest for 30 days. 


1.92 = interest for 90 days. 60+30. 
Example 2 : Interest on $185.40 for 47 
days. 

1.8540 = interest for 60 days. 


.9270 = interest for 30 days, ^ of 60. 
.4635 = interest for 15 days, + of 30. 
.0618 = interest for 2 days, + of 30. 


1.4523 = interest for 47 days. 30+15 + 2. 

Interest Table. 

The interest on any sum of money may 
readily be found by means of the following 
table showing the interest on Ji at various 
rates and times : 


Yr. 

5$ 

6 $ 

7 1 

8 $ 

Yr. 

si 

6 f 

ii 

8 $ 









1 

.05 

.06 

.07 

.08 

4 

.20 

.24 

.28 

.32 

2 

.10 

.12 

.14 

.16 

5 

.25 

.30 

.35 

.40 

3 

Mo. 

1 

.15 

.18 

.21 

.24 

6 

Mo. 

7 

.30 

.36 

.42 

.48 

.00416 

.005 

.00583 

.00666 

.02916 

.035 

.04083 

.04666 

2 

.00833 

.01 

.01166 

.0/333 

8 

.03333 

.04 

..04666 

.05333 

3 

.01250 

.015 

.01750 

.02000 

9 

.03750 

.045 

.05250 

.06000 

4 

.01666 

.02 

.02 m 

.02666 

10 

.04166 

.05 

.05833 

.06666 

5 

.02083 

.025 

.02916 

.03333 

11 

.04583 

.055 

.06416 

.07333 

6 

Da. 

.02500 

.03 

.03500 

.04000 

Da. 













1 

.00013 

.00016 

.00019 

.00022 

16 

.00222 

.00266 

.00311 

.00355 

2 

.00027 

.00033 

.00038 

.00044 

17 

.00236 

.00283 

.00330 

.00377 

3 

.00041 

.00050 

.00058 

.00066 

18 

.00250 

.00300 

.00350 

.00400 

4 

.00055 

.00066 

.00077 

.00088 

19 

.00263 

.00316 

.00369 

.00422 

5 

.00069 

.00083 

.00097 

.00111 

20 

.00277 

.00333 

.00388 

.00444 

6 

.00083 

.00100 

.00116 

.00133 

21 

.00291 

.00350 

.00408 

.00466 

7 

.00007 

.00116 

.00136 

.00155 

22 

.00305 

.00366 

.00427 

.00488 

8 

.00111 

.00133 

.00155 

.00177 

23 

.00319 

.00383 

.00447 

.00511 

9 

.00125 

.00150 

.00175 

.00200 

24 

.00333 

.00400 

.00466 

.00533 

10 

.00138 

.00166 

.00194 

.00222 

25 

.00347 

.00416 

.00486 

.00555 

11 

.00152 

.00183 

.00213 

.00244 

26 

.00361 

.00433 

.00505 

.00577 

12 

.00166 

.00200 

.00233 

.00266 

27 

.00375 

.00450 

.00525 

.00600 

13 

.00180 

.00216 

.00252 

.00288 

28 

.00388 

.00466 

.00544 

.00622 

14 

.001!)! 

.00233 

.00272 

.00311 

29 

.00402 

.00483 

.00563 

.00644 

15 

.00208! 

.00250 

.00291 

.00333 







Find interest for $1 in this table at given 
per cent, for given number of years, months 
and days and multiply by the given amount. 

Table Showing How Many Days a Note 
Has to Run. 

The following table will be found very 
useful to book-keepers in calculating the 
number of days a note has to run : 


FROM 

fl 

1 . | 
| 

j Mar. 

| April 

| May 

0 

G 

G 

>> 

G 

1 —> 

to 

3 

| Sept. 

j Oct. 

j Nov. 

6 

<u 

Q 

January. 

365 

31 

59 

90 

120 

151 

181 

212 

243 

273 

304 

334 

February . 

334 

365 

28 

59 

89 

120 

150 

181 

212 

242 

273 

306 

March. 

306 

337 

365 

31 

61 

92 

122 

153 

184 

214 

245 

275 

April . 

275 

306 

334 

365 

30 

61 

91 

122 

153 

183 

214 

244 

May. 

245 

276 

304 

335 

365 

31 

61 

92 

123 

153 

184 

214 

June. 

214 

245 

273 

304 

334 

363 

30 

61 

92 

122 

153 

183 

July. 

184 

215 

243 

274 

304 

335 

365 

31 

62 

93 

123 

153 

August. 

153 

184 

212 

243 

273 

304 

334 

365 

31 

61 

92 

122 

September. 

122 

153 

181 

212 

242 

272 

303 

334 

365 

30 

61 

91 

October . 

92 

123 

151 

182 

212 

243 

273 

304 

335 

365 

31 

61 

November. 

61 

92 

120 

151 

181 

212 

242 

273 

304 

334 

365 

30 

December. 

31 

62 

90 

121 

151 

182 

212 

243 

274 

304 

335 

365 


The table gives the number of days in¬ 
tervening between any day in any month to 
a similar date in any other month. To as¬ 
certain these intervening days, run the eye 
along the line designated by title of the 
month on the left hand, until it reaches its 
intersection by the column headed at the 
top, by the month in which the note matures, 
and the figures at the angle denote the num¬ 
ber of days from the first of the respective 
months. To this add the day upon which, 
the note matures, and from the sum sub¬ 
tract the date of the month from which it 
is reckoned. 

Example.—A note falling due June 26th 
is offered for discount on March 10th; 
wanted, the number of days intervening 
before maturity. 

The figures at the angle give . . 92 

Add date of note’s maturity . . 26 


118 

Deduct date of discount . . 10 

Days to run.108 
































































































Every-Day Law 

ITS REQUIREMENTS AND PENALTIES—CRIMINAL LAW—LAWS 
GOVERNING BUSINESS TRANSACTIONS—THE MAKING OF 
NOTES—DRAWING LEASES, LANDLORDS AND TENANTS 
—CONTRACTS OF ALL KINDS—PARTNERSHIPS—COR¬ 
PORATIONS—POWERS OF AGENTS AND 
ATTORNEYS—INSURANCE 


IMPORTANT USAGES AND PRACTICES 


Points of Criminal Law. 

Law should be, and is intended to con¬ 
stitute, a rule of right governing the actions 
of man in his dealings with his fellow- 
beings. 

You cannot lawfully condone an offense 
by receiving back stolen property. 

The exemption of females from arrest 
applies only in civil, not in criminal matters. 

Every man is bound to obey the call of 
a Sheriff for assistance in making an arrest. 

The rule “Every man’s house is his 
castle” does not hold good when a man is 
accused of crime. 

Embezzlement can be charged only 
against a clerk or a servant, or the officer 
or agent of a corporation. 

Bigamy cannot be proven in law if one 
party to a marriage has been absent and not 
heard from for five years. 

Grand larceny is when the value of 
property stolen exceeds $25.00—when less 
than that, the offense is petit larceny. 

Arson to be in the first degree must have 
been committed at night, and the buildings 
fired must have been inhabited. 

Drunkenness is not a legal excuse for 
crime, but delirium tremens is considered 
by the law as a species of insanity. 


In a case of assault it is only necessary 
to prove an “ offer or attempt at assault.” 
Battery presumes physical violence. 

Mayhem, although popularly supposed 
to refer to injury to the face, lip, tongue, 
eye, or ear, applies to any injury done a limb. 

A felony is a crime punishable by im¬ 
prisonment in a State prison ; an “ infam¬ 
ous ” crime is one punishable with death or 
State prison. 

A police officer is not authorized to make 
an arrest without a warrant unless he has 
personal knowledge of the offense for which 
the arrest is made. 

An accident is not a crime, unless crim¬ 
inal carelessness can be proven. A man 
shooting at a burglar and killing a member 
of his family is not a murderer. 

Burglary in the first degree can be com¬ 
mitted only in the night time. Twilight, if 
dark enough to prevent distinguishing a 
man’s face, is the same as “ night” in law. 

Murder to be in the first degree must be 
wilful, premeditated, and malicious, or com¬ 
mitted while the murderer is engaged in a 
felonious act. The killing of a man in a 
duel is murder, and it is a misdemeanor to 
accept or give a challenge. 

False swearing is perjury in law only 
when willfully done, and when the oath has 

103 




104 


EVERY-DAY LAW 


been legally administered. Such qualifying 
expressions as “to the best of my belief,” 
“as I am informed,” may save an aver¬ 
ment from being perjured. The law is that 
the false statement sworn to must be abso¬ 
lute. Subornation of perjury—that is, in¬ 
ducing another to swear falsely, is a felony. 

The penalties which follow the violation 
of any of the points of criminal law vary 
slightly in various places, but all include 
fines or imprisonment, or both. The penal¬ 
ties are intended to be sufficiently severe to 
deter those evilly disposed from disturb¬ 
ing the peace and happiness of the com¬ 
munity. 

Important Points of Business Law. 

The law compels no one to do impossi¬ 
bilities. 

An agreement without consideration is 
not valid. 

Ignorance of the law does not excuse an 
offender, but it does often influence the 
mercy of the Court in fixing penalty. 

He who conceals a fraud is himself a 
defrauder. 

Signatures made with a lead pencil are 
good in law. 

A receipt for money paid is not legally 
conclusive. 

The act of one partner binds all the 
others. 

The seal of a party to a written contract 
imports consideration. 

A contract made with a minor cannot be 
enforced against him. A note made by a 
minor is voidable. 

A contract made with a lunatic is void. 

A contract made on a Sunday is void. 

Principals are liable for the acts of their 
agents. 

Agents are liable to their principals for 
errors. 

Each individual in a partnership is liable 
for the whole amount of the debts of the 
firm. 

A note which does not state on its face 
that it bears interest, will bear interest only 
after maturity. 

A lease of land for a longer term than 
one year is void unless in writing. 

An indorser of a note is exempt from 
liability if notice of its dishonor is not 


mailed or served within twenty-four hours 
of its non-payment. 

In case of the death of the principal 
maker of a note, the holder is not required 
to notify a surety that the note is not paid, 
before the settlement of the maker’s estate. 

Notes obtained by fraud, or made by an 
intoxicated person, are not collectible. 

If no time of payment is specified in a 
note, it is payable on demand. 

An indorser can avoid liability by writing 
“ without recourse” beneath his signature. 

A check indorsed by the payee is evi¬ 
dence of payment in the drawer’s hands. 

An outlawed debt is revived should the 
debtor make a partial payment. 

Want of consideration—a common de¬ 
fense interposed to the payment of nego¬ 
tiable paper—is a good defense between the 
original parties to the paper; but after it 
has been transferred before maturity to an 
innocent holder for value it is not a defense. 

Negotiable paper, payable to bearer or 
indorsed in blank, which has been stolen or 
lost, cannot be collected by the thief or 
finder, but a holder who receives it in good 
faith before maturity, for value, can hold it 
against the owner’s claims at the time lost. 

Sometimes the holder of a paper has the 
right to demand payment before maturity ; 
for instance, when a draft has been pro¬ 
tested for non-acceptance and the proper 
notices served, the holder may at once pro¬ 
ceed against the drawer and indorsers. 

If a note or draft is to be paid in the 
State where it is made, the contract will be 
governed by the laws of that State. When 
negotiable paper is payable in a State other 
than that in which it is made, the laws of 
that State will govern it. Marriage con¬ 
tracts, if valid where they are made, are 
valid everywhere. Contracts relating to 
personal property are governed by the laws 
of the place where made, except those re¬ 
lating to real estate, which are governed by 
the laws of the place where the land is 
situated. 

If a negotiable paper, pledged to a bank as 
security for the payment of a loan or debt, 
falls due, and the bank fails to demand pay¬ 
ment and to have it protested when dishon¬ 
ored, the bank is liable to tjie owner for the 
full amount of the paper, 



EVERY-DAY LAW 


The expression “Value received” 
should be written in a note, but it is not 
necessary. If not written, it is presumed by 
law, or may be supplied by proof. 

No consideration is sufficient in law if it 
be illegal in its nature. Checks or drafts 
must be presented for payment without un¬ 
reasonable delay. Checks or drafts should 
be presented during business hours ; but in 
this country, except in the case of banks, 
the time extends through the day and even¬ 
ing. 

If the drawer of a check or draft has 
changed his residence, the holder must use 
due or reasonable diligence to find him. 

If one who holds a check, as payee or 
otherwise, transfers it to another, he has a 
right to insist that the check be presented 
that day, or, at farthest, on the day following. 

A note indorsed in blank (the name of 
the indorser only written) is transferable by 
delivery, the same as if made payable to 
bearer. 

The maker of an “ accommodation * ’ bill 
or note (one for which he has received no 
consideration, having lent his name or cre¬ 
dit for the accommodation of the holder) is 
not bound to the person accommodated, but 
is bound to all other parties, precisely as if 
there was a good consideration. 

An indorsee has a right of action against 
all whose names were on the bill, when 
he received it. 

A bill, note or draft may be written 
upon any kind of paper, either with ink or 
pencil. 

An indorsement may be written on the 
face or back. 

An indorser may prevent his own lia¬ 
bility to be sued by writing ‘ ‘ without 
recourse,” or similar words. 

The holder of a note may give notice of 
protest either to all previous indorsers or 
only to one of them; in case of the latter 
he must select the last indorser, and the last 
must give notice to the last before him, and 
so on. Each indorsqr must send notice the 
same day or the day following. Neither 
Sunday nor any legal holiday is counted in 
reckoning time in which notice is to be 
given. 

If the letter containing a protest of non¬ 
payment be put into the post-office, any 


J o5 

miscarriage does not affect the party giving 
notice. Notice of protest may be sent either 
to the place of business or of residence of 
the party notified. 

After the death of a holder of a bill or 
note, his executor or administrator may 
transfer it by his indorsement. 

The husband who acquires a right to a 
draft or note which was given to the wife, 
either before or after marriage, may in¬ 
dorse it. 

Written instruments are to be construed 
and interpreted by law according to the 
simple, customary and natural meaning oi 
the words used. 

The finder of negotiable paper, as of all 
other property, must make reasonable efforts 
to find the owner, before he is entitled to 
appropriate it for his own purposes. If the 
finder conceal it, he is liable to the charge ot 
larceny or theft. 

Joint payees of a bill of exchange, draft 
or note, who are not partners, must all join 
in an indorsement. 

An oral agreement must be proved by 
evidence. A written agreement proves 
itself. The law prefers written to oral evi¬ 
dence, because of its precision. 

No evidence can be introduced to con¬ 
tradict or vary a written contract; but it 
may be received in order to explain it, 
when such explanation is needed. 

Contracts and Agreements. 

A contract or agreement is where a 
promise is made on one side and assented to 
on the other, or where two or more persons 
enter into engagement with each other by a 
promise on either side. In a written con¬ 
tract assent is proved by the signature or 
mark. In verbal agreements it may be 
given by a word or a nod, by shaking hands, 
or by a sign. The old adage, ‘ ‘ Silence gives 
consent,” is often upheld in law. 

Persons under age are incompetent to 
make contracts except under certain limita¬ 
tions. Generally minors are incapable of 
making binding contracts. 

There are several causes which void con¬ 
tracts, first among which is fraud. No 
fraudulent contract is binding in law or in 
equity ; but the party defrauded must void 
the contract as soon as he discovers the 




io6 


EVERY-DAY LAW 


fraud. If lie continues under the contract 
after the fraud is discovered he cannot after¬ 
wards void it. 

Some Important Contract Don’ts. 

DON’T enter into an agreement on Sunday 
unless it is ratified on a week-day. 

DON’T make a contract with a person of un¬ 
sound mind or under the influence of liquor, or 
otherwise under restraint of liberty, mind or body. 
Use caution in making contracts with an illiterate, 
blind or deaf and dumb person, and see to it that 
witnesses are present. 

DON’T put a forced construction on a contract 
—the intent of the parties is a contract. 

DON’T suppose that you can withdraw a propo¬ 
sition made in writing and sent by mail after the 
party to whom it was made has mailed an uncon¬ 
ditional acceptance. 

DON’T suppose that a conditional acceptance 
of a proposition is binding on the party making 
the proposition. 

DON’T forget that the courts will construe a 
contract according to the law prevailing where it 
was made. 

DON’T forget that the law says, “ no considera¬ 
tion, no contract,” and that the courts will 
not enforce a contract that is too severe in its 
provisions. 

DON’T sign an agreement unless you have 
carefully weighed its provisions, which should be 
all fixed and certain. 

Copartnerships. 

Partnerships may be either general or 
special. In general partnerships money in¬ 
vested ceases to be individual property. 
Each member is made personally liable for 
the whole amount of debts incurred by the 
company. The company is liable for all 
contracts or obligations made by individual 
members. 

Special partners are not liable beyond 
the amount contributed. 

A person may become a partner by 
allowing people generally to presume that 
he is one, as, by having his name on the 
sign or parcel or in the bills used in the 
business. 

A share or specific interest in the profits 
or loss of a business, as remuneiation for 
labor may involve one in the liability of a 
partner. 

In case of bankruptcy, the joint estate 
is first applied to the payment of partnership 
debts, the surplus only going to the creditors 
of the individual estate, 


A dissolution of partnership may take 
place under express stipulations in the 
articles of agreement, by mutual consent, by 
the death or insanity of one of the firm, by 
award of arbitrators, or by court of equity 
in cases of misconduct of some member of 
the firm. 

Interest Laws and Statutes oe 


Limitations. 


States and 
Territories. 

Interest Rate. 

Statutes of 
Limitations. 

Legal 

Rate. 

Rate Al¬ 
lowed by 
Contract. 

Judg¬ 

ments, 

Years. 

Notes, 

Years. 

Open 

Accounts, 

Years. 

Alabama... 

per ct. 

8 

per ct. 

8 

20 

6 

3 

Arkansas. 

6 

10 

10 

5 

3 

Arizona. 

7 

Any rate. 

5 

5 

3 

California. 

7 

Any rate. 

5 

4 

2 

Colorado. 

8 

Any rate. 

10 

6 

6 

Connecticut. 

6 

f 


6 

5 

Delaware.. 

6 

6 

20 

6 

3 

District of Columbia... 

6 

10 

12 

3 

3 

Florida,. 

8 

10 

20 

5 

2 

Georgia. 

7 

8 

7 

6 

4 

Idaho. 

7 

12 

6 

U ) 

4 

Illinois. 

U ) 

7 

20 

10 

5 

Indiana. 

6 

8 

20 

10 

6 

Iowa. 

6 

8 

20 

10 

5 

Kansas. 

6 

10 

5 

5 

3 

Kentucky. 

6 

6 

15 

15 

5 

Louisiana. 

5 

8 

10 

5 

3 

Maine. 

6 

Any rate. 

20 

6 

6 

Maryland. 

6 

6 

12 

3 

3 

Massachusetts. 

6 

Any rale. 

20 

6 

6 

Michigan. 

5 

' 7 

6 

6 

6 

Minnesota. 

6 

10 

10 

6 

6 

Mississippi. 

6 

10 

7 

6 

3 

Missouri. 

6 

8 

10 

10 

5 

Montana. 

10 

Any rate. 

10 

8 

3 

Nebraska. 

7 

10 

5 

5 

4 

Nevada. 

7 

Any rate. 

6 

5 

4 

New Hampshire. 

6 

6 

20 

6 

6 

New J ersey. 

6 

6 

20 

6 

6 

New Mexico. 

6 

12 

7 

6 

6 

New Y ork. 

6 

6 

20 

6 

4 

North Carolina. 

6 

6 

10 

3 

3 

North Dakota. 

7 

12 

10 

6 

6 

Ohio. 

G 

8 

5 

15 

6 

Oklahoma. 

7 

12 

5 

5 

3 

Oregon. 

G 

10 

10 

6 

6 

Pennsylvania. 

6 

6 

5 

6 

G 

Rhode Island. 

G 

Any rate. 

20 

6 

6 

South Carolina. 

7 

8 

10 

6 

g 

South Dakota. . 

7 

12 

10 

6 

6 

Tennessee. 

6 

Any rate. 

10 

6 

6 

1 exas. 

G 

10 

10 

6 

4 

Utah. 

8 

Any rate. 

8 

6 

4 

Vermont. 

6 

6 

8 

6 

6 

Virginia. 

6 

6 

20 

5 

2 

Washington. 

7 

12 

6 

6 

3 

West Virginia. 

G 

6 

10 

10 

3 

W isconsin. 

6 

10 

20 

6 

6 

Wyoming. 

8 

12 

5 

5 

8 


New York has by a recent law legalized any rate of interest on 
call loans of #5000 or upward, on collateral security. -j-No usury 
but over 6 per cent, cannot be collected by law. 


A partner signing his individual name to 
negotiable paper, which is for the use of the 
partnership firm, binds all the partners 
thereby. Negotiable paper of the firm, even 



































































EVERY-DAY LAW 


107 


though given on private account by one of the 
partners, will hold all the partners of the 
firm, when it passes into the hands of the 
holders, who are ignorant of the fact attend¬ 
ing its creation. 

Partnership effects may be bought and 
sold by a partner ; he may make contracts ; 
may receive money; indorse, draw and 
accept bills and notes, and, while this may 
be for his own private account, if it appar¬ 
ently be for the use of the firm, his 
partners will be bound by his action, pro¬ 
vided the parties dealing with him were 
ignorant of the transaction being on his 
private account; and thus representation or 
misrepresentation of a partner, having rela¬ 
tion to business of the firm, will bind the 
members in the partnership. 

In case of death, the surviving partner 
must account to the representatives of the 
deceased. 

Agents and Attorneys. 

An agent or an attorney is one author¬ 
ized by a person to act for him and in his 
stead, in the transaction of business for the 
person appointing said agent or attorney. 

In regard to the subject of an agency, 
the general rule is, that whatever a man 
may do in his own right he may also trans¬ 
act through another. Things of a personal 
nature, implying personal confidence on the 
part of the person possessing them, cannot 
be delegated. 

Infants, married women, lunatics, idiots, 
aliens, belligerents, and persons incapable of 
making legal contracts, cannot act as princi¬ 
pals in the appointment of agents. Infants 
and married women may, however, become 
principals in certain cases. 

The act of the agent always binds his 
principal. Agents who exceed their author¬ 
ity, become themselves personally respon¬ 
sible to their principals. 

One should not consent to act as an 
agent or attorney in complicated matters, 
except where the powers of this office be 
explicitly defined in writing. 

Agency may be terminated in two ways: 
(1) by the act of the principal or agent; (2) 
by operation of law. In the latter case, the 
termination of the agency is effected by 
lapse of time, by completion of the subject- 


matter of the agency, by the extinction of 
the subject-matter, or by the insanity, bank¬ 
ruptcy or death of either party. 

Landlord and Tenant. 

Leases for one year or less need no writ¬ 
ten agreement. Leases for more than a year 
must be in writing; if for life, signed, sealed, 
and witnessed in the same manner as any 
other important document. 

Leases for over three years must be re¬ 
corded. No particular form is necessary. 

If no agreement in writing for more than 
a year can be produced, the tenant holds the 
property from year to year at the will of the 
landlord. If there is no agreement as to 
time, the tenant as a rule holds from year 
to year. 

A tenancy at will may be terminated by 
giving the tenant one month’s notice in 
writing, requiring him to remove from the 
premises occupied. 

A tenant is not responsible for taxes, 
unless it be so stated in the lease. 

The tenant may underlet as much of the 
property as he desires, unless it is expressly 
forbidden in the lease. Tenants at will can¬ 
not underlet. 

A married woman cannot lease her pro¬ 
perty under the common law, but this pro¬ 
hibition is removed by statute in most of 
the States. A husband cannot make a lease 
which will bind his wife’s property after 
his death. 

A lease made by a minor is not binding 
after the minor has attained his majority. 
It binds the lessee, however, unless the 
minor should release him. Should the 
minor receive rent after attaining his major¬ 
ity, the lease will be therefore ratified. A 
lease given by a guardian will not extend 
beyond the majority of the ward. 

A new lease renders void a former 
lease. 

In case there are no writings, the ten¬ 
ancy begins from the day possession is 
taken; where there are writings and the 
time of commencement is not stated, the 
tenancy will be held to commence from the 
date of said writings. 

Leases on mortgaged property, whereon 
the mortgage was given prior to the lease, 
terminate when the mortgage is foreclosed. 



io8 


EVERY-DAY LAW 


Where a tenant assigns his lease, even 
with the landlord’s consent, he will remain 
liable for the rent unless his lease is surren¬ 
dered or cancelled. 

A building erected by tenants on foun¬ 
dations sunk into the ground, becomes a 
part of the realty, and belong to the land¬ 
lord. Improvements to the building rented, 
that are nailed or screwed to the building 
become the property of the landlord. But 
trade fixtures belong to the tenant, it being 
presumed when the building is rented for 
trade purposes that it is permissible to put 
in the fixtures or make necessary attach¬ 
ments of same to the building. Among our 
business forms will be found a correct form 
of lease. Care must be taken in filling ne¬ 
cessary blanks, and in ruling lines in spaces 
not filled by words. 

Laws Governing Liens. 

In all the States and Canada it is the ob¬ 
ject of the law to protect the mechanic and 
laboring man and also the merchant. Hence 
there are laws in the several States for this 
purpose. While the general trend is the 
same, the laws vary in details. It is not 
difficult to procure a copy of the laws, which 
every builder and householder should do. 
Any contractor, sub-contractor or laborer 
who performs any work, or furnishes any 
materials, in pursuance of, or in conform¬ 
ity with, any agreement or contract with 
the owmer, lessee, agent or one in possession 
of the property, toward the erection, alter¬ 
ing, improving or repairing of any building, 
shall have a lien for the value of such labor 
or materials on the building or land on 
which it stands to the extent of the right, 
title and interest of the owner, lessee or 
person in possession at the time of the 
claimant’s filing his notice with the Clerk 
of the County Court. Such lien is called a 
mechanic’s lien. 

The notice should be filed within thirty 
days after completion of the work or the 
furnishing of the materials, and should state 
the residence of the claimant, the amount 
claimed, from whom due, when due, and to 
wdiom due, the name of the person against 
whom claimed, the name of the owner, 
lessee or person in possession of the prem¬ 
ises, with a brief description of the latter. 


Liens cease in one year after the filing of 
the notice, unless an action is begun, or the 
lien is continued by an order of Court. 

The following classes of persons are gen¬ 
erally entitled to lien : i. Bailees, who may 
perform labor and services, on the thing 
bailed, at the request of the bailor. 2. Inn¬ 
keepers, upon the baggage of guests they 
have accommodated. 3. Common carriers, 
upon goods carried, for the amount of their 
freight and disbursements. 4. Vendors, on 
the goods sold for payment of the price 
where no credit has been expressly promised 
or implied. 5. Agents, upon goods of their 
principals, for advancements for the benefit 
of the latter. 6. All persons are entitled to 
the right of lien who are compelled by law 
to receive property and bestow labor or 
expense on the same. 

The right of lien may be waived : 1. By 
express contract. 2. By neglect. 3.. By 
new agreement. 4. By allowing change of 
possession. 5. By surrendering possession. 

The manner of the enforcement of a lien, 
whether it be an innkeeper’s, agent’s, car¬ 
rier’s, factor’s, etc., depends wholly upon 
the nature and character of the lien. 

Perishable property on which a lien is 
held may be sold, and the lien attaches to 
the proceeds. 

Liens take precedence according to prior¬ 
ity, and interest on a judgment on a prior 
lien must also be satisfied before a subse¬ 
quent lien may be realized upon. 

What a Copyright Protects. 

A title may be entered, but the copy¬ 
right covers the book and not the title. A 
title alone cannot be copyrighted ; it can be 
protected solely as a trade mark. What is 
a copyrighted manuscript ? Copyright per¬ 
tains to a published book only. So long as 
a book is in manuscript it is protected by a 
common law of property ; no one can print 
it without authority unless he steals it. It 
is when a book is published that the copy¬ 
right law steps in to protect it. Every day 
we have evidence that authors have wrong 
notions of copyright; they make a point of 
having obtained copyright as if it were 
something difficult—like a patent—and 
think they have in some way secured their 
book and their title by entering the latter. 






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THE MARVELS OF MECHANICAL INVENTION 

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BOOK II. 

SCIENCE 

WHAT EVERYONE SHOULD KNOW IN THE WORLD OF SCIENCE AS 
APPLIED TO WOOD AND METAL, AIR, LIGHT, WATER AND HEAT, 
ELECTRICITY AND ITS MARVELOUS USES—THE PREDICTION OF THE 
WEATHER AND OTHER PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF SCIENCE IN ALL 
TRADES, PROFESSIONS AND INDUSTRIES. 

SCIENCE AS APPLIED IN PRACTICE 

By 

CHARLES MORRIS, LL.D., 

Member of Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia. Author of “ The Aryan Race,” “ Civilization, Its History, etc.,” 
and of Numerous Papers on Scientific Topics read before the Academy and published in its Proceedings. 


109 
































































































































































The World of Science 

WHAT INTERESTS THE WORKER IN WOOD—IN MEfALS AND 
MINERALS—ELECTRICITY AND ITS WONDERFUL POSSIBIL¬ 
ITIES—HEAT, ITS LAWS AND MANIFESTATIONS—STEAM 
AND ITS APPLICATION—OTHER SCIENCES OF 
EVERY-DAY INTEREST AND APPLICATION 


SCIENCE AS APPLIED IN PRACTICE 


Science is a word which by many is not 
very well understood, and of which a brief 
definition may be here advisable. It is often 
wrongly applied, and its use is in general 
very loose. Science means knowledge; 
but this knowledge is of the works of God ; 
not of those of man ; of the forms and 
forces among which we are born, not of 
those which our own hands have made. 
The latter is the domain of useful art, not 
cf science. The study of the nature of 
electricity is science ; the use of the electric 
current in telegraphing is art. The study 
of the formation of coal or iron is science ; 
the employment of coal and iron in manu¬ 
facture is art. And so with a thousand 
other cases that might be given. 

In our times it is not easy to talk about 
science without thinking of the many uses 
which man makes of scientific facts and prin¬ 
ciples. When we speak of light or electricity 
for instance, we are very apt to think of the 
telescope or the mirror, the telegraph or the 
electric light. It is these applications of 
science in which practical men are most inter¬ 
ested, and as this is a book for the use of prac¬ 
tical men we propose to confine ourselves 
largely to the benefit which the facts of 
science confer upon man. In the present 
chapter we shall talk about the production 
and working of wood and metal and some 
other products of the earth. 


Forests of the Earth. 

Ages before the vast coal deposits came 
into use as sources of fuel, wood served man 
for the purposes of heating and cooking, 
and its use was very general until within the 
nineteenth century. It is still widely used 
for household purposes, though in modern 
cities coal has largely taken its place, and 
wood is now rarely employed as a fuel in 
manufactories. 

Though civilization has been lavish in 
its destruction of forests, the breadth of the 
woodland still remaining upon the earth is 
enormous. In the Eastern Hemisphere 
Russia possesses a vast extent of forest land, 
stretching widely through European Russia 
and over an immense region in Siberia. 
Africa contains mighty forests, one of which 
it took Stanley several months to cross. 
But of all the earth America is the richest 
in timber. Through North and South 
America alike vast forests extend. In 
South America the immense valley of the 
Amazon, one third of the whole continent, 
is one mighty unbroken forest. In North 
America also the forests are of vast extent, 
though the axe and the firebrand are rapidly 
robbing the United States of its trees. 

United States Lumber Product. 

The total area of forest lands in the United 
States and Territories, according to annual 


hi 




I I 2 


THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


report of the Division of Forestry of the 
Department of Agriculture, is 465,795,000 
acres. The State which has the largest 
share is Texas, which is credited with 
40,000,000 acres. Minnesota comes next 
with 30,000,000, then Arkansas with 2 8,000, - 
000; and Florida, Oregon, California and 
Washington State are put down at 20,000,000 
each. Georgia and North Carolina have 
each 18,000,000 ; Wisconsin and Alabama, 
each 17,000,000; Tennessee, 16,000,000; 
Michigan, 14,000.000; and Maine, 2,000,- 
000 acres. Taking the States in groups, 
the six New England States have, in round 
numbers, 19,000,000 acres; four Middle 
States, 18,000,000; nine Western States, 
80,000,000 ; four Pacific States, 53,000,000 ; 
and fourteen Southern States, 233,000,000 
acres ; the last being almost precisely half 
of the forest area of the country. The Terri¬ 
tories are credited with 63,000,000 acres. 
The estimate of the division of Forestry for 
1900 makes the forest area 699,500,000 acres. 

The total annual cut in this vast area of 
forest approximates 24,000,000,000 cubic 
feet, of which about three-fourths, or 
18,000,000,000 feet are used for fuel,. 
5,000,000,000 feet for building and manu¬ 
facturing lumber and the remaining 1,000,- 
000,000 feet for fencing, railroad ties, mine 
timbers, charcoal, and other purposes. 

This immense drain upon the forests of 
the United States is not the whole. Every 
year fires make great inroads into the wood¬ 
land area, in many regions more timber 
falling by fire than by the axe. The average 
annual money loss by fire is probably as 
much as $20,000,000. The value of the 
total annual product of our forests was esti¬ 
mated by the 1890 Census at $1 ,038,616,947. 
It is now-probably much greater. 

Forest Preservation. 

The destruction of the forests is very 
injurious to human interests, since it has a 
serious effect on the fall and flow of rain¬ 
water. The forest bed holds the water and 
yields it slowly to the streams. In a de¬ 
forested country the water pours down and 
swells the streams to torrents in the rainy 
season, while they shrink into narrow chan¬ 
nels in times of drought. Forests are thus 
great regulators of the water supply. This 


has long been perceived in Europe, where 
active efforts have long been made to restore 
the trees to the mountains and hill slopes. 
It has only recently been perceived in the 
United States, where efforts at forest preser¬ 
vation are of late origin. What has been 
accomplished may be briefly stated. 

For the preservation of the forests, the 
State of New York first instituted a For¬ 
est Commission in 1885. Several radical 
changes have been made in the law, which 
now provides for a “ Commission of Fish¬ 
eries, Game, and Forests,” to which is dele¬ 
gated the enforcement of the fish and game 
laws, the care of the Adirondack Park, and 
the State Forest Preserve. The Legislature 
of 1897 authorized the purchase of lands in 
the Adirondacks as an addition to the Park 
and Forest Reserve to the amount of $1 ,000,- 
000, to which $500,000 in 1898 and $300,000 
in 1899 have since been added. A State 
College of Forestry has been opened at Cor¬ 
nell University, and has charge of 30,000 
acres of State land as a demonstration forest 
in the Adirondacks. Better methods of 
handling spruce lands have been introduced 
on 100,000 acres of private forests, under 
the direction of the Division of Forestry, 
U. S. Department of Agriculture. The 
States of Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, 
Maine, New Hampshire, Pennsylvania, and 
Wisconsin also have special commissions 
under their forestry laws. The Pennsylva¬ 
nia Legislature of 1897 provided for the 
purchase of three forest reserves of not less 
than 40,000 acres each, and the Wisconsin 
Assembly appointed a commission to formu¬ 
late and recommend forest legislation. Min¬ 
nesota has probably the best forest fire law 
of any State, with a Chief Fire Warden as 
executive officer. In New Jersey and North 
Carolina the Geological Survey is specially 
charged with forest interests. 

A national organization known as the 
American Forestry Association, composed 
of delegates from the States, meets annu¬ 
ally. Local or State Associations have been 
formed in California, Connecticut, Colorado, 
Ohio, New York, Pennsylvania, Kentucky, 
Massachusetts, Indiana, North Carolina, 
South Carolina, Washington, Minnesota, 
Texas, Utah, North Dakota, Wisconsin 
and New Jersey, 




THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


By Act of Congress March 3, 1891, the 
President was authorized to make public 
forest reservations. Seventeen such, com¬ 
prising 17,968,440 acres, were established 
in Colorado, New Mexico, California, Ari¬ 
zona, Wyoming, Oregon, and Washington, 
previous to 1897. On February 22, 1897, 
President Cleveland proclaimed thirteen 
additional reserves, with a total area of 
25,683,840 acres. 

Since then, under an Act of Congress of 
March 1, 1898, extensive additional areas 
have been reserved in Arizona, New Mex¬ 
ico, South Dakota, Montana, Utah, Wyo¬ 
ming, and California, and the grand total of 
the forest reservations reached on January 
1, 1901, the great area of 46,828,449 acres, 
there being at that date thirty-nine reserva¬ 
tions. In addition, many States now offer a 
reward for the planting of trees. This is 
especially the case in some of the prairie 
States of the West, as Kansas, Nebraska, 
and Iowa, and vast numbers of trees have 
been planted. Arbor Days have also been 
established in nearly all the States of the 
Union, forming public holidays for tree¬ 
planting, school children being especially 
encouraged in this important duty. As may 
be seen from the above, the new age of 
forest preservation has fairly begun in the 
United States. 

Useful Trees. 

The earth possesses a very great number 
of different woods which man can utilize. 
In the United States there are more than 300 
species of trees of a height of thirty feet and 
over. South America has a much greater 
number, and India alone possesses about 
900 species of timber trees. But many of 
these are rare, and comparatively few species 
are used in the arts. 

Chief among the American timber trees 
stands the White Pine (Pinus strobus ), an 
easily worked and very useful wood. This 
was formerly very abundant, but has been 
cut so lavishly, without replanting, that the 
forests of the Bast are largely exhausted, 
and the vast pineries of Michigan and Wis¬ 
consin are rapidly vanishing before the axe 
and the sawmill. Other trees of import¬ 
ance are the Yellow Pine, the Hemlock, the 
8 C 


Black Spruce, the Cedar, Cypress, and Cot¬ 
tonwood of the East and South, the Great 
Douglas Pine and Redwood of the Pacific 
States, one or two species of Oak, and 
various others. Among the varieties of 
hardwood timber used for furniture, the 
Black Walnut has long stood at the head, 
but this has largely disappeared, and several 
species of light-colored wood, such as Oak, 
Maple, and others, are taking its place. 

Ornamental Woods. 

Outside the United States, and especially 
in the tropics, there are numerous species 
of valuable ornamental woods. Most im¬ 
portant of these is the Mahogany of the 
American tropics, a close-grained, easily 
worked hardwood, of rich dark color, taking 
a fine polish, and very durable. Brazilian 
Rosewood is a strong, hard, and heavy wood, 
of a rich dark-brown color, with beautiful 
streaks and cloud-like markings, which give 
it a resemblance to colored marble. It has 
long been in use for costly furniture. Satin- 
wood is something like it in hardness and 
fineness of grain, but is of much lighter 
color, being of a glossy yellow tint. Ebony, 
another costly cabinet wood, is very hard 
and heavy, and deep black in color. Inlaid 
with ivory or other light substance, it has 
been a favorite for several thousand years 
for ornamental purposes. 

Among the very beautiful woods used 
only for veneering and inlaying are the 
Tulip-wood, Snake or Letter-wood, Purple- 
heart, and Zebra-wood, from the American 
tropics; Amboyna-wood, from Singapore; 
the American Bird’s-eye Maple, and others. 
Of all woods Lignum Vitae comes nearest to 
a strong metal in its resistance to wear and 
tear. 

For ship-building oak has long been a 
favorite wood, and is still largely used, 
though it has the defect of rusting iron 
which is in contact with it. The East Indian 
teak comes next to it in value, and is un¬ 
like oak in its action upon iron, which it 
protects from rust. This gives it great 
value as a backing for iron-plating. Elm 
is also of value for the under-water parts of 
ships, it being very durable both when kept 
I quite dry and when constantly wet. 



THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


ti4 

Useful Trees of the Philippine Islands. 

The Philippine Islands, now possessions 
of the United States, are exceedingly rich 
in valuable timber trees, more than 200 
kinds having been officially tested in the 
Manila arsenal. Among these are no less 
than fifty varieties of hardwood lumber, of 
which only a few have been used outside 
the islands. Chief among these is the teak¬ 
like Molave, a heavy brown timber, almost 
as hard as steel, and of great strength. It 
resists the action of water for years, is proof 
against the destructive white ant, and is 
used for all purposes. Its firm surface ad¬ 
mits of fine carving. Two other trees, the 
Ipil and the Yacul, resist the white ant (a 
very valuable property in the tropics) , and 
there are various handsome woods suitable 
for fine furniture. The Bansalque, or bullet- 
tree, yields a wood of such iron-like hard¬ 
ness that it can be driven like a nail. These 
woods vary in color from the jet-black 
Ebony to the light-hued Cedar, two of very 
ornamental color being the Mabola (black 
streaked with yellow) and the Malatapay 
(black striped with red). Cuba, our near 
neighbor, has also many fine cabinet woods, 
more than forty in all, including Mahogany, 
Ebony, Lignum Vitae, and others; also 
Logwood, Ironwood, and many species of 
palms. 

The Lumbering Industry. 

Everywhere the method of the lumber¬ 
man is to saw the timber into logs where it 
is felled, and haul it or float it to the saw¬ 
mill, where it is cut into boards, scantling, 
shingles, and other merchantable forms. In 
Maine and Nova Scotia the logs are floated 
down the streams in drives, and sometimes 
made into great rafts and towed down the 
coast. The logs in winter are loaded on 
great sledges and hauled to the streams. 
But the extension of railroads has greatly 
changed those primitive methods, and much 
of the timber is now transported on cars. 

In the lake region of the West the saw¬ 
mill follows the receding forest, cutting the 
timber into merchantable sizes as it goes. 
The felled tree is sawed into lengths of 32 
feet if small, and 16 feet if large, and hauled 
to the mill, or to the streams or railroads, 
by the use of “big wheels,” of 10 to 12 


feet diameter. In many sections it is the 
custom to lay a double row of smooth logs 
and grease their upper surfaces. Along 
this slippery track logs are easily hauled by 
horses, with little danger of leaving the 
path. 

Seasoning Timber. 

Timber, when freshly cut, contains from 
thirty-seven to forty-eight per cent, of water, 
the kind, the age, and the season of vegeta¬ 
tion governing the percentage. Older wood 
is generally heavier than young wood, and 
the weight of wood cut in the active season 
is greater than that of wood cut in the dor¬ 
mant season. Water in wood is not chem¬ 
ically combined with the fiber, and, when ex¬ 
posed to the atmosphere, the moisture evap¬ 
orates. The wood becomes lighter until a 
certain point is reached in the drying out 
process, after which it gains or loses in the 
weight according to the variations in the 
moisture and temperature of the atmos¬ 
phere. Following is a table showing the 
percentage in weight of water in round 
woods from young trees at different lengths 


of time after cutting : 




Kind of Wood. 

6 raos. 

12 mos. 

18 mos. 

24 mos_ 

Beech . . . . 

• 30.44 

23.46 

18.60 

1-9-95 

Oak. 


26.74 

23.25 

20.28 

Hornbeam . . 

• 27.19 

23.08 

20.00 

18.59 

Birch .... 

• 39.72 

29.OI 

22.73 

19.52 

Poplar .... 

. 40.45 

26.22 

17.77 

17.92 

Fir. 

• 33-7 8 

16.87 

15-21 

18.00 

Pine. 


18.67 

I5.63 

17.42 

According 

to these figures, taken 

from 


actual trials, there is nothing gained by 
keeping wood longer than eighteen months, 
so far as drying or seasoning is concerned. 
In the woods mentioned, there appears to 
be an actual loss in some, and only a slow 
gain in others after that length of time. 
The pine, fir, and beech gained moisture, 
and the others in the list lost only very 
slightly after the eighteen months had 
passed. 

Trees, especially deciduous trees, should 
always be felled in winter, the season in 
which they contain the least sap. They 
should not be left long upon the ground 
where they have fallen, but as soon as possi¬ 
ble the logs should be stacked, with pack¬ 
ing pieces between them, so as to allow the 
sap to evaporate during which time they 







THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


need to be covered from the weather. 
When cut into planks or boards these are 
laid horizontally, separated by laths, pro¬ 
tected from rain, and left to dry for six 
months. They should then be placed up¬ 
right upon racks, slightly separated and 
left for as long a time. For natural seasoning 
most ordinary timber need this length of 
time, though some dry more quickly than 
others. This is much the best method of 
seasoning, but the work is now often has¬ 
tened by steaming or boiling, or in the 
case of thin cut wood by placing it in hot¬ 
air chambers. Very frequently the process 
of seasoning is only partly completed and 
the wood sent to market unfit for use. In 
the case of cabinet and fine joining work 
the seasoned wood is commonly, just before 
using, put for a week or ten days into a 
stove heated to about 120° F. 

The Annual Rings in Trees. 

The annual rings in trees exist as such 
in all timber grown in the temperate zone. 
Their structure is so different in different 
groups of timber that, from their appear¬ 
ance alone, the quality of the timber may 
be judged to some extent. For this pur¬ 
pose the absolute width of the rings, the 
regularity in width from year to year, and 
the proportion of spring wood to autumn 
wood must be taken into account. Spring 
wood is characterized by less substantial 
elements, the vessels of thin-walled cells 
being in greater abundance, while autumn 
wood is formed of cells with thicker walls, 
which appear darker in color. In conifers 
and deciduous trees the annual rings are very 
distinct, while in trees like the birch, linden 
and maple the distinction is not so marked, 
because the vessels are more evenly dis¬ 
tributed. Sometimes the gradual change in 
appearance of the annual ring from spring 
to autumn wood, which is due to the differ¬ 
ence in its component elements, is inter¬ 
rupted in such a manner that a more or less 
pronounced layer of autumn wood can 
apparently be recognized, which again 
gradually changes to spring or summer 
wood, and then gradually finishes with the 
regular autumn wood. This irregularity 
may occur even more than once in the same 
ring, and this has led to the notion that the 


115 

annual rings are not a true indication of 
age ; but the double or counterfeit rings can 
be distinguished by a practiced eye with the 
aid of a magnifying glass. These irregu¬ 
larities are due to some interruption of the 
functions of the tree, caused by defoliation, 
extreme climatic condition or sudden 
changes of temperature. The breadth of 
the rings depends on the length of the period 
of vegetation ; also when the soil is deep 
and rich, and light has much influence on 
the tree, the rings will be broader. The 
amount of light, and the consequent devel¬ 
opment of foliage, is perhaps the most 
powerful factor in wood formation, and it 
is upon the proper use of this that the 
forester depends for his means of regulating 
the development and quantity of his crop. 

The Many Uses of Wood. 

Wood shares with iron the honor of being 
one of the most useful products which nature 
has provided for man. In early times it 
was the one great servant of the human 
race. Before coal was known it was the only 
fuel, and before iron was known it served 
man for almost every purpose of life. Taking 
the whole world, it is still the chief fuel, and 
even in the United States, where coal is so 
plentiful, and wood has so many other uses, 
three-fourths the annual product is consumed 
in the stove. 

For ages wood has been the great build¬ 
ing material, the mainstay of the carpenter 
and the architect. Man has lived in wooden 
houses, crossed the streams on bridges of 
wood, inclosed his fields with wooden fences, 
put to sea in wooden ships, built his car¬ 
riages and cars of wood, used wood for the 
furniture of his dwellings, the handles ot 
his tools, the framework of his machines, 
and for various other purposes, among 
which we must include the finest cabinet 
and ornamental work. The great growth 
of the railroad system has developed a new 
use for wood in the building of passenger 
and freight cars and the innumerable ties to 
which the rails are fastened, while the tele¬ 
graph pole has become another great con¬ 
sumer of the forest product. 

Of late years iron has come into 
close competition with wood. The growing 
scarcity of wood, the increasing cheapness of 





THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


116 

iron, are leading causes of this, and we 
are now in the age of iron buildings, iron 
bridges, iron ships, and wire fencing, while 
even railroad cars are being made of sheet 
steel. Efforts have been made to find a 
substitute for wood in railroad ties, even 
glass being suggested, but as yet without 
satisfactory result. 

But while wood has been removed from 
many of its old duties, new ones have arisen 
which are consuming it with great rapidity. 
One of these is the wood pavement, which, 
however, has made no great progress. The 
common lead-pencil seems a thing of small 
importance, yet it has made serious havoc 
in our cedar groves. Ttr best wood in 
the world for this purpose is a soft, close- 
grained cedar which grows along the coast 
of Florida, and which is used in great 
quantities both in America and Europe 
for inclosing the black lead of the pencil. 
Another small article which consumes no 
small quantity of the forest product is the 
common friction match. In this little 
household treasure many tons of wood are 
daily burned to ashes There is a single 
English factory which makes thirty-six 
billions of matches yearly, and at the Chi¬ 
cago Fair of 1893 there w 7 ere shown German 
match machines that would cut fifteen mil¬ 
lion splints a day. Europe consumes about 
1200 tons of phosphorus in matches every 
year, and it is said that in some nations 700 
matches are used yearly for every inhabitant. 
Of all nations, the United States is the 
greatest consumer of matches. 

The Manufacture of Wood Paper. 

Of all the new uses of wood its employ¬ 
ment in paper-making stands at the head. 
The making of wood-pulp is one of the 
great inventions of the nineteenth century, 
and the applications of this material are 
growing at so rapid a rate that in the time 
to come they may go far to exhaust the for¬ 
ests of the world. Its great use is in paper¬ 
making. The modern newspaper and book 
are eating into the forests like a conflagra¬ 
tion. When it is considered that more than 
20,000 different newspapers are published in 
the United States alone, some of them of 
great size and with a daily issue of from one 
to several hundred thousand copies, that 


there are magazines of equally great circu¬ 
lation, and that of the myriad of books now 
issued some of them reach more than a half 
million copies, we may comprehend the vast 
demand which the reader makes upon the 
forest. 

In the manufacture of wood-pulp vein- 
ous trees are employed, the spruce in parti¬ 
cular, on account of its cheapness and its 
adhesive gum. There are two modes of man¬ 
ufacture, known as the ground or mechan¬ 
ical, and the chemical wood-pulp. Ground 
pulp is made by pressing the logs against 
emery wheels or grindstones revolving 
swiftly under water. The wood is thus re¬ 
duced to a fine wet saw-dust, which needs 
to be mixed with a portion of chemical 
pulp or other fibrous material to enable it 
to hold together. The paper made from 
this pulp is cheap but poor, and is mainly 
used for newspapers and cheap wrapping 
papers. 

Chemical Wood=Pulp. 

In the making of chemical wood-pulp, 
both spruce and poplar are commonly used. 
Logs with few knots are preferably chosen, 
sawed into lengths of about four feet, and 
cut in fine slices by a chipping machine. 
These are then placed in great tanks, or 
digesters, caustic soda ash being added to 
the water if poplar is used, and bi-sulphite 
of lime for spruce. Then live steam is in¬ 
troduced under about no pounds pressure, 
and boiling is kept up for eight or ten hours. 
The liquor is next washed out, and the pulp 
converted into pn.per on the usual paper- 
machine. 

Book and magazine papers are now made 
almost wholly from chemical wood-pulp, the 
old rag-paper being quite insufficient in quan¬ 
tity, and used principally for the higher 
grades of paper. But the use of wood-pulp 
is not confined to paper-making. It is com¬ 
ing into use as a substitute for wood or tin 
in dozens of common articles, including 
basins, plates, pails, and other small wares. 
One of its uses is in the making of car wheels, 
the pulp being forced in under great pres¬ 
sure between the rim, hub, and side-plates. 
It reduces the vibration of the wheel and 
thus makes it more durable. Wood-pulp 
bricks have been manufactured, the pulp 



THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


being chemically treated and moulded under 
a pressure of 2,000 pounds to the square' 
inch. The bricks thus made are cheap, 
tough, and solid. Pipes and drain-tiles are 
made by a similar process, and even barrels 
are now made of wood-pulp. Another 
strange use for this serviceable material is 
in the manufacture of telegraph poles. 
These are made in the form of hollow tubes, 
and are strong and more sightly than the 
usual crooked poles. 

Coffins have been made of wood-pulp, 
so that the grave itself is invaded by this 
new material. In fact, there is no end of 
the articles which may be made from it. 
One of the most remarkable of them is an 
excellent substitute for silk, in which the 
pulp is forced by heavy pressure through 
minute holes in a metal plate, issuing in 
fine silky threads closely resembling those 
of the spider itself. Another modern use of 

SCIENCE IN THE 

The most desired of the metals is gold ; 
the most important is iron. It is the most 
abundant and the most useful. Man owes his 
civilization to iron. Before it was known 
he was a savage using weapons and tools of 
stone. The first steps in civilization were 
made after bronze was discovered, but all 
the higher stages belong to what is called 
the Iron Age. This is due to the fact of the 
great abundance of this metal, the ease with 
which it can be wrought into tools and 
machines, its hardness and toughness. If 
we add to iron about 1.5 per cent, of car¬ 
bon, it is converted into the very hard sub¬ 
stance called steel, which of old was largely 
used in making the weapons of war, but is 
now employed for so many purposes that we 
might justly call this the Age of Steel. 

Iron and Its Ores. 

Iron ore is found in great abundance in 
very many parts of the earth. Some of 
the substances which man uses, such as 
coal, may in a few centuries be ex¬ 
hausted ; but iron is inexhaustible. The 
United States possesses it in vast quan¬ 
tities. It is found throughout the whole 
Appalachian mountain system, with its 
length of over 1000 miles, and its average 


117 

wood is the extraction from it, by chemical 
means, of cellulose, a substance which 
forms the principal mass of the cell-mem¬ 
branes of all plants. A homogeneous form 
of this substance is produced by treating it 
with nitric acid, yielding the powerful 
explosive known as nitro-cellulose, or gun¬ 
cotton. This, dissolved in alcohol and 
ether, yields the collodion which is so 
largely used in photography. In 1870 it 
was found that gun-cotton could be dis¬ 
solved in melted gum-camphor, yielding a 
body solid at ordinary temperatures and pos¬ 
sessing remarkable properties. This, under 
the name of celluloid, is made into numer¬ 
ous articles, such as collars, cuffs, artificial 
teeth, cutlery handles, billiard balls, imita¬ 
tion coral, ivory, tortoise-shell, agate, etc. 
The Japanese imitate ivory with it so per¬ 
fectly that it is not easy to distinguish their 
carved celluloid from actual ivory. 

USE OF METALS 

breadth of seventy miles, and is very rich in 
Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Georgia and 
Alabama. It is abundant in the Take 
Superior region, and forms whole mountains 
in Missouri. There is an immense bed of 
manganese ore in Arkansas; Wyoming pos¬ 
sesses iron enough to supply the world, and 
there are large deposits of this useful metal 
in other States. 

Iron ore consists of oxide of iron. The 
most abundant ores are Hematite, or Red Ox¬ 
ide (Fe 2 0 3 ) and Magnetite, or Black Oxide 
(Fe 3 0 4 ). Other ores of considerable im¬ 
portance are Iron Pyrites, or bisulphide of 
iron, spathic ore, or carbonate of iron, 
brown iron ore, which contains brown and 
yellow ochres, and bog-iron ore, of which 
there are immense beds on Puget Sound, 
Washington. These ores are reduced by 
the use of heat, which drives off the oxygen, 
melts the iron, and allows it to be drawn off 
in the liquid state from the impurities. 
These are also melted, and are drawn off 
separate from the iron, hardening into a 
glassy material called slag. 

Coal is used to melt the iron, so that 
under present circumstances the quantity of 
iron produced is largely dependent upon the 
coal. In the United States, as a rule, the 




118 


THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


great beds of coal and iron occur close 
together, a fact of great advantage. This 
is particularly the case in Pennsylvania and 
Georgia. 

Production of Iron. 

The United States is now the greatest 
iron-producing country in the world. Great 
Britain, which was in the lead as late as 
1894, produced, in 1900, 8,700,000 tons ot 
pig-iron and Germany about 8,000,000 tons, 
while the United States produced, in round 
numbers, 13,000,000 tons. This is over one- 
third of the world’s production, which 
is about 36,000,000 tons. Of this total prod¬ 
uct two-thirds, or nearly 24,000,000 tons, 
is now converted into steel. This is a 
much larger proportion than existed a few 
years ago, for steel is now used for many 
purposes in which iron was formerly em¬ 
ployed. The steel product of the United 
States in 1900 was 10,600,000 tons, more 
than double that of Great Britain. 

Coal Production. 

As coal is so closely related to iron, it is 
important here to state the quantity pro¬ 
duced of this indispensable fuel. The coal 
fields of the world, as at present known, are 
enormous. Those of China and Japan are 
estimated to cover 200,000 square miles ; of 
the United States, 194,000; of India, 35,000 ; 
of Russia, 27,000; of Great Britain, 9,000; 
of Germany, 3,600; of France, 1,800; and 
of other countries, 1,400. This yields a total 
of 471,800 square miles, but says nothing of 
the continent of Africa, and of the American 
continents apart from the United States, the 
extent of whose coal fields is not known, 
but may prove very considerable. 

Great Britain and the United States are 
the great coal producers, the annual product 
of each being about 200,000,000 tons. But 
the United States product is yearly growing, 
while that of Great Britain is at its topmost 
level, and must soon decrease, as many of 
its mines are nearly worked out. The re¬ 
mainder of the world yields about 170,000,- 
000 tons, without counting China, whose 
production is unknown. Of the two varie¬ 
ties of coal, bituminous and anthracite, the 
production of the latter is nearly confined to 
Pennsylvania, which yields over 50,000,000 


tons annually. Thete are said to be im¬ 
mense beds of anthracite coal in China, of 
which little is produced, since it is mined 
by the pick and carried to market on mule- 
back. 

Bessemer Steel. 

The greatly increased use of steel is due 
to the cheapness of its production by the 
Bessemer process. In this process a great 
crucible lined with fire-clay, called a con¬ 
verter, is used. The melted pig-iron, which 
contains carbon and silicon, is run into the 
converter, and a blast of air under pressure 
is driven through it. The result is that the 
silicon and some other impurities are burned 
out, and also most of the carbon, just 
enough carbon being left to convert the pig- 
iron into steel. If the carbon is too greatly 
reduced, malleable or wrought-iron results. 

Steel was formerly made by first produc¬ 
ing wrought-iron, and then adding the ne¬ 
cessary quantity of carbon. This was an 
expensive process, but steel is now made so 
cheaply that it is replacing iron.for railroad 
bars, and many other purposes. Steel which 
is low in carbon is called soft or mild steel, 
and is more easily worked than hard steel. 
It is used for buildings, bridges, and other 
structures, hard steel being used for tools. 

The casting of steel is a recent process, 
which has greatly developed of late years. 
At first steel castings were full of pores, but 
this has now been overcome, and solid cast¬ 
ings are produced for many purposes. One 
important use of steel*is in the making of 
armor-plates for naval vessels. These were 
at first made of iron, but soft-steel castings 
began to be made for them about 1886. In 
the manufacture of modern armor-plates 
the steel billets are subjected in a heated 
state to a hydraulic pressure of some 7,000 
pounds per square inch. This is to squeeze 
out all pores, condense the steel and make 
it solid throughbut. 

Great toughness is needed in armor- 
plates to enable them to resist the impact of 
shells from modern rifled cannon. It has 
been found that the addition of from two to 
four per cent, of nickel adds greatly to the 
resisting powers of the steel. In addition 
to this, processes of surface hardening are 
employed. What are known as Harveyized 



THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


119 


plates, are surface-hardened plates of nickel 
steel, whose resistance is 438 per cent, 
greater than that of ordinary steel. Large 
forgings of nickel steel have shown tensile 
strengths of 95,000 pounds per square inch, 
with an elastic limit of 60,000 pounds. The 


this work even to name them all. No 
other metal could replace it, for no other 
has its many valuable qualities. The tools 
and weapons of mankind for ages past have 
been made of iron. In the far past the 
smith held the highest position among the 


The World’s Gold and Silver Production, 1899. 


Countries 

GOLD 

SILVER 

Ounces 

(fine) 

Value 

Ounces 

(fine) 

Coining 

value 

Commercial 

value 

United States. 

3,437,210 

$71,053,400 

54,764,500 

$70,806,600 

$32,858,700 

Mexico. 

411,187 

a 8,500,000 

55,612,090 

71,902,500 

33 , 367,300 

Canada and Newfoundland . 

^1,031,563 

21,324,300 

3 , 411,644 

4,411,000 

2,047,000 

Africa. 

3 , 542,361 

73,227,100 




Australasia. 

3 , 837 ,i 8 i 

79,321,600 

12,686,658 

16,403,000 

7,612,000 

Russia. 

1 , 072,333 

22,167,100 

134,887 

174,400 

80,900 

Austria-Hungary. 

94,037 

I » 943 , 9 0 ° 

1 , 895,253 

2,450,400 

1,137,200 

Germany. 

3,589 

74,200 

6,242,053 

8,070,500 

3,745,200 

Norway. 



166,908 

215,800 

100,100 

Sweden. 

3,414 

70,600 

73 , 6 i 9 

95 , 2 oo 

44,200 

Italy. 

8,027 

165,900 

804,512 

1,040,200 

482,700 

Spain. 

96 

2,000 

2 , 452,940 

3 , I 7 I , 5 ° 0 

1,471,800 

Portugal. 

227 

4,700 

3,790 

4,900 

2,300 

Greece. 



£1,348,411 

1,743,400 

795 , 6 oo 

Turkey. 

d 687 

14,200 

d 142,157 

1 183,800 

85,300 

Servia. 

e 643 

13,300 

18,322 

23,700 

11,000 



460,946 

596,000 

276,600 

Great Britian. 

2,844 

58,800 

186,582 

241,200 

111,900 

Argentina. 

6,661 

d 137,700 

383,479 

d 495,800 

230,100 

Bolivia. 

3 , 3 H 

68,500 

10 , 843,977 

14,020,500 

6,506,400 

Chile. 

43,229 

£893,600 

4,754,636 

£6,147,400 

2,852,800 

Colombia. 

87,535 

1,809,500 

3,521,563 

4,553,100 

2,112,900 

Ecuador . 

2,317 

47 , 9 oo 

7,734 

d 10,000 

4,600 

Brazil. 

103,983 

2,149,500 




Venezuela. 

52,694 

£ 1,089,300 




Guiana (British). 

98,712 

2,040,500 




Guiana (Dutch). 

28,423 

587,600 




Guiana (French). 

81,691 

1,688,700 




Peru. 

30,380 

628,000 

4,722,687 

£6,106,100 

2,833,600 

Uruguay . 

£1,664 

34,400 




Central America. 

28,263 

584,200 

924,695 

1,195,600 

554 , 8 oo 

Japan . 

38,253 

790,800 

1,660,200 

2,146,500 

996,100 

China. 

269,662 

5 , 574,400 




Korea. 

70,579 

1,459,000 




India (British). 

412,032 

8,517,500 




East Indies (British) .... 

20,562 

425,100 




East Indies(Dutch). 

5,689 

117,600 




Total. 

14,831,039 

306,584,900 

167,224,243 

216,209,100 

tQ^Q- 

100,321,100 


a Estimate, Bureau of the Mint. c Figures for 1898 repeated. 

b Newfoundland product for 1897 included. d Figures for 1897 repeated. 


recently-introduced Krupp plates, hardened 
by a secret process, are superseding the Har- 
veyized plates. 

Uses of Iron. 

The uses of iron are so innumerable 
that it would need a considerable part of 


world’s workers. The tools of the farmer, 
the builder, and other artisans, the sword 
and shield of the warrior, the armor of the 
knight, were made of steel or iron. In our 
days the use of iron has enormously in¬ 
creased. In our factories and workshops 
are thousands of iron machines, our houses 






























































120 


THE V/ORLD OF SCIENCE 


contain iron stoves, furnaces, and utensils. 
Iron is replacing wood, brick, and stone in 
the erection of great buildings; we have 
iron bridges, iron ships, iron locomotives, 
and are beginning to make cars of sheet 
steel. In short, iron is the one thing indis¬ 
pensable to modern civilization. 

Iron is not confined to the earth ; it 
extends throughout the universe. The me¬ 
teorites which fly in all directions through 
space, and now and then fall upon the 
earth’s surface, are largely made up of pure 


to health, and in certain conditions of the 
system iron serves as a valuable medicine. 

Iron and Gold. 

Iron, while the most abundant and use¬ 
ful of the metals, is only one among many, 
each of which has some valuable quality of 
its own, while most of them are superior to 
iron in one particular—that of resistance to 
oxidation. Iron when wet or moist is very 
susceptible to the attacks of oxygen, which 
converts it rapidly into rust, or iron oxide, 


Gold and Silver Production of the United States, 1899. 


State or Territory 

Gold 


Silver 


Quartz 

Placer 

Quartz 

Lead Ores 

Copper Ores 

Alabama. 

Fine Ounces 
47 

Fine Ounces 
183 

Fine Ounces 
50 

Fine Ounces 

Fine Ounces 

Alaska. 

119,720 

151,277 

177,383 



Arizona. 

117,011 

8,667 

1,118,251 

115,074 

631,401 

California. 

570,198 

171,682 

3 L 765 

389,162 

109,732 

356,975 

Colorado. 

1,238,828 

5 , 279,741 

017 , 675,657 

Georgia. 

3.390 

2,275 

446 



Idaho . 

70,842 

31,264 

1,022,192 

3,064,221 


Maryland. 

57 

.. 

2 


Michigan. 

4 

.. 



112,823 

Montana. . . .. 

204,300 

28,827 

4,455,488 

2,504,695 

9,890,572 

Nevada.. 

1 19.975 

910 

730,629 

179,070 

50,818 

New Mexico. 

38,470 

2,900 

201,585 

125,000 

200,000 

North Carolina. 

689 

1,280 

5,529 

...... 


Oregon. 

57,097 

13,887 

93,353 

50,000 

2,000 

South Carolina. 

7,558 

197 

402 



South Dakota. 

313,037 

185,992 



Tennessee. 


8 

1 



Texas. 

333 


519,972 



Utah. 

169,631 


1,542,702 

5,028,660 

6 h ,745 

Virginia. 

205 

169 

189 


Washington. 

30,894 

4,390 

138,161 

148,500 

3,000 

Wyoming. 


I , 2 77 



Total. 

3,062,286 

450,958 

15,861,230 

29,000,609 

h, 859,334 


a Lead and Copper Ores. 


iron. One of these now in Yale College, 
which weighs 1635 pounds, contains about 
90 per cent, of iron. Another place where 
iron is found, and where it is of great util¬ 
ity, is in the blood of vertebrate animals. 
It is iron that gives the red color to our 
blood. The actual quantity is small. The 
blood of a man who weighs 140 pounds con¬ 
tains about 38 grains of iron. It is found 
in the red blood corpuscles, and is supposed 
to carry oxygen from the lungs through the 
body. What other service it performs we 
do not know, but its presence is necessary 


and destroys its usefulness. This is not the 
case with the metal with which we are now 
concerned— : gold, the chief of the precious 
metals. It resists oxygen under all ordi¬ 
nary circumstances, and, therefore, is usu¬ 
ally found in its pure or native state, while 
iron is found only as an oxide or other 
chemical compound, except in the case of 
the native iron which falls to the earth from 
space in meteorites. 

Gold, while very rare as compared with 
iron, is almost as widely diffused. Traces 
of gold can be found almost everywhere in 

























































THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


121 


the clays and sands of the earth, while vast 
quantities of it exist dissolved in the waters 
of the ocean. But there are few places 
where it is plentiful enough to pay for the 
labor of extracting it. Absurd ideas have 
been entertained of gaining riches by getting 
the gold from sea-water, but as there are 
only a few grains of the precious metal in a 
large volume of water, the cost would far 
exceed the result. Therefore, though gold 
may exist under our feet in every section of 


does not tarnish in the air, even when 
melted, and no acid attacks it, but it may 
be dissolved by a mixture of nitric and 
hydrochloric acids, the chlorine set free 
from the latter being the active agent. 

There are two sources of the gold of 
commerce, one being the quartz of moun¬ 
tain rocks, in which it occurs in veins, the 
gold being found in strings, plates, scales, 
and small masses. But while the native 
home of gold is the quartz rock, it is most 


Approximate Amount op Money in the World in 1899. 


Countries 

Monetary 

System 

Ratio 

Between 
Gold and 
Full Legal 
Tender 
Silver 

Ratio 

Between 
Gold and 
Limited 
Tender 
Silver 

Gold Stock 

Silver Stock 

Uncovered 

Paper 

Per Capita 

Gold 

Silver 

Paper 

Total 

United States*. 

Gold and Silver 

1 to 15.98 

1 to 14.95 

$962,900,000 

$639,000,000 

$319,500,000 

$12.65 

$8.40 

$4.20 

$25.25 

United Kingdom.. 

Gold. 


1 to 14.28 

462.300,000 

111,900,000 

111,600,000 

11.50 

2.78 

2.77 

17.05 

France. 

Gold and Silver 

1 to 15 i-2 

1 to 14.88 

810.600,000 

420,100,000 

161,100,000 

21.05 

1092 

4.18 

36.15 

Oermany . 

Gold .... 


1 to 13.957 

672,800,000 

208.200,000 

156,700 000 

12.86 

3.98 

3.00 

19.84 

Belgium. 

Gold and Silver 

1 to 15 1-2 

1 to 14.38 

30,000,000 

45.000,000 

82,500,000 

4.54 

6.82 

12.50 

23 86 

Italy. 

Gold and Silver 

1 to 15 1-2 

1 to 14.38 

98,000,000 

43,900,000 

174,900,000 

3.09 

1.38 

5.52 

9.99 

Switzerland. 

Gold and Silver 

1 to 15 1-2 

1 to 14.38 

24,000,000 

10,700,000 

17,400,000 

7.74 

3.45 

5.61 

16.80 

Greece. 

Gold and Silver 

1 to 15 1-2 

1 to 14.38 

500,000 

1.500,000 

29,100,000 

.21 

.62 

12.12 

12.95 

Spain. 

Gold and Silver 

1 to 15 1-2 

1 to 14.38 

53,400,000 

37,800,000 

187,500,000 

2.92 

206 

10.24 

15.22 

Portugal .... 

Gold. 


1 to 14.08 

5 200,000 

9,600 000 

75,200,000 

1.02 

1 88 

14 74 

17.64 

Ronmania. 

Gold and Silver 



13,100,000 

7,100,000 

20,200,000 

2.42 

1.31 

3.75 

7.48 

Servia. 

Gold and Silver 



1.000,000 

1,800,000 

3,600.000 

.41 

.75 

1.50 

2.66 

Austria-Hungary.. 

Gold. 


1 to 13.69 

22L400.000 

147,300,000 

103,000.000 

4.82 

3.21 

2.24 

10 27 

Netherlands. 

Gold and Silver 

1 to 15 5-8 

1 to 15 

30,200,000 

56,400,000 

47,200,000 

6.04 

11.28 

9.44 

26.76 

Norway 

Gold. 


1 to 14.88 

8,600,000 

2,300,000 

5,100,000 

4.10 

1.09 

2 43 

7.62 

Sweden 

Gold. 


1 to 14.88 

13,000.000 

6,500,000 

29,500,000 

2.60 

1.30 

5.90 

9 80 

Penmark rTTt 

Gold. 


1 to 14.88 

16,900,000 

5,400,000 

5,900,000 

7.35 

2.35 

2.56 

12.26 


Gold 


1 to 23.24 

740,400,000 

81,900,000 


5.69 

.63 


6.32 

T urkey 

Gold and Silver 

1 to 15 7-8 

1 to 15 7-8 

50,000 000 

40,000,000 


2.07 

1.66 


3.73 

A listrn lasia. 

Gold. 

1 to 14.28 

132.100,000 

7,000,000 

22,500,000 

25.90 

1.37 

4.41 

31.68 

P.crvnt 

Gold_ 


1 to 15.68 

30,000,000 

6,400,000 


3.06 

.65 


3.71 

. 

Mexico .... 

Silver. 

1 to 16 1-2 


8,600,000 

106,000,000 

4,000,000 

.66 

8 15 

.31 

9.12 

Central Am. States 

Silver. 



1,000,000 

11,400,000 

18,100.000 

.30 

3.35 

5'32 

8.97 

South Am. States.. 

Silver^. 

i to 15 1-2 


72,700,000 

29,000.000 

1,159,300,000 

1.91 

.76 

30.51 

33.18 


Gold 


1 to 32.36 

54,000,000 

25,300,000 


1.20 

.55 


1.75 

India 

Silver 

1 to 15 


568,400,000 

47,400,000 


1.91 

.16 

2.07 

Chi n a 

mi vef 



750,000,000 



1.96 


1.96 

Straits Settlements 

Sil vef 




242,000,000 



53.82 


53.82 

Canada 

Gold. 


1 to 14.28 

20,000,000 

5,000,000 

40,500,000 

3.70 

.93 

7.50 

12 13 

C i]ba 

Gold and Silver 

1 to 15 1-2 


■ 2,000,000 

1,500,000 


1.11 

.83 


1.94 

H ay ti 

Gold and Silver 

1 to 15 1-2 


1,200,000 

3,500,000 

3,700,000 

1.20 

3.50 

3.70 

8.40 


Gold and Silver 

1 to 15 1-2 

1 to 14.39 

1,000,000 

6,800,000 


.30 

2 06 


236 


Silver 

20.000,000 

193,400,000 


4.00 

38.68 


42 68 

TTq "wck i i 

Gold and Silver 

1 to 15.98 

1 to 14.95 

4,000,000 

1,000,000 


40.00 

10.00 


50 00 

1 

Gold 


1 to 14 28 

37,500,000 

1,000,000 


17 86 

.47 


18.33 

L,ape colony.. 

C A frtm n Rpn 

Gold 


1 to 14.28 

29,200,000 

1,200,000 


26.54 

1.09 


27.63 

Finland. 

Gold. 


1 to 15 1-2 

4,100,000 

500,000 

10,800,000 

1.58 

.19 

4.15 

5.92 





4.631,700,000 

3,836,100,000 

2,836,300,000 

3.51 

2.91 

2.15 

8.57 


♦July 1, 1899. Venezuela, Chile and Peru. 


the earth, there are not many regions where 
it pays to seek for it. 

Gold, Its Character and Sources. 

Gold is a metal of a beautiful yellow 
color, quite soft, and extremely ductile and 
malleable. It is very heavy, its specific 
gravity being over 19^, while that of iron 
is 7.8439, much less than half the weight of 
gold. It melts at 2192 0 F., and begins to 
volatilize at a little higher temperature. It 


commonly gathered from the gravel or sands 
of alluvial deposits, in which it occurs in 
the form of flattened scales and grains, the 
latter varying in size, and sometimes com¬ 
posing what are known as nuggets. While 
these are not usually of much size, some 
very large ones have been found. In 1861 
a nugget weighing 201 ounces was found in 
California, while the Russian diggings have 
yielded a nugget weighing 96 pounds Troy. 
Still larger are the Blanch Barkley nugget 






















































































































122 


THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


from Australia, weighing 140 pounds, and 
the Welcome Nugget, found at Ballarat, 
which weighed 184 pounds 8 ounces, and 
yielded $41,882.62 worth of gold. 

The Placer Gold Fields. 

The great placer gold fields outside the 
United States, are in Australia and Siberia. 
Within the United States California has long 
been the principal gold-yielding State, the 
other important States being Colorado, 
Montana, Idaho, Nevada, and South Dakota. 
In the Hast small quantities of gold have 
been found in the Carolinas and Georgia. 
Our new Territory of Alaska has recently 
developed as a country ric 1 in gold, and 
may eventually prove one of the leading 
gold fields of the earth. The Philippines 
may also become a valuable source of gold. 
In California the placer deposits have been 
worked so diligently as to be in some 
measure exhausted, and the mining fra¬ 
ternity are now attacking the mother veins, 
with costly apparatus and the use of large 
capital. Arizona also gives promise of 
being rich in gold, and the miners are now 
congregating on its arid soil. In South 
Africa, the gold occurs in rock ledges, 
and needs to be obtained by mining 
processes. 

As regards the origin of the placer or 
alluvial deposits, it may be said that they 
are the result of the denudation of the hills 
and the carrying down of this mineral 
matter by rain rivulets to the streams. The 
gold remains undissolved in the water and 
its great weight causes it to sink and collect 
on the bottom of the streams. As a result 
many of the richest placer deposits are the 
dry beds of old rivers. At Cape Nome, 
Alaska, the gold-bearing sands have been 
carried to the sea, and afterward thrown 
up by the waves on the beach. 

Production of Gold. 

The United States and Australia have 
long held the leading place in gold produc¬ 
tion , but of late years the yield of the gold 
reefs of the Transvaal, South Africa, has 
largely increased, and in 1898, the year pre¬ 
ceding the recent war, the Transvaal gold 
stood at the head. A previous table shows 
the world’s gold and silver harvest. 


In North America the region ot Alaska 
and the adjoining district of Canada have 
of late years come into the field as important 
gold producers, the yield of the Klondike 
and Cape Nome fields in the year 1900 
being about $17,000,000, with large future 
possibilities. 

The total production of the precious 
metals since the discovery of America in 
1492 is estimated in money value at $9,508,- 
317,200 for gold, and $10,972,431,400 for 
silver. Of these great sums three-fourths 
the gold and more than half the silver were 
the product of the nineteenth century. 
There is no falling off in the harvest of these 
metals, the yield being steadily growing 
greater. As regards their use, though 
they are very largely employed as coined 
money, large quantities of them are con¬ 
sumed in the arts. In the year ending July 
1, 1900, the world consumed in this direc¬ 
tion $72,658,500 worth of gold and $52,990,- 
500 of silver, while the coinage of the 
nations amounted to $466,110,61.4 in gold 
and $166,226,964 in silver. The total value 
of the precious metals in the world at that 
date was, gold, $4,841,000,000; silver, 
$3,818,900,000. 

Placer Mining. 

The methods of mining in placer de¬ 
posits of gold was long very simple. The 
‘ ‘ golden fleece * ’ of the Greek legend is sup¬ 
posed to have been a sheepskin pegged 
down in the current of the Phasis River to 
entangle in its wool the grains of gold borne 
down by the water. Sheepskins are still 
used for this purpose in Hungary, Savoy, 
and Uadakh, and ox-hides in Brazil. In 
California a simple pan was first used to 
wash the gold from the sand and clay. 
Gold being about seven times as heavy as 
the other materials of the river bed, it sank 
to the bottom, while those were washed 
away. Then the cradle, or rocking trough, 
came into use ; afterwards the flume, a sort 
of wooden ditch, of great length, with catch 
basins to arrest the gold as the water carried 
away the debris. In “hydraulic mining” 
the raised beds of old rivers were washed 
away by water conveyed in tubes and 
hurled against them with great force. In 
one district in Victoria over 33,500 tons of 




THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


123 


wash-dirt were treated in three months for 
an average yield of i8J^ grains of gold per 
ton—about one part in 700,000. 

Vein Mining. 

Vein mining for gold is now the chief 
method employed in the United States, and 
is the only one in use in South Africa. In 
this the vein-stuff, after being mined from 
the rocks, is crushed to powder under the 
hammers of stamp mills or in powerful roll¬ 
ing mills. It is then treated like placer 
dirt, being washed in troughs with catch- 
pockets, in which mercury is used to amal¬ 
gamate with and hold the fine particles of 
gold. 

This is the old method, but new methods 
are now in use which save far more of the 
gold and allow ores which were formerly 
abandoned to be worked with profit. The 
Chlorine process employs an electric current 
as an aid to rapid amalgamation. The 
crushed ore is mixed with salt water in a 
caldron in which a revolving apparatus 
keeps the liquid in constant motion. From 
the revolving arms an electric current passes 
to a dish of mercury in the bottom. The 
current decomposes the salt, or chloride of 
sodium, its sodium going to the mercury, 
while its chlorine rises and dissolves the fine 
floating gold. A secondary action follows, 
the electric current now decomposing the 
chloride of gold. The gold goes to the • 
mercury and is amalgamated; the chlorine 
rises and dissolves more gold, and thus the 
process is continuously repeated. Chlorine 
is not the only substance used, cyanogen 
being also employed. In one cyanide pro¬ 
cess a mixture of potassium cyanide and 
cyanogen bromide is used with remarkable 
results. By these methods low-grade ores, 
which formerly it did not pay to work, can 
now be profitably reduced. This is the case 
with the South African ores, which are too 
low in gold to be worked with profit by the 
old methods. 

Silver Mining. 

What has been said of the yellow metal, 
gold, applies in a measure to the white 
metal, silver, except that the latter is 
worked only from the rock, since it does 


not occur in placer deposits. Silver is fre¬ 
quently found in the native state, though it 
is generally alloyed with gold, arsenic, and 
antimony. The native alloy in the great 
Comstock lode of Nevada contains about 43 
per cent, of silver. The galena ores of the 
United States, except those of the Missis¬ 
sippi Valley, nearly all contain native silver 
in quantities varying from o. 10 to 3.00 per 
cent. In these the mixture is heated till the 
lead melts and floats away, carrying with it 
the silver, while a spongy mass of copper 
remains. The rich alloys are reduced by the 
process of amalgamation. Great single 
masses of native silver have been found. At 
Freiberg, in Saxony, a mass weighing 140 
pounds was discovered ; while in the Copen¬ 
hagen Museum is a lump weighing 560 
pounds. Another piece nearly three times 
as heavy has been found. 

There are numerous ores of silver, of 
which the most important are Argentite, or 
Sulphide of Silver ; Sulphanite and Pyragy- 
rate, or Sulph-antimonites of Silver ; Prous- 
tile, or Sulph-arsenite of Silver ; Chloragy- 
rite, or Chloride of Silver and Embolite, or 
Chloro-bromide of Silver. The great silver- 
producing region of the United States was 
discovered as late as 1859. The lodes occur 
in the Rocky and Sierra Nevada Mountains, 
in the States of Nevada, Montana, Idaho, 
California, Colorado, and Utah, and the 
Territories of Arizona and New Mexico. 
Outside the United States silver occurs 
abundantly in Mexico and in parts of the 
Andes of South America, and in various 
sections of the Eastern Hemisphere. The 
production of silver has enormously in¬ 
creased since the discovery of the rich de¬ 
posits in Western North America. Mexico 
rapidly rose to the head as the greatest 
silver-producing country of the world, and 
it retains this position, though it is closely 
approached by the United States. Nevada, 
formerly the great silver region of this 
country, has now decidedly fallen off, and 
Colorado and Montana have risen to the 
head of the silver States. The subjoined 
table shows the production of gold and 
silver in the several sections of the United 
States for the year ending January 1, 1900. 

In conclusion of our treatment of the 
precious metals, we give, in the foregoing 



124 


THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


table, the approximate amount of money in 
the world, as compiled from the report of 
the Director of the Mint for January i, 1900. 

Copper Production. 

Though copper occurs in many parts of 
the earth, the whole world looks to the 
United States for its main supply of this im¬ 
portant metal. This country contains three 
enormous deposits of copper in the Lake 
Superior region, at Butte, Montana, and in 
Arizona, while smaller quantities are found 
in New Mexico, Colorado, Vermont, and 
some other States. In the rich mines of 
Lake Superior native copper is found, and 
large masses have been obtained. These 
mines were worked by the Mound Builders 
long before white men came to America, 
copper being the only metal they possessed. 
It is now found in this region in the form 
of nodules or sheets, distributed through 
the veins. In Montana, the copper occurs 
in granite, usually in connection with sil¬ 
ver. In Arizona, it is found in the form of 
oxides and carbonates. The world’s pro¬ 
duction of this metal in 1898 was 434,239 
tons, of which 239,241, or more than half, 
were mined in the United States. Spain 
and Portugal came next, with 53,225 tons. 
In the United States, the yield of Montana 
was 96,861, of Michigan 69,942, and of Ari¬ 
zona 53,940 tons. 

Copper is a metal used for many impor¬ 
tant purposes in the arts, large quantities 
of it being employed in sheathing ships and 
in the manufacture of boilers and utensils 
for domestic purposes. A highly valuable 
property is the fact that it is one of the best 
conductors of electricity, silver being its 
only close rival in this field. As a result, 
copper has come widely into use as a mate¬ 
rial tor trolley-car wires, and in all other 
cases where large quantities of electricity 
need to be conveyed. Alloyed with zinc, it 
forms the very useful substance, brass, 
while with different proportions of tin it 
forms bronze, bell-metal, gun-metal, and 
speculum-metal. 

Lead Production. 

Lead, the softest of the metals in com¬ 
mon use, and one of the most easily melted, 
owes much of its usefulness to these quali¬ 


ties. It can be readily rolled into thin 
sheets and drawn into tubes or pipes. For 
one of its extensive uses, the covering ot 
roofs, its weight and fusibility are against 
it, since it melts easily, and the fall of the 
molten lead, in the case of a fire, is apt to 
spread the conflagration. The chief ore of 
this metal is galena, or sulphide of lead. 
This is found in extensive veins in parts of 
England and Spain, while sulphide of lead 
is abundant in Australia. Galena exists in 
large deposits in Illinois, Missouri, Iowa, 
and Wisconsin, and in smaller quantities in 
many other States. In Colorado, Utah, 
Idaho, and Montana lead abounds in the 
silver-mining districts, and the production 
of silver yields it in such large quantities as 
a by-product, tha f in this metal, as well as 
in copper, the Uniced States is the largest 
producer in the world. The annual pro¬ 
duction of this country is about 200,000 
tons. 

Tin, Its Production and Uses. 

The white metal tin is, like lead, easily 
melted and is extremely malleable at a tem¬ 
perature of 212 0 . It has a great tendency 
to crystallize, and when bent yields a pecu¬ 
liar cracking sound called “ the cry of tin,” 
which is due to the friction of the internal 
crystals. The principal tin-yielding regions 
have long been Cornwall, England, and 
Banca, in th^ Dutch East Indies. Of recent 
discovery are large deposits in the Malay 
Peninsula and in parts of Australia. In past 
times the British Islands were known as the 
Tin Islands, from their wealth in this useful 
metal. Tin sometimes occurs in the native 
state, but commonly as an oxide, which is 
known as tin stone, wood tin, stream tin, 
or kasseterite. From this ore tin is obtained 
by stamping and roasting in a furnace at a 
moderate temperature. Deposits of tin 
have been found in the United States at 
South Riverside, California, in the Black 
Hills of South Dakota, and in localities of 
Virginia and North Carolina, but in none 
of these has mining proved profitable. The 
world’s production of tin in 1898 was 73,- 
268 tons, of which 45,901 tons came from 
the Malay Peninsula, 14,380 from the Banca 
district, 4,200 from Cornwall, 4,464 from 
Bolivia, and 3,220 trom Australia, 






THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


The uses of tin are so well known that 
we need only glance at them. Its resistance 
to oxidation renders it very useful as a coat¬ 
ing for iron, and this combination, known 
as tin-plate, is employed for a large num¬ 
ber of purposes. It is abundantly used for 
the canning of fruits and other food stuffs. 
Formerly Wales was the centre of the tin¬ 
plate industry, but under the McKinley 
tariff of 1891, its manufacture was begun in 
the United States, and it has now grown 
into an important industry. In 1897, there 
were about 7,000,000 boxes of plate pro¬ 
duced, holding 112 plates to the box, a 
supply sufficient to meet the home demand. 
About one-quarter of this demand comes 
from the Standard Oil Company and the 
Armour Packing Company, while the re¬ 
mainder is mainly used in roofing and in 
tin boxes and cans for various purposes. 

Tin forms a large number of alloys with 
other metals, yielding Britannia metal, pew¬ 
ter, solder, bell metal, bronze, gun-metal, 
speculum-metal, etc. Tinfoil is an alloy of 
lead and tin, beaten to great thinness, for 
use in wrapping up and excluding the air 
from small articles. The thinnest foil is 
one two-thousandth of an inch in thickness. 
If articles of food are to be wrapped, only 
pure tin is admissible, lead in contact with 
food being dangerous. Tinfoil is often 
embossed, lacquered with gold, printed in 
colors, and otherwise ornamented, being 
often made very beautiful. 

< Zinc. 

The bluish-white metal, zinc, is quite 
malleable and ductile at temperatures of 
200° to 300°, and melts at 773 0 . Its ores 
are found abundantly in many parts of the 
earth, and in ancient times the alloy of zinc 
and copper was in use in the form of brass, 
though zinc, as a separate metal, was not 
known in Europe until after 1700. It seems 
to have been known much earlier in China. 
Its total production in 1898 was 467,749 
tons, of which Germany yielded 191,836 
and Upper Silesia, 99,232 tons, while smaller 
quantities came from Austria, the Nether¬ 
lands, France, Spain, Russia, and England, 
and 103,514 tons from the United States. 
In the form of red ore it occurs in New Jer¬ 


125 

sey, and as Calamine, or carbonate of zinc, 
near Lancaster, Pennsylvania. 

Zinc has long been used as one of the 
constituents of brass, and has of late come 
largely into use as a coating for iron, in 
what is known as galvanized iron. It 
forms, alloyed with copper, a part of the 
material of all our pins. Other uses are as 
a protective covering of floors under stoves, 
and as a lining for bath-tubs. The oxide is 
largely used to adulterate or replace white 
lead in paints. 

Nickel. 

This metal was not known till 1751, 
when it was discovered by Cronstedt, who 
called it kupfer-nickel, or old Nick’s Cop¬ 
per. It is a brilliant white, ductile metal, 
nearly as infusible as iron, with which it 
shares the property of magnetic attraction. 
It is associated with iron in meteorites, 
being one of the metals which come to us 
from space. Its great resistance to oxida¬ 
tion renders it very useful for the plating 
of steel instruments, and for coating chemi¬ 
cal vessels and cooking pots of iron. Nickel- 
plating has become one of the necessary 
arts of modern times. A new and impor¬ 
tant use for nickel is an alloy for steel in the 
plating of war-vessels, a small percentage 
of this metal greatly increasing the hardness 
of the armor. It forms useful alloys with 
copper and zinc, of which German silver 
and some white compounds used in coining 
are the most important. Our nickel half¬ 
dime is a daily handled example. 

riercury or Quicksilver. 

The ancients were acquainted with only 
seven metals, and of these the glittering 
liquid mercury formed one. With the 
exception of bromine, it is the only element 
that exists in a liquid state at ordinary tem¬ 
peratures. It occurs in nature in the form 
of cinnabar, or sulphide of mercury, which 
for ages past has been worked at the famous 
mines of Almaden, in Spain. Other mines 
are at Idria, in Transylvania, and New 
Almaden, in California, and it is also 
found abundantly in China, Japan and Peru. 
In obtaining mercury from cinnabar the 
sulphur is burned out and the metal ob¬ 
tained by distillation. In another method 



126 


THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


the ore is mixed with iron-filings or lime, 
the sulphur combining with the iron or 
calcium and leaving the metal free. 

The uses of mercury are numerous and im¬ 
portant. With many metals it forms a pasty 
mass called amalgam, a property which is 
taken advantage of in the mining of gold 
and silver, as already described, also in gild¬ 
ing and the making of mirrors. Its great 
increase in volume between the freezing and 
boiliflg points of water renders it very 
useful in the thermometer, and its weight 
makes it of value in the barometer. Its ore 
is of use in the red paint called cinnabar, 
and its compound with chlorine yields us the 
useful medicine calomel. 

Aluminium. 

It is a singular circumstance that one of 
the most abundant, and what promises to be 
one of the most useful, of the metals was 
not known to exist a century ago. Buried 
in enormous quantities in the clay of the 
earth, it lay hidden for uncounted genera¬ 
tions, waiting for the chemist of the nine¬ 
teenth century to trace it to its lair and 
bring it forth for man’s use. Combined 
with oxygen it gives us alumina, of which 
we have splendid examples in the precious 
gems sapphire and ruby, and useful ones 
in the very hard substances corundum 
and emery. Alumina combined with silica 
forms the basis of all varieties of clay, and 
is thus found almost everywhere in the 
upper strata of the earth’s surface. 

In 1827 the chemist Wcehler first obtained 
this well-hidden metal, and again, more per¬ 
fectly, in 1845, but it was not until 1854 
that Deville obtained it nearly pure and dis¬ 
covered its properties. He employed potas¬ 
sium, and afterwards sodium, as the reducing 
agent, and its production was so cheapened 
that works to manufacture it were started in 
France, England and the United States. It 
was still a costly product, its price being 
$30 a pound in 1857, $17 in i860, and $12 
as late as 1885. In the year 1884 a cap of 
aluminium made in Philadelphia, was placed 
upon the lofty Washington Monument. 

In 1886 a new process of reduction of the 
ore was employed, and since then this metal 
has been produced in the electric furnace, a 
powerful current being sent through carbon 


poles, with the result of rapidly separating 
the metal from the clay. In one of these 
furnaces 400 pounds of Aluminium a day 
may be produced. In a few years the price 
fell to less than 60 cents a pound, and in 
1895 the yield in America was 900,000 
pounds and in Europe much greater. In 
1897 it had increased in the United States 
to 4,000,000 pounds, in 1898 to 5,200,000 
pounds, and is steadily increasing in quantity 
and falling in price. This is largely due to 
the use of the great electrical power plant 
at Niagara in its production. 

Aluminium is a white metal, remarkable 
for its low specific gravity, which is 2.5 to 
2.67, its weight being but one-third that of 
iron and less than one-seventh that of gold. 
This, and its resistance to oxidation, render 
it very useful in situations where the heavier 
metals could not be used. The most strik¬ 
ing illustration of this is its employment as 
an external coating for the immense tower 
of the Philadelphia City Hall. It is used 
for many other purposes where lightness is 
desirable, as in the manufacture of bicycles 
and racing boats. A recent effort was made 
to reach the North Pole in aluminium boats. 
Of the alloys of this metal, those made with 
copper are very hard, and take a high polish. 
One of these, in which there is about 10 per 
cent, of aluminium, is of a beautiful golden- 
yellow color, and is manufactured under the 
name of aluminium bronze. It is used 
for table cutlery, in place of silver-plated 
ware, for watch chains, carriage mountings, 
metallic fittings, screw propellers, etc. 
Aluminium also forms a white allof with 
copper, zinc, silicon, and manganese, 
which is known as silver bronze, and is used 
to replace German silver. It is very strong 
and has great electrical resistance, and is 
drawn into tough wire for resistance coils. 
An alloy with chromium is as hard as steel, 
and one with 70 per cent, of iron is hard 
enough to scratch glass. 

Alum, the important chemical substance 
from which this metal gets its name, is a 
sulphate of aluminium and potassium. 

Other fietals. 

Tliere are numerous other metals known 
to chemistry, but none of such practical im¬ 
portance as those named. All of these have 





the world of science 


been discovered within the nineteenth cen¬ 
tury and many of them are very costly in 
their pure.state, some of them being far 
more high priced than gold. Sodium is best 
known in the forms of its carbonate—the 
common soda which is used for so many pur¬ 
poses ; and its chloride, or common salt, 
which exists in immense quantities dissolved 
in the waters of the ocean, or deposited as 
rock salt in the crust of the earth. The 
metal Potassium is the basis of another 
important alkali, that known as Potash, a 
highly useful chemical product. Magnesium 
is the basis of the substance magnesia, best 
known as a medicine. Calcium is a metal 
existing in the common and very useful sub¬ 
stance lime, which is known in chemistry as 
oxide of calcium. This metal burns freely 
and brilliantly, and the same may be said 
of magnesium, each yielding a flashing light, 
of use in photography. A recent product 
of Calcium is the carbon compound known 
as Calcium Carbide, made in the electric 
furnace, and the source of the brilliantly 
illuminant acetylene gas. Platinum, one of 
the rare metals, finds its chief use in its high 
melting point and great resistance to heat. 
Costly as it is, it is indispensable for crucibles 
which are to be exposed to intense heat. 
It is also of important use in the incandes¬ 
cent electric light, in which platinum wire 
is sealed into the glass bulb and conveys the 
current. It is the only substance that can 
be used without breaking the bulb. 

Petroleum or Rock Oil. 

We must now speak of what may be 
called liquid mining,—the obtaining of a 
mineral substance in a liquid state whose 
abiding place is often deep within the crust 
of the earth. This substance, known as 
Petroleum, or Rock Oil, is no new discov¬ 
ery. For ages past it has been making its 
way to the surface in certain localities, and 
has long been used for lighting purposes at 
Baku, on the Caspian Sea, and for other 
purposes by the Indians on the Alleghany 
River. It is also now found at Rangoon, 
in Burmah, at places in Austria, Sumatra, 
Java, Trinidad, Japan, Peru, and Canada, 
and in Ohio, Virginia, California, and other 
American States. 


127 

The mining for petroleum began in 1859, 
when Colonel Drake bored the first wells at 
Titusville, on Oil Creek, Pennsylvania, and 
obtained a yield of 1000 gallons of oil a day. 
This gave rise to the “ oil fever,” in which 
thousands of wells were sunk, and vast 
quantities of oil obtained. Of the other 
localities in which rock oil is found, the 
most important is Baku, in Russia, on the 
western shore of the Caspian Sea, which 
yields immense quantities of a heavy oil. 
The percentage of burning oil in this is 
small, but its cheapness renders its distilla¬ 
tion profitable. In 1870 the Standard Oil 
Company was formed by Rockefeller, An¬ 
drews, and Flagler, of Cleveland, Ohio. 
This has now become the Standard Oil 
Trust, and controls the whole vast product 
of the American oil fields. The oil, instead 
of being carried by railroad, is sent through 
pipes, hundreds of miles in length, to the 
sea-coast and other refining centres, where 
the crude material is prepared for use. 
Though the exhaustion of the oil wells has 
often been predicted, the production of the 
United States doubled between 1890 and 
1900. The total world’s product is now 
over 5,000,000,000 gallons yearly, of which 
2,500,000,000 are produced in the United 
States, 2,250,000,000 in Russia, and the 
remainder principally in Austria, Sumatra, 
Java, and Canada. 

Uses of Petroleum. 

The most important use of petroleum is 
as an illuminant. For this purpose it is 
refined by distillation. A light oil, com¬ 
posed of gasoline and naphtha, first rises, 
and is condensed, the naphtha being after¬ 
wards converted into benzine. The remain¬ 
ing substance is again distilled, yielding, 
when refined, the valuable colorless illumi¬ 
nating oil. When this has been taken off 
fresh steam is forced into the retort, and a 
heavy oil, of value for lubricating purposes, 
comes over, leaving behind a black, tarry 
product. This heavy oil, when cooled down 
to 30° F., often yields paraffine in large 
quantities, which is separated by pressing 
and straining. The remaining substance 
may be used for pavements, or, mixed with 
grease, to lubricate heavy machinery. Pe¬ 
troleum contains, on an average, 20 per 



128 


THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


cent, of light oil, 50 per cent, of burning 
oil, 22. per cent, of lubricating oil, and 8 per 
cent, of carbonaceous and tarry residue. 

Natural Gas. 

Various theories as to the origin of 
petroleum have been offered, none of which 
are fully accepted. One important charac¬ 
teristic of it is the existence of a large 
quantity of gas, which arises with the oil, 
or in many cases comes off alone, and which 
is, no doubt, closely connected in origin 
with petroleum. This gas was not used 
until after 1880, and its presence was an an¬ 
noyance, for it occasionally caught fire and 
burned with a volcanic flame. It was after¬ 
wards carried by pipes to Pittsburg and 
other places, and became the favorite fuel 
for manufacturing and domestic purposes. 
At one time Pittsburg consumed 500,000,000 
cubic feet daily in 28,000 houses and 900 
manufactories, while great quantities were 
found in wells at several points in Ohio and 
Indiana and piped to neighboring cities. 
But the supply is rapidly diminishing, and 
coal, for a time largely banished, is again 
resuming its sway. 

Asphaltum and Its Uses. 

Petroleum is generally supposed to have 
originated in organic matter, and the same 
origin must be ascribed to Asphalt or As¬ 
phaltum, a variety of bitumen supposed to 
arise from the decomposition of vegetable 
substance. It is found in most parts of the 
world, is frequently found floating on the 
surface of springs, and is abundant in the 
Dead Sea. It occurs very widely in the 
United States, and there are enormous de¬ 
posits in Mexico, supposed to have origi¬ 
nated in petroleum. Takes of it exist at 
San Timolis, in Venezuela, and on the island 
of Trinidad, each of them being about three 
miles in circumference. The Trinidad lake 
is 18 feet deep near the sides and 78 feet in 
the centre, and is estimated to contain 
6,000,000 tons. Targe quantities of com¬ 
mercial asphalt are obtained from this lake, 
and others from Cuba, Dalmatia, Syria, and 
elsewhere. 

Asphaltum occurs as a dry solid, with a 
glossy black surface and conchoidal frac¬ 
ture. It melts easily, and burns readily, 


with little residue. It is used in the making 
of varnish, in water-proofing, and for insu¬ 
lating purposes. Asphaltic cement is of 
great value in resisting the entrance of water, 
and is employed in tunnel construction. 
Targe quantities of asphalt are used for 
roofing purposes, the roofing materials being 
saturated with a mixture of this substance, 
coal-tar, pitch, and petroleum. But its 
most important recent use is for paving. 
In most of the large cities of civilized lands 
many miles of asphalt street pavements now 
exist. In 1890 there were more than 200 
miles of such pavements in United States 
cities, and since then a much greater length 
ha5 been laid. The city of Washington is 
very largely paved with this admirable 
material for light driving use. 

How Clay is Utilized. 

We have not yet exhausted the import¬ 
ant materials which the crust of the earth 
offers to the use of man. As valuable in 
tlieir way as any of the metals named are 
the immense deposits of clay which form 
the external covering of the rocks in most 
regions of the earth, and are specially abun¬ 
dant in the river valleys. For building 
material clay stands first in the history of 
civilization. During the immense period of 
4000 or 5000 years bricks of clay, dried in 
the sun, formed almost the only building 
material used in the very ancient kingdoms 
of Babylonia and Assyria, and similar mate¬ 
rial, known as adobe, is still in use in 
Mexico and elsewhere. In later ages burnt 
bricks came very generally into use, and 
these are now far the most important of all 
the building materials used by man, while 
large quantities of them are consumed in 
paving, in the building of arches, tunnels, 
etc., and pipes of burnt clay are indispensa¬ 
ble for drainage. In the form of terra-cotta 
burnt clay is largely used for ornamental 
architecture, vases, statues, and other pur¬ 
poses. The total value of bricks and other 
clay products in the United States in 1898 
was $58,4/0,543. 

These are far from being the only uses 
which man makes of this abundant material. 
At a very remote date he began to mould 
clay into the form of domestic vessels, knead¬ 
ing it with water, hardening it with fire, and 




THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


ornamenting it with simple devices. The 
making of burnt clay-ware is one of the 
oldest of the arts, and specimens of broken 
pottery are found abundantly among the 
relics of early man. As time went on, the 
product of the potter grew more elegant in 
shape and more artistic in decoration, until 
in ancient Greece it became one of the chief 
products of the fine arts. The making of 
pottery has never been suffered to die out. 
In modern times it is among the most im¬ 
portant of the arts. Every family depends 
largely for domestic comfort on some form of 
baked clay, now as the rough, strong stone¬ 
ware used in pots, jugs, and varied cooking 
utensils, now as the finer and more delicate 
ware used in the cups and plates of our 
tables and other articles of utility. 

rianufacture of Porcelain. 

From domestic we pass to fine art in the 
use of porcelain, the richest and most deli¬ 
cate kind of pottery, which is made with 
the utmost care and skill from the finest and 
purest clays. This costly and elegant mate¬ 
rial varies from the semi-transparent and 
richly ornate table-ware to the highly 
artistic ornaments of drawing-rooms and 
museums, in the forms of vases, statuettes, 
and other products of art, some of which 
call for the highest skill and rarest genius 
of the artist. From the rude vessel shaped by 
primitive man to the nobly artistic vases of 
many modern art collections there is a vast 
evolution, yet burnt clay stands at the 
bottom of it all. 

The manufacture of porcelain and other 
fine wares has become a very important indus¬ 
try of the United States, its chief centres being 
at Trenton, New Jersey, and East Liver¬ 
pool, Ohio. The United States possesses 
inexhaustible beds of the richest kaolin, or 
porcelain clay, and endless deposits of the 
commoner pipe, potters’ and fire clay, with 
reservoirs of moist colored clays, and the 
other materials used in the potter’s art. 
Yet in addition to the vast quantities of 
pottery made in this country, there is an 
annual importation of china and earthen¬ 
ware valued in 1899 at $7,600,000. 

Not only the clays, but the stones of the 
earth’s crust are employed in useful pur¬ 
poses by man, and from a very early date 
9 C 


129 

stone has been used for the most pretentious 
architecture and the most stupendous erec¬ 
tions. From the mighty pyramids and enor¬ 
mous temples of Egypt, and the huge mega- 
lithic structures of other ancient lands we 
come down to the artistic temples of Greece, 
the charming examples of Saracenic archi¬ 
tecture, the ornate Gothic cathedrals of 
the Middle Ages, and the varied examples 
of religious and public architecture of our 
own times. Aside from these grander struc¬ 
tures are multitudes of dwellings in which 
stone replaces brick. 

Common Building Stones. 

Far the most common of building stones 
are the sandstones and limestones, while 
granite is used to a considerable extent. 
Sandstone of fine brown and reddish shades 
of color is exceedingly abundant, and is 
very widely employed for the more preten¬ 
tious mansions, while limestone, both in its 
finest form of marble, and in its non-crystal¬ 
line but strong and hard varieties, is a 
favorite material for churches, banks, and 
other public buildings. For interior decora¬ 
tion the many richly-colored marbles are of 
unsurpassed beauty. The use of granites is 
also considerable, and there are various 
other building stones more rarely employed. 

The United States abounds in excellent 
building stones. Sandstones are widely 
distributed, have much variety of tint and 
texture, and are comparatively cheap, so 
that, aside from brick, they form the most 
valuable group of American building mate¬ 
rials. Building granites are chiefly obtained 
from the quarries of Maine. They vary in 
color, the Calais stone being red, the Spruce 
Head variety gray, and that from Hallowell 
nearly as white as marble. All the other 
New England States, and some other States 
of the Union, contain granite suitable for 
building purposes, and of late years polished 
granite has come largely into use for house 
columns and cemetery ornament. 

Marbles of fine character are also abun¬ 
dant, the strong and durable white marble 
from Lee, Massachusetts, being that used in 
the Capitol at Washington and the Phila¬ 
delphia City Hall, the largest public edifices 
in America. Rutland County, Vermont, is 
the centre of the marble industry for purely 



130 


THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


decorative purposes, though of late years 
colored marbles of great beauty have been 
found in many parts of the United States. 
Fine statuary marble has also been found in 
this country, though for ages past Italy has 
been the chief source of supply to sculptors. 
The famous old quarries of Carrara are still 
rich in the finest marbles, of which they 
supply from 40,000 to 50,000 tons per an¬ 
num. The total production of building 
stone in the United States is estimated at 
a value of $30,000,000 yearly. 

Mineral Production. 

The total value of all the minerals pro¬ 
duced in the United States in the calendar 
year 1899 was$876,008,946, a product40 per 
cent, greater than that of 1889, the figure for 
which was $697,820,790. The greatest in¬ 
crease in 1899 was in the value of the pig- 
iron product, which increased to $245,172,- 
654, or about no per cent, over 1898. The 
enormous increase was due to the phenom¬ 
enal demand and high prices. The increase 
in coal production added over $48,000,000, 
or 23 per cent, to the 1898 value. Copper 
increased nearly 60,000,000 pounds in 
quantity and over $42,000,000 in value, the 
ruling prices being higher than for several 
preceding years. 

Crude petroleum advanced nearly $20,- 
500,000, or about 45 per cent., due princi¬ 
pally to advanced prices, the production in¬ 
creasing less than 4 per cent. The value of 
the natural gas consumed in 1899 was placed 
at a little over $20,000,000, against 15,300,- 
000 in 1898, due entirely to the higher prices 
charged. 

An increase of about 10 per cent., or 
from $64,463,000 in 1898 to $71,055,400 in 
1899 was shown in gold production. The 

SCIENCE IN 

We are in the midst ot the Age of Elec¬ 
tricity. A hundred years ago electricity 
was a toy ; people amused themseh es with 
drawing sparks and giving shocks. To-day, 
it is the leading power of the world. It is 
around us on every side. We travel by its 
aid ; it carries our news at lightning speed ; 
it talks for us across the continent; it lights 


production of silver showed a small increase. 
Lead production decreased 6 per cent., but 
increased over $2,000,000 in value. Zinc 
increased to 119,408 short tons, valued at 
$ I 3>73 I >9 2 °- The building stone industry 
increased nearly $8,000,000. Every year 
from 1881 to 1898, inclusive, the value of the 
non-metallic products exceeded the metallic, 
but in 1899 the metallic was greater by 
$79,5 oo , oo °. A change of nearly $90,000,- 
000 occurred in the relative values between 
1898 and 1899. 

The Deepest Mines. 

In connection with the subjects treated 
in this chapter the following facts may be of 
interest. 

The most extensive mines in the world 
are those of Freyburg, Saxony. They were 
begun in the twelfth century, and in 1835 
the galleries, taken collectively, had reached 
the unprecedented length of 123 miles. A 
new gallery, begun in 1838, had reached a 
length of eight miles at the time of the 
census of 1878. 

The deepest perpendicular mining shaft 
in the world is located at Prizilram, Bohemia. 
It is a lead-mine which was begun in 1832. 
In January, 1880, it was 3,280 feet deep. 

The deepest coal mine in the world is 
near Touney, Belgium; it is 3,542 feet in 
depth, but, unlike the lead-mine mentioned 
above, it is not perpendicular. 

The deepest rock salt bore in the world 
is near Berlin, Prussia, its depth being 4,185 
feet. 

The deepest hole ever bored into the 
earth is the artesian-well at Pottsdam, which 
is 5,500 feet deep. 

The deepest coal mines in England are 
the Dunkirk collieries of Lancashire, which 
are 2,824 feet in depth. 

ELECTRICITY 

our cities and warms our houses ; it does 
twenty services besides, and as yet it is only 
in its infancy, no one can say what wonders 
it reserves for us. This being the case, 
every one should know something of this 
wonderful force and its performances. They 
should know what electricity is and what it 
does, so far as any one can tell them. Of 




THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


what it is we know very little. Of what it 
does we know more. It is proposed in the 
present chapter to tell the story of this 
magical force, and state what have been its 
developments within the recent century. 

The Nature of Electricity. 

What is electricity ? This is a question 
much more easily asked than answered, un¬ 
less we adopt the brief and decisive answer 
of the agnostic, “Nobody knows.” For a 
long time it was supposed to be a substance. 
Some thought it to be two substances, one 
attracting the other. At a later date sci¬ 
entists began to look upon it as a motion, 
an extraordinary rapid agitation of the fine 
particles of matter. The force of electricity 
was regarded as the energy developed by 
this motion. Since we have learned that 
electricity can travel along the telegraph 
wire at the speed of many thousands of 
miles in a second, and reach San Francisco 
from New York while we are drawing a 
breath, we feel sure that it is a motion, for 
no one dreams of matter travelling at so 
vast a speed. 

If it be asked, What kind of a motion is 
it ? the answer is that it is thought to be a 
wave motion, closely similar to that of light. 
This is the theory of Mr. Clerk-Maxwell, 
a Scottish scientist, who found that elec¬ 
tricity travels as fast as light. Since then 
it has been learned that electricity can be 
reflected and refracted like light, and inves¬ 
tigators now feel sure that these two forces 
are very close relations—either sisters or 
first cousins. There is one marked differ¬ 
ence ; light journeys freely in straight lines, 
through open space; electricity is confined 
to the surface of matter, from which it can¬ 
not escape, and it can be made to follow 
very crooked lines, along curved and twisted 
wires. 

Electricity is a Force. 

Scientists are now satisfied about some 
other things. At one time it was thought 
that matter extended in a very rare form 
through all space, and that light was a 
vibration of this diffused matter. It is now 
believed that space is filled with an extremely 
delicate substance, very much finer than 
ordinary matter, which has been given the ' 


131 

name of ether, and that light is a motion of 
this wonderfhlly fine material. If electricity 
is like light, it also must travel through 
ether, and we are now taught that the elec¬ 
tric current does not really pass along the 
surface of the telegraph wire or other con¬ 
ductors, but through the ether which sur¬ 
rounds and touches this surface. It is held 
that matter is too coarse for wave motion to 
pass through it with any great speed, and 
that the vast rapidity of the light and elec¬ 
tric waves needs some far finer vehicle. All 
this goes to indicate that science has learned 
a little about the general character of elec¬ 
tricity, even though it does not know its 
special nature and conditions. What we 
are principally concerned here with is the 
fact that electricity is a force. It is set 
in action by some power, mechanical or 
chemical, and when it has completed its 
journey, long or short, it displays a power 
similar to that which set it going, though 
not equal, for some of it is lost in the jour¬ 
ney. 

riagnetic Attraction. 

Now let us turn our attention to Magne¬ 
tism, another of the wonderful powers of 
nature. It is very different in character 
from electricity, which it resembles only in 
one thing, that both possess the power of 
attraction and repulsion. Yet like many 
unlike people these two are good friends, 
and work together in harmony. In fact, if 
it were not for magnetism, all the wonder¬ 
ful power of electricity would be of little use 
to us. Without the magnet we could get 
no rapid news by telegraph, and the trolley 
car would stand still upon its track ; so that 
the modern world is as greatly indebted to 
the magnet as it is to the electric current. 

We have said something about the na¬ 
ture of electricity ; now let us say some¬ 
thing about the nature of magnetism. Very 
likely all of you have read the story of how 
Sir Isaac Newton saw r an apple fall from a tree 
and began to think about what made things 
fall downwards instead of upwards or side¬ 
ways. He came to the conclusion that 
there is some principle in matter that makes 
it draw all other matter towards it, a power 
which is known as attraction. All things 
in the air are drawn downward to the earth 




132 


THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


because the earth is a great mass of matter, 
and has a very powerful attraction. But the 
earth itself tends to fall towards the much 
larger sun, and all the suns of space are 
pulling steadily upon one another. It is only 
their rapid motion in other directions that 
keeps them from all tumbling together and 
forming one monstrous central sun, as large 
almost as a universe. This wonderful force 
is called gravitation, or universal attrac¬ 
tion. 

But wait a moment. Let us see if this 
is the whole story. Take in your hand a 
piece of iron that has been treated in a cer¬ 
tain way and hold it over some iron nails or 
other small bits of iron. You will quickly 
see that all things do not fall downwards, 
for the nails will at once fall upwards and 
cling to the end of the piece of iron. Here 
is a wonderful mystery; this iron bar or 
horseshoe has in it an attraction for small 
things greater than the attraction of the 
earth. We call this piece of iron a magnet, 
but that is only giving it a name. What 
magnetism is we do not know. 

This much we do know, that the mag¬ 
netic force does not belong to the iron. We 
can give magnetism to a piece of iron, and 
can take it away again. By rubbing it in a 
certain way with a magnet we can make it 
attract other iron. By rubbing it in the 
opposite direction we can deprive it of this 
power. We judge from this that magnet¬ 
ism also is a motion, not a substance. But 
it is not a traveling motion, like light and 
electricity. It is a local motion, a motion 
inherent in the particles of matter. In most 
substances the magnetic attraction is very 
slight. It is usually so in iron and nickel, 
but under certain circumstances the particles 
or molecules of these metals all seem to pull 
together and exert a strong attraction. 

Magnetic Repulsion. 

This is not the whole mystery of the 
magnet. It has another force, known as 
repulsion. If we take two magnets and 
hold two ends of them near each other, we 
feel a strong pull, a powerful desire to come 
together. But if we turn one of them so 
that its other end conies into play, we feel a 
push instead of a pull. Instead of attrac¬ 
tion there is repulsion ; they are seeking to 


push each other apart. Thus the two ends 
of the magnet exhibit different powers, and 
seem to possess opposite properties. To 
distinguish them we call one end the north 
pole (because, for some strange reason, it is 
attracted towards the north pole of the 
earth), and the other end the south pole (it 
being attracted towards the south pole of 
the earth). The principle of the magnet is 
that two north poles or two south poles repel 
each other, while a north and a south pole 
attract each other. What is the cause of 
all this no one can very well say, but the 
strange fact exists that a piece of iron can 
manifest three conditions, attracting under 
one condition, repelling under another, and 
under a third neither attracting nor repelling. 

The Electro=Magnet. 

There is another and highly important 
magnetic property of iron yet to be de¬ 
scribed. There is a difference between soft 
iron, which has been deprived of its carbon, 
and steel, or carbonized iron. Soft iron can 
be made as magnetic as steel, but does not 
retain its magnetism. Steel accepts mag¬ 
netism slowly, but retains it indefinitely. 
And a close relation between electricity and 
magnetism is shown in the fact that the 
easiest and quickest way to make a magnet 
is by aid of the electric current. If a wire 
be wound in many turns around a piece of 
soft iron and a current of electricity be sent 
through it, the iron instantly becomes a 
magnet, and attracts any iron that is near 
it. If the current be cut off, the iron in¬ 
stantly loses its magnetism, and at once lets 
fall the iron it held, or ceases to attract the 
iron in its vicinity. Furthermore, if wire 
be curved into a spiral or solenoid and an 
electric current sent through it, the solenoid 
itself acts as a magnet. This fact, that 
electricity moving round a spiral acts as a 
magnet is very strong evidence that mag¬ 
netism is a phenomenon due to motion in 
curves or circles ; but beyond that we know 
very little about it. 

Soft Iron Magnet. 

A piece of soft iron thus magnetized is 
known as an electro-magnet. And an elec¬ 
tro-magnet is one of the most valuable 
things that man is acquainted with. Its 




THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


133 


value lies in the quickness with which it 
gains and loses magnetism, for this is the 
principle employed in the electric telegraph 
and the electric motor. If the electro¬ 
magnet gained and lost its strange power 
slowly instead of instantaneously, we could 
still send messages by telegraph, but we 
might get less news in a day than we now 
get in five minutes. As for the electric 
motor, it would be useless under such con¬ 
ditions. So we can thank mother Nature 
that soft iron has this wonderful property 
and does not let go of its magnetism slowly 
or hold on to it permanently like steel. 

One thing more may be said about the 
theories of magnetism. It is now thought 
that every molecule of matter is a magnet, 
being possessed of a peculiar motion that 
gives it this strange property. But usually 
each molecule seems to act independently, 
and the many small attractions and repul¬ 
sions conflict with and neutralize each 
other. It is difficult to make them act to¬ 
gether, or exert their powers all in the same 
direction. This is easily done only in the 
cases of iron and nickel, the two magnetic 
metals. The molecules of soft iron are sup¬ 
posed to yield readily to the coercive force 
of the electric current, turn so as to pull all 
together, and turn back as soon as the co¬ 
ercive force ceases. The molecules of steel 
yield less readily, but when they are once 
brought to act in harmony they retain this 
relation, and the bar of steel becomes a per¬ 
manent magnet. The carbon in the steel 
very probably has something to do with this 
difference. 

Electro-magnetism is one of the most 
important, if not quite the most important, 
discoveries of modern times, and before 
going into an account of its many useful 
applications it seemed desirable to state 
briefly what electricity and magnetism are, 
and to what properties their great utility to 
man is due. To describe them scientifically 
would need a volume, so we must be con¬ 
tent with this very brief statement of their 
inherent characteristics before going into 
the story of their various applications. 

History of the Telegraph. 

From the earliest time, when beacons 
lighted on the tops of the hills were used to 


indicate the approach of an enemy, or the 
occurrence of some other important event, the 
power of communication at a distance has 
been felt to be a desideratum. Many inven¬ 
tions and arrangements have from time to 
time been made with this object, as, for ex¬ 
ample, the signals by flags, or by the old 
semaphore system—which is still employed 
for railway signalling—by ringing of bells, 
or by the motion of water in tubes, but 
none of these was applicable to any but 
short distances, or indeed generally applica¬ 
ble at all. One common method used in 
former times was by columns of smoke or 
fire ; and the heliograph flashing of signals 
from hill to hill by mirrors and sunlight is 
still in use. The discovery of the conduc¬ 
tion of electricity along metal wires, how¬ 
ever, soon gave rise to the idea of communi¬ 
cating signals by means of its effects, and 
the electric telegraph has now become one 
of the most powerful agents for the promo¬ 
tion of civilization, and even a necessity of 
every-day life. 

The first electric telegraphs proposed 
were founded on the observation of motions 
produced by the attractions and repulsion of 
statically electrified bodies. In 1747 Wat¬ 
son showed the transmission of a discharge 
from a Leyden jar through a wire stretched 
across the Thames ; and later in the same 
year he caused it to pass through 10,600 feet 
of wire supported on insulators, which were 
attached to wooden posts. The first effort 
to convey intelligence by means of electricity 
was made in 1774, before the discovery of 
the galvanic battery and the electro-magnet. 
It was proposed to have a separate wire for 
every letter, each wire to be connected at one 
end with an electric machine and at the 
other end with an pithball electroscope. At a 
later date a man named Dyer, of New York, 
devised a scheme of telegraphing with a single 
wire. As the galvanic battery was not then 
known, the frictional machine was to be used, 
while the message was to be given by a 
point passing over litmus paper, which the 
current was to mark by chemical action. 

But practical telegraphy waited until 
after the discovery by Galvani of the electric 
battery and current and by Oersted of the 
effect of the current upon a magnetized 
needle. The fact that the current could 




T 34 


THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


cause motion in such a needle led to 
many schemes of telegraphing, of which 
the only one that has held its own is the 
Wheatstone method in which deflections of 
the magnetic needle indicate the letters of 
the alphabet. This is still employed on the 
railways of England. 

Morse and his Invention. 

The electric telegraph now generally in 
use employs a different principle. In the 
year 1832, an American artist named Samuel 
F. B. Morse was on his way home from 
France in the packet-ship Sully . During 
the voyage a conversation took place in the 
cabin about some experiments that had been 
made just before in Paris, in which sig¬ 
nals were transmitted over a considerable 
length of wire. This set Morse to thinking. 
If signals could be made through hundreds 
of feet of wire, why not through hundreds of 
miles ? During the remainder of the voyage 
he sought to devise some practical method 
of signalling over the electric wire, and on 
reaching New York he began a series of ex¬ 
periments which lasted for years. His studio 
was abandoned, his pocket was often empty, 
and more than once he went hungry in his 
devotion to his idea. No one would put 
money in it, he was looked upon as a crank, 
and it took him eight years to get Congress to 
make a small appropriation of $30,000 for 
the construction of an experimental line 
between Washington and Baltimore. 

Even then Morse’s difficulties were far 
from at an end. He spent nearly all the 
money in trying to lay the wires under¬ 
ground. Ezra Cornell—to whom we owe 
Cornell University—came to his aid with an 
ingenious excavating machine which dug a 
ditch for the pipe that held the wires and 
filled in the earth behind it. But as they went 
on the current grew steadily weaker, and 
after ten miles were laid it failed altogether. 
Experiments were made, and time passed on, 
and nearly all the money was gone, but still 
the wires refused to carry the current. 
Then some one suggested that they should be 
strung overhead instead of laid underground, 
poles were rapidly erected, the wires were 
stretched across their tops, and now the 
current responded splendidly. Soon the 
wire was extended from Baltimore to Wash¬ 


ington, and on one notable day, in 1844, 
the famous first message, “ What hath God 
wrought,” was sent over its full length, 
teaching the legislators at the National 
Capital that a new wonder had come into 
the world. 

It is said that the original method 
devised by Morse was a very complicated 
series of signals, which needed a telegraphic 
dictionary to make out their meaning, and 
that the “ dot and dash ” system, known as 
the Morse alphabet, was really the invention 
of Alfred Vail, his partner. Also that the 
use of a single wire and the familiar telegraph 
“sounder” were due to Vail. However 
that be, the honor of the invention fairly 
belongs to Morse, and the world has been 
glad to give it to him, while the name of 
Vail has vanished into obscurity. 

The Morse telegraph is properly termed 
an electro-magnetic telegraph. In it the 
electro-magnet is employed as an essential 
feature. It is the rapid magnetization and 
demagnetization of soft iron, with the suc¬ 
cessive attraction and release of the sounder, 
that convey to the ear the dots and dashes 
of the alphabet. At first it was thought 
necessary to trace these on a revolving roll 
of paper, for subsequent reading, but this 
was soon discarded as useless, and since 
then sound-reading alone has been practiced. 

The Morse Alphabet. 

In the Morse receiver the instrument con¬ 
sists essentially of a soft iron bar surrounded 
by a coil of wire, and a lever of soft iron 
below the bar, which acts as an armature. 
When the current passes through the wire 
the bar becomes a magnet and attracts the 
armature, which springs upward with a 
sharp click against a stop-screw. When 
the current is stopped the bar loses its mag¬ 
netism and the armature is drawn quickly 
down by a spring. It is not the sounds, but 
the spaces or rests between the sounds, that 
form the signals. A short space is known 
as a dot, a long space as a dash, and each 
letter in the telegraph alphabet is made up 
of a combination of dots and dashes. This 
alphabet is an exceedingly convenient one, as 
it can be employed in other ways than on the 
telegraph. It can be made with a locomotive 
whistle, a horn, a light, a heliographic flash, 



THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


i35 


and in other ways. We give the alphabet 
below. As will be seen, no letter contains 
more than four signals, while the numerals 
employ five signals each. 


A- 

J- 

S- 

B- 

K- 

T — 

C- 

L- 

U- 

D- 

M- 

y_ 

E - 

N- 

W- 

F- 

O- 

X- 

G- 

P- 

Y- 

H- 

I - - 

R- 

z 


Numerals . 

l_ 4 7 

2 5 8 


369 


o 

On applying the Morse instrument to a 
long line, it was found that the current was 
frequently so weak that it could not move the 
armature, hence Morse connected with the 
instrument a relay and local battery . The 
relay consists of a pair of electro-magnet 
coils through which the line-current passes. 
The only work that these coils require to 
do is to draw down a light armature, and the 
motion of this armature, by means of a 
lever, closes a local circuit containing a bat¬ 
tery and the Morse instrument. Thus on 
every passage of the current through the 
line-wire, a current is caused to flow 
from a local battery through the instrument, 
and the work required to be done by the line- 
current is very small indeed, being merely 
the motion of the key of the local circuit at 
the receiving end. 

The Wheatstone Telegraph. 

The Wheatstone system, in use on the 
English railways, is very different. In this 
a needle replaces the sounder. At first five 
needles were used, each worked by two 
wires, but now one needle and a single wire 
do the work. When no current is passing 
the needle stands upright on a dial, but the 
current causes it to swing to the right or 
left. Even this system has been invaded by 
the Morse alphabet, which is in use all over 
the world. In the needle system a swing to 


the left means a dot and a swing to the right 
a dash. These form the frequently used 
letters E and T, while a combination of 
swings forms each of the other letters. 

It need hardly be said tha* the electric 
telegraph system made remarKaole progress. 
The first business telegraph in the United 
States, from New York to Washington, was 
completed in 1845, the first in England was 
founded in 1846. In 1870, when the Eng¬ 
lish Government bought all the telegraph 
lines, at a price of about $50,000,000, there 
were in the British Islands 60,000 miles of 
wire. In 1890 there were 195,261 miles. 
The United States in 1890 had 210,000 
miles of line and 678,997 miles of wire. 
In 1899 the Western Union Telegraph Com¬ 
pany had 189,856 miles of line and 904,633 
miles of wire, while the Postal Telegraph 
Cable Company also did business, but kept 
its length of wire a secret. The British 
Islands send the largest number of messages 
of any nation, 78,800,000 ; the United States 
stands second with 70,000,000. 

The Ocean Cables. 

The land telegraph was not many years 
old before efforts to telegraph under water 
were made. It was found that the current 
could be sent for short distances beneath 
rivers, and in 1850 the first ocean telegraph 
was laid across the English Channel, by two 
men named Brett. This was a single copper 
wire covered with gutta percha. Soon there 
were others under different short bodies of 
water, but no one then deemed it possible 
to carry a wire across the Atlantic, then 
thought to be of fathomless depth. But in 
1853 an important discovery was made. 
The bottom of the Atlantic was sounded 
from Newfoundland to Ireland, and there 
was found a vast plain, nowhere more than 
two miles deep, while it was 1600 miles 
long and 400 wide. 

This discovery set men to thinking that 
an ocean cable was possible, and chief 
among these was Cyrus W. Field, a New 
York merchant, who had already built a 
telegraph line across Newfoundland. He 
went to work with remarkable energy, or¬ 
ganized a company, and by November, 1856, 
had a capital of more than $1,000,000 sub¬ 
scribed. A cable was made in England, 





136 


THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


loaded on the American ship Niagara 
and the English ship Agamemnon , and in 
August, 1857, the Niagara s^t out from the 
Irish coast. But the cable broke, other 
accidents happened, and the task had to be 
given up. The next year it was tried in a 
different way. The two ships met in mid¬ 
ocean, joined their wires, and steamed away. 
Once more the cable parted, and hope was 
lost, except by Cyrus W. Field, who was 
one of the kind of men who do not give 
up. In July the vessels met again, spliced 
together their cables, and once more steamed 
east and west, telegraphing to each other 
through the wire as they went. This time 
the cable held, and on August 29, 1858, for 
the first time in the world’s history, men 
spoke to each other across the wide Atlantic. 
The Queen saluted America, the President 
sent greetings to England, cannon roared, 
bells rang, bonfires blazed; but day by 
day the messages grew weaker, and finally 
ceased—the cable had failed. 

The Great Eastern. 

Seven years followed, a great war was 
fought in the United States, many scientists 
declared that an ocean cable was the fancy 
of a dreamer, and some even denied that 
any messages had crossed the Atlantic at 
all; but Field did not despair. New cash 
was raised, a new cable was made, and in 
1865 the Great Eastern , the largest vessel 
on the seas, set out from the Irish coast, 
rapidly dropping the leagues of wire into 
the sea. On August 9th a flaw occurred ; 
the cable was drawn up for repairs ; sud¬ 
denly the sound of the wheel stopped ; the 
cable had broken and sunk helplessly into 
the depths. But “never despair” was 
Field’s motto, and once again, in July, 1866, 
the Great Eastern set out laden deep with 
ocean cable. On July 26th she steamed 
into Trinity Bay, Newfoundland, landed her 
cable at Heart’s Content, and her grand work 
was accomplished. The cable was success¬ 
fully laid, and from that date to the present, 
time and space have been banished in the 
sending of news between Europe and Amer¬ 
ica. The lost cable of 1865 was soon after 
lifted from the ocean bottom, spliced, and 
proved in good condition. Two cables 
crossed the ocean, 


Since then the laying of ocean cables 
has been an almost yearly event. To-day 
more than a dozen cables cross the Atlantic 
to Canada and the United States and others 
to South America, while many parts of 
Africa, Asia, and the Pacific islands are 
connected by cable with the centres of civ¬ 
ilization, so that the whole world is brought 
within speaking distance. The oceanic and 
coastwise cables in 1900 numbered 323, 
with a total length of 151,067 miles, and 
daily news reached New York from China, 
Manila, Australia, and a thousand other 
distant points. 

The Cable and Its Instrument. 

The ocean cable is a very different affair 
from the simple land wire. Strength and 
complete insulation are needed. The 1865 
cable consisted of a central copper wire, 
with six others twisted spirally around it, 
the whole being thickly treated with a mix¬ 
ture of tar, resin, and gutta-percha. Over 
this were laid four coatings of this compound 
and of pure gutta-percha, then a wrapping 
of jute, and an outer sheath of ten iron 
wires, each of which was thoroughly wrap¬ 
ped with strands of tarred Manila rope. 
The total thickness was about i}( inches, 
the weight 36 cwt. per knot. In later cables 
many improvements have been adopted, but 
they vary so much that we cannot attempt 
to describe them. 

The making and laying of the cable was 
not the only thing necessary. The reader 
will remember Professor Morse’s failure in 
laying his first wire under ground. This 
was due to what is known as Induction, a 
checking influence exercised by the earth 
on the wire. In the long Atlantic cable 
induction became a powerful resisting agent, 
the currents followed each other slowly, and 
so little electricity got through that the ordi¬ 
nary sounder was not available. A far more 
delicate receiving instrument was needed. A 
very sensitive one was invented by Sir Wil¬ 
liam Thomson (now Lord Kelvin), without 
which the cable could not have been suc¬ 
cessfully worked for commercial purposes. 
This consists of a magnet made of a frag¬ 
ment of watch-spring, ^4-inch in length, 
cemented upon a small circular convex 
mirror of silvered glass, which is suspended 



THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


i37 


by a short thread of cocoon silk. Around 
this minute magnet is a coil of very fine 
wire, and a ray of light from a lamp falls on 
the mirror. This ray is reflected upon a 
scale at such a distance that a very slight 
movement of the mirror makes a considera¬ 
ble movement of the spot of light upon the 
scale. These movements are read off like 
those of a Wheatstone needle. With the 
Morse sounder less than a word a minute 
could be received over an Atlantic cable, 
while the reflecting instrument gives easily 
fifteen words a minute, and as many as 
twenty-four have been received. In 1869 
Thomson invented the Syphon Recorder, 
by which cable messages could be perma¬ 
nently recorded. 

Overhead and Underground Lines 

Telegraph lines may be either overhead 
or underground. The former system is used 
wherever possible, but in large cities many 
miles of underground wire have been laid. 
Of the 2,600 wires which enter the Central 
Telegraph office in London, nearly all are 
underground. Overhead wires are supported 
upon wooden (sometimes upon iron) poles, 
by means of insulators made of glass, porce¬ 
lain, or other material through which the 
current cannot pass. The wire used is 
either galvanized (zinc-coated) iron wire, 
or hard-drawn copper wire for special pur¬ 
poses. Underground wires are laid in pipes 
or boxes and carefully insulated, there being 
flush boxes at intervals through which the 
wires can be reached for repairs or testing. 
The batteries usually employed in teleg¬ 
raphy are Daniell’s sulphate of copper 
battery, the bichromate of potassium bat¬ 
tery, and several others. 

Duplex and Hultiplex Telegraphy. 

The first great invention in the cheapen¬ 
ing of telegraphy was the duplex system, by 
which two messages could be sent at once in 
opposite directions over a single wire. This 
is done by a method of dividing the current, 
an ingenious arrangement of wires enabling 
each operator to use a special portion of the 
current. This system was developed by the 
genius of Thomas A. Edison, in 1874, into 
one in which two messages could be sent 


at once in each direction, thus constituting 
a fourfold or quadruplex system. 

A still more remarkable invention is 
multiplex telegraphy, by which a consider¬ 
able number of messages can be sent at 
once without interference over a single wire. 
The principle involved is to have at each 
end an apparatus on which rotating arms 
move synchronously, or in exact correspond¬ 
ence. When the synchronism is exact, a 
message sent over one arm can be received 
only by the corresponding one, and if there 
be a number of such arrangements set dif¬ 
ferently, each can be worked separately 
without interference with the others. This 
system, first suggested by Meyer in 1873, 
was perfected and made practical by Patrick 
B. Delany, of New York, in 1884, and by it 
the working capacity of a single wire was 
enormously increased. 

The Art of Electrical Communication. 

The state of the art of electrical com¬ 
munication to-day may be summed up as 
follows: 

Telephony.60 words a minute 

Single Morse circuits .... 15 words a minute 
Duplex Morse circuits .... 30 words a minute 
Quadruplex Morse circuits . . 50 words a minute 
Multiplex (six circuits) .... 80 words a minute 
Wheatstone automatic . . . . 125 words a minute 
Wheatstone automatic duplex 200 words a minute 
Wireless.10 words a minute 

Undoubtedly before the new century is 
ten years old at least one-half of the corre¬ 
spondence now carried by train will be tele¬ 
graphed, at an average rate for the wnole 
country of 15 cents for fifty words, or five 
times as many words for one-half the present 
telegraph toll. It is practicable to begin 
this change at once, but not by present 
methods of operation. It is only possible 
by the chemical automatic system. 

What the centenarian of a hundred years 
hence may see, a prophet should leave to 
his son to prophesy. In the way of teleg¬ 
raphy, doubtless ships at sea will hold 
converse with each other, and correct their 
chronometers with the last observation a 
hundred miles away. They will be in con¬ 
stant communication with the shore through 
the air, though the trip from the Hook to the 
Lizard may then be made so rapidly that 
only the overanxious will want a dispatch. 







138 THE WORLD 

Printing' and Automatic Telegraphs. 

Various other inventions have helped to 
perfect telegraphy. An important one of 
these is the Hughes Type-printer. In this 
the sender is like a piano keyboard, with 
the letters engraved upon the keys, and the 
message is received in plain printed charac¬ 
ters. But the mechanism is so complex and 
sensitive that only the most skillful ope¬ 
rators can handle it. There are several 
other printing systems in use. 

In all the apparatus described the mes¬ 
sage must be sent by hand, and even by the 
sounder, the fastest hand instrument known, 
the most expert operator cannot send more 
than forty-five words per minute. But the 
electric current is capable of performing far 
more rapid work than this, and there are a 
number of automatic systems in use that can 
be operated with extraordinary speed. But 
it is necessary to prepare a paper transmit¬ 
ter in which the message is punched with 
holes representing letters, and the time and 
cost of preparing this is the defect of the 
system. When ready it can be run through 
the machine at a speed of over 400 words 
per minute. But this is very slow as com¬ 
pared with a system credited to two Hun¬ 
garian engineers, Poliak and Virag, in the 
year 1899. Their system employs as re¬ 
ceiver a reflecting mirror, like that used in 
cable telegraphy. The beam of light, swing¬ 
ing to right and left, falls on a sensitive slip 
of photographic paper moved by clock-work, 
and is thus recorded. There is claimed for 
this instrument a speed of about 1600 words 
a minute. But, as in all automatic systems, 
the time gained in sending is lost in prepar¬ 
ing and translating, and the old-fashioned 
Morse sounder does not seem likely soon to 
be banished. 

Wireless Telegraphy. 

It is no new fact that telegraph messages 
can be sent without the aid of wires. Prof. 
Morse sent messages across a small river, 
having batteries on one side and magnets on 
the other, and wires on each side parallel to 
each other and connected with buried copper 
plates. By a similar process in 1893 mes " 
sages were sent a distance of three miles, 
and later for four and one-half miles. In 
these experiments the principle of electric 


OF SCIENCE 

induction was used. In 1895 the powerful 
Hertzian waves were employed, in which 
the electricity seems to stream out like a 
fluid through miles of air. Ini 896 Marconi, 
an Italian electrician, invented a method in 
which he found that these waves spread out 
in all directions, and would act on receiving 
instruments placed all around at a consider¬ 
able distance away. His first messages were 
sent about a mile, but since then he has 
sent them across the English Channel, and 
for many miles in other localities. What 
the end of this new and wonderful process 
will be it is too soon to predict, but it is 
likely to prove useful in a hundred ways in 
the coming time. 

The Discovery of the Telephone. 

Wonderful as is the telegraph, with its 
power of transmitting instantaneous sound 
signals over thousands of miles of distance, 
still more wonderful is a later discovery— 
the telephone,—by which the very tones of 
the human voice are similarly transmitted. 
The first discovery in this direction was 
made in 1861 by Johann Philipp Reiss, a 
German professor, of Friedrichsdorf, who 
exhibited his telephone at Frankfort on 
April 25th of that year. His discovery em¬ 
braced all the essential features of the exist¬ 
ing telephone, but he sought in vain to 
induce scientists to pay attention to it, and 
he died in 1874 a victim of disappointment 
and distress of mind. But his idea was not 
lost. Others took it up and developed it 
into a more practical system. Chief among 
these were Elisha Gray, of Chicago, and 
Alexander Graham Bell, of Boston, both of 
whom entered their discoveries at the patent 
office on the same day. On February 14, 
1876, Professor Gray filed a caveat of his 
invention and Professor Bell applied for a 
patent on his. Bell gained the priority, a 
fact worth millions of dollars to the in¬ 
ventor. The Bell telephone, which was 
first exhibited in a retired corner of the 
Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia in 
1876, has now its hundreds of thousands of 
miles of wire in the United States. Among 
the others who aided to perfect the tele¬ 
phone may be named Prof. C. E. Dol- 
bear, of Taft’s College, Massachusetts, and 
Thomas A. Edison. 




THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


139 


In regard to the question of priority, it 
is generally conceded that Prof. Gray was 
much in advance of others with successful 
experiments, but Prof. Bell was the first to 
perfect his invention and secure a full 
patent. On February 12, 1877, his tele¬ 
phone was tested between Boston and Salem, 
and found to convey vocal sounds from one 
place to the other, a distance of eighteen 
miles. Edison’s carbon “loud-speaking” 
telephone was brought out in 1878, and 
proved of inestimable value. Since then, 
there have been many improvements in the 
different parts of the telephone, and it has 
become a daily feat to carry on a conversa¬ 
tion between New York and Chicago, nearly 
1,000 miles away. 

The Principle of the Telephone. 

It need hardly be said that the sensation 
we call sound is due to the action of the 
vibrations of the atmosphere upon the tym¬ 
panum or drum of the ear, a thin stretched 
membrane. The telephone employs a kind 
of artificial ear, consisting of a stretched 
membrane, which is repeated at each end of 
the wire, one accepting the sound, the other 
reproducing it. The voice of the speaker 
falling on the receiving membrane, causes 
it to vibrate in the same manner as the 
drum of the ear. The effect of the vibrations 
is to cause a rapid making and breaking of 
an electric current which traverses a tele¬ 
graphic wire, and these electric waves in 
turn act upon a diaphragm or tense mem¬ 
brane at the receiving end, causing it to 
vibrate in the same manner. The sounds 
which caused the first vibration are imitated 
by the second and fall upon the ear of the 
listener as vocal utterances. 

This instrument at first was very imper¬ 
fect. The most that Reiss could do was to 
reproduce the pitch of the vocal tones. 
Gray succeeded in producing their intensity 
also. Edison added an important principle. 
He discovered that carbon possesses the 
valuable property of changing its resistance 
to the electric current with every variation 
in pressure. Thus, instead of an incessant 
making and breaking of the current, as in 
the old method, in his system the current 
simply varies in intensity. The membrane 
vibrates against a disk of carbon, every 


vibration modifying the pressure and there¬ 
fore changing the strength of the current. 
As a result the membrane of the receiver 
repeats all the fine shades of vibration in 
that of the transmitter, and the voice is re¬ 
produced with all its individual character¬ 
istics. Instead of hearing mere lifeless 
sounds, one can now easily recognize the 
speaker—by the tones of his voice. The 
microphone, the discovery of which was 
claimed by both Edison and Berliner, is the 
basis of the carbon telephone, since in it 
the principle of carbon pressure was first 
employed. It is also employed as a relay 
in receiving telephones, its advantage rest¬ 
ing in its power of magnifying faint sounds. 
In the microphone a loose piece of carbon 
touches another in a telephone circuit, the 
jarring of the loose carbon causing a rapid 
variation of pressure and electric current, 
and magnifying the original sound. When 
it was first introduced, experiments were 
made in which the sounds of a fly’s feet 
in walking could be very distinctly heard. 

The Telephone Receiver. 

It need scarcely be said that the carbon 
disk cannot be made available at the receiv¬ 
ing end of the telephone, and that a different 
apparatus is necessary to cause the requisite 
vibration at this end of the circuit. 

This apparatus consists of a small elec¬ 
tro magnet in connection with a thin disk 
of iron, fastened at its edges and free to 
vibrate at its centre. Every variation in 
the strength of the current reduces or 
increases the attractive power of the mag¬ 
net and thus varies the influence exerted 
upon the diaphragm, causing it to vibrate in 
close sympathy with the vibrations of the 
transmitter, the sounds of the voice being 
thus very closely reproduced. It must be 
borne in mind that the sounds are not actu¬ 
ally carried, but are reproduced by the rattle 
of a thin piece of iron close to the listener’s 
ear, whose effect is to give the vocal tones in 
close exactness. The volume of the speak¬ 
er’s voice is not reproduced. That has so 
far proved impossible. The sounds received 
are much lower, yet quite clear and distinct 
when the receiving instrument is held close 
to the listener’s ear. 




140 


THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


Development of the Telephone Service. 

In the United States the American Bell 
Telephone Company gained an early mon¬ 
opoly of the telephone service by buying up 
all competing patents of importance. The 
first patents began to run out in 1893, but 
there remained patents on switch-boards 
and other accessories necessary to the busi¬ 
ness, and the Bell corporation still holds 
control. One important invention of recent 
date does away with the necessity of calling 
up the central office and announcing the 
number of the transmitter. Now, as soon 
as the instrument is taken from its hook, a 
visible signal on the corresponding section 
of the switch-board reveals the fact and 
number, and it is only necessary to state 
the number with which connection is desired. 
This, if the number is not already in use, is 
at once made by the active assistants at the 
central office, and the two persons who wish 
to hold a conversation are placed in direct 
communication, though many miles of space 
may separate them. 

The telephone has marked advantages 
over the telegraph, arising from the fact 
that an intermediate operator, often at a 
considerable distance, is not necessary. 
Bach subscriber has his individual wire, 
entering his office or house, and the instru¬ 
ments for sending and receiving no longer 
need to be shut up in a corner closet, but 
may stand on his desk at his elbow, to be 
picked up and used as often as needed. 
Thus a man sitting in his office or a woman 
in her parlor may in an hour’s time carry on 
brief conversations on social or business 


matters with persons many miles distant in 
various directions who otherwise could be 
communicated with only by dint of much 
time and many journeys or by the slow 
method of the mail. As a time-saver the 
telephone stands first among modern dis¬ 
coveries, and without its aid the present 
activity of business would receive a serious 
check. 

Long Distance Telephone. 

Long distance telephony was first begun 
in the United States in 1883. in which year 
a line was operated with success between 
New York and Cleveland, Ohio. The con¬ 
ducting power was greatly increased by the 
use of a large copper wire, and the difficulty 
due to imperfect insulation was gradually 
overcome, so that the voice could be heard 
with distinctness for that distance. In 1892 
New York and Chicago 930 miles apart, were 
successfully connected, and this line was 
afterwards connected with the Boston line, 
making a distance of 1259 miles. Almost 
all the large cities of the United States are 
now connected by long distance telephones, 
as are also the leading cities of Europe. It 
is perhaps but a question of time when the 
voice of man will be heard from America 
to Europe under the broad Atlantic. 

Telephone Statistics. 

The following are the latest statistics 
made public by the American Bell Tele¬ 
phone Company, which practically monopo¬ 
lizes the telephone business of the United 
States. The figures are for January 1st, of 
each year: 


Table Showing the Growth of Telephone Service: 



1897. 

1898. 

1899. 

1900. 


1897. 

1898. 

1899. 

1900, 

Exchanges. 

Branch offices .... 
Miles of wire on poles 
Miles of wire on bld’gs 
Miles of wire underg’d 

967 

832 

286,632 

* 2,594 

234,801 

1,025 

937 

327,315 

* 3,776 

282,634 

1,126 

1,008 

396,503 

15,329 

358,184 

1,239 

1,187 

509,036 

15,087 

489,250 

Miles wire submre 
Total miles of wire 
Total circuits . . 
Total employes . 
Total stations . . 

2,818 

536,845 

264,645 

14,425 

325,244 

2,675 

626,400 

295.904 

16,682 

384,230 

2,973 

772,989 

338,293 

19,668 

465,180 

3,404 

1,016,776 

422,620 

25 , 74 i 

632,946 


The number of instruments in the hands of licensees under rental at the beginning of 1900 was 1,580,101. The number 
of exchange connections daily in the United States is 5,*73,803, or a total per year of over 1,666,000,000. The average number 
of daily calls per subscriber was 8 2-10. The capital of the company is $25,886,300. 

The long-distance company had January 1,1900,12,006 miles of pole line and cable, and 150,380 miles of wire connecting 
323 offices. 

On January I, 1898, Germany had 173.981 telephone stations ; Sweden and Norway, 52,930 ; France, 45,000 ; Russia, 20,108; 
all Continental Europe, 465,180; Great Britain (1899) 1 o3,o84 ; United States (1900), 632,946. 

As will be perceived, the United States has made far the most rapid progress in telephony, its number of stations equal¬ 
ling that of the whole Continent of Europe. 




















THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


The Phonograph. 

The investigations into the telephonic 
principle led to another discovery, in its 
way still more wonderful, though as yet of 
less practical utility, made by Mr. Edison 
in 1877 and announced to the public in the 
following year. This was the seemingly 
magical Phonograph, in which the voice is 
not sent over a wire, but is sealed np in a 
casket, to be released for the benefit of 
future audiences. By its aid the voice of 
the orator or singer of to-day may be heard 
in all its varied tones and inflections ten or 
twenty centuries hence, ages after the very 
existence of the speaker or singer may have 
been forgotten. 

The principle of the phonograph is a 
simple one, wonderful as are its results. 
Though due to studies in electrical phe¬ 
nomena, electricity has nothing to do with 
it, it being merely a method of producing 
vibrations in a tense diaphragm, as in the 
telephone, and causing those vibrations to 
permanently record themselves. In the 
phonograph a small brass cylinder is caused 
to turn on a metal shaft, and arranged to 
travel horizontally on a spiral thread cut in 
the shaft. On the surface of the cylinder is 
stretched a sheet of tinfoil, and in front of 
it is a mouthpiece, with a very thin metal 
plate or diaphragm at its bottom, to which 
is attached a round steel point. This point 
touches the foil, and when the diaphragm 
is made to vibrate by words spoken into the 
mouthpiece it is pressed into and scratches 
the foil. By turning a crank attached to 
the shaft, the cylinder is caused to rotate 
and move horizontally, and as words are 
spoken into the mouthpiece the sharp steel 
point makes a spiral series of indentations 
in the foil, of varying depth and character, 
in accordance with the strength and rapidity 
of the vibrations produced. 

If now the cylinder be brought back to 
its starting point and a resonator be put in 
the place of the mouthpiece, the words and 
tones of the voice can be closely repro¬ 
duced. The steel point is held by a screw 
against the foil, and as the cylinder rotates 
the point retraces the indentations from end 
to end, causing the diaphragm to vibrate in 
the same manner as before, and producing 


141 

similar vibrations in the air. These vibra¬ 
tions from the resonator sound like spoken 
words, and if the crank be turned exactly 
as originally, the exact pitch and tone of 
the voice will be given back. 

In the development of the phonograph 
several improvements have been made. An 
electric motor is used to turn the crank ; 
wax replaces tinfoil in the cylinder ; bifur¬ 
cated ear-tubes are used for hearing, and 
progress has been made in other directions. 
One of the later developments is the grapho- 
phone, from which, by the aid of a large 
trumpet, the record of the phonograph can 
be transmitted to the ears of a large audi¬ 
ence, without need of the eartube or other 
contrivance. In this a preparation of wax 
and paraffine is used, in which the fine steel 
point cuts a minute hair-line, scarcely visible 
to the naked eye, yet capable of giving a 
reproduction of a song, a speech, the sound 
of a musical instrument, etc., with remark¬ 
able exactitude. 

Elect ro=Meta!lurgy. 

Hitherto we have dealt with the methods 
of conveying intelligence by electrical and 
other agencies. We have next to deal with 
some other results of electric power. One 
of the earliest applications of the galvanic 
battery lay in the decomposition of chemical 
compounds of metals by the current, and 
the deposition of the pure metal for plating 
or other purposes. In the electro-plating 
process a solution of cyanide of silver is 
employed, and a current of electricity sent 
through it from a battery. A plate of sil¬ 
ver forms the positive electrode and the 
articles to be plated form the negative. 
The electric current decomposes the cya¬ 
nide, the silver is deposited in a thin film 
on the articles to be plated, and the cya¬ 
nogen is set free at the silver plate, which i* 
begins to dissolve, forming new cyanide of 
silver. With this the process is repeated, 
and it can be kept up while any silver 
remains, so that the article can be covered 
with a coating of silver of any desired 
thickness, and firmly attached to the interior 
metal. 

Electro-gilding, or covering with gold, 
is performed in the same manner, and other 
metals can be similarly deposited by the 



THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


142 

battery action. Among the most common 
of these processes is that of plating with 
nickel, also the covering of iron with zinc, 
producing what is known as galvanized 
iron. In this operation a solution of sul¬ 
phate of zinc is employed. 

Electrotype. 

A highly important application of this 
principle is to be seen in the electrotype, in 
which copper or other metals are deposited 
upon moulds of coins, types, engraved 
blocks, medals, etc., of which faithful 
copies can be produced. The method was 
invented in 1837 by Professor Jacobi, of St. 
Petersburg. In a bath composed of sul¬ 
phate of copper electrolytic action will de¬ 
compose this compound, the copper being 
deposited upon a mould of the article to be 
copied, while the oxygen of the decomposed 
water forms oxide of copper with the copper 
of the positive plate. The oxide unites with 
the released sulphuric acid to form new 
sulphate of copper, and this is again decom¬ 
posed, the process being successively re¬ 
peated. One of the most important applica¬ 
tions of this process is to prepare a duplicate 
in copper of pages of type, and thus release 
the type for other use. Engraved copper 
plates can be multiplied indefinitely, wood 
cuts be reproduced in copper, etc. 

Medical Use of Electricity. 

The use of electricity as a remedial agent 
is by no means new, and its employment is 
increasing. It is applied in three forms, the 
static, the galvanic, and the inductive, or 
Faradic. Static electricity, that of the old 
frictional machines, is little employed of late 
years, but the current from the galvanic 
battery is largely used, some form of the 
bichromate cell being commonly adopted. 
As the current has to traverse the skin, 
whose electrical resistance is high, a battery 
composed of a considerable number of cells, 
sa\y from thirty to fifty, is deemed necessary. 
For the ordinary treatment of muscles, 
nerves, etc., disks, plates, or cones of brass 
or carbon, covered with flannel or wash 
leather, are applied to the skin; but if strong 
currents are used, large pads of moist clay, 
flannel, or sponge, ten inches or more in 
diameter, are necessary, a platinum or steel 


needle centring the current upon the part 
to be heated. With such a terminal a cur¬ 
rent of two hundred milli-amperes can be 
borne without inconvenience, but if the ter¬ 
minal be reduced to an inch in diameter, 
intense pain and rapid destruction of tissue 
may follow. As this is what is needed in 
the removal of tumors, strong currents and 
small terminals are employed. 

In the employment of the Faradic 
method, the thick primary coil induces an 
alternating current in a secondary coil of 
fine wire, while a bundle of iron wires is 
used to strengthen the current by its mag¬ 
netic action, it being slid in and out of the 
coil as variation in strength is desired. The 
currents from a Faradic machine thus alter¬ 
nate in direction, and can be readily varied 
in strength. 

Benefits of Electrical Treatment. 

There are a number of nervous affections, 
such as chronic neuralgia, chorea, hysteria, 
and others, in which static electricity may 
be usefully employed. For acute neuralgic 
pains, such as sciatica, tic-douloureux, etc., 
the galvanic current is used, also for atrophy 
of muscle following hemiplegia, diabetes, 
and other affections, in spinal irritation, 
lumbago, the stiffened joints from chronic 
rheumatism, chronic pharyngitis, glandular 
laryngitis, chronic tonsilitis, and other dis¬ 
eases arising from chronic inflammation and 
defective nutrition. The Faradic current 
is found to be of value in cases of nervous 
exhaustion attended with insomnia, in func¬ 
tional disorders of the generative organs, in 
acute articular rheumatism and in various 
other disorders of the articular and nervous 
system. 

Electricity may be very usefully em¬ 
ployed in the removal of abnormal condi¬ 
tions of tissue, such as nsevi and aneurisms. 
Needles insulated nearly to their points are 
thrust into the tumor, and the current is sent 
through them, the result being to coagulate 
the contents around the needles, obliter¬ 
ating the nsevus, or strengthening the walls 
and filling in the sac in an aneurism. By 
the use of a powerful current most cases of 
uterine hemorrhage may be checked, the 
positive current being carried by a thick 
platinum current to the mucous membrane 



THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


of the uterus, while a large surface electrode 
lies on the abdomen. Fibroid tumors of the 
uterus are subjected to sim.lar treatment, as 
also various inflammatory conditions of this 
organ. As regards the use of “ galvanic ” 
or “magnetic” belts, from which many 
benefits are claimed, these benefits are far 
from apparent. It may be said that magnet¬ 
ism, however powerful, has no evident in¬ 
fluence upon the human body. 

In addition to its uses as a curative 
agent, electricity has also been usefully ap¬ 
plied in surgery. A powerful current sent 
along a thin wire develops heat in such a 
quantity that the wire soon becomes white 
hot, constituting the primary form of the 
incandescent electric light. Such a wire 
can be used in galvano-cautery, to cut or 
burn off, and at the same time to cauterize, 
excrescences and growths which could not 
be easily reached except by a tube and a 
small loop of platinum wire. Also a little 
incandescent lamp, whose bulb is no bigger 
than a pea, is employed to light up and 
explore cavities,—even those of the throat 
and stomach,—a use of great promise in the 
art of saving life and avoiding suffering. 

Electricity in Agriculture. 

The physiological and anatomical action 
of electricity is not confined to the human 
body, but has been applied in plant growth, 
with beneficial effects. Both atmospheric 
and terrestrial electricity have been shown 
to favor the germination of seeds and the 
increase of plant tissue. In the use of at¬ 
mospheric electricity tall poles are used as 
collectors and conducting wires ramify 
through the soil, with the result, as some 
claim, of increasing the yield one half. 
Professor Spechneff, of Kiev, claims that by 
the use of such an apparatus he obtained an 
increase in grain crops of from 28 to 56 per 
cent., and from 16 to 60 in weight of straw, 
while potatoes showed an increase of 11 per 
cent. By electrifying the earth the root 
harvest was made four times greater and 
that of leaves two or three times. When 
the seeds were electrified before planting 
their growth was nearly twice as rapid. In 
the United States similar experiments have 
been tried with varied results. Garden 
vegetables were in some cases spoiled, and 


143 

in no case clearly benefited. The use of the 
electric light at night largely increased the 
growth of plants, but the interference with 
their periodical times of rest appeared to 
be injurious. It has been found that the 
influence of electricity is beneficial to 
flowers, which bloom much sooner and 
show finer and more brilliant coloring. In 
this case glass must be interposed between 
the light and the plant. What will be the 
ultimate result of these experiments, it is 
too soon to say, but it seems very probable 
that such an artificial stimulation of nature’s 
processes is likely to be followed by a re¬ 
action, such as is apt to follow stimulation 
in animals, and that in the end there will 
be no beneficial gain in vitality or product¬ 
iveness. 

The Electric Light and Electric Motor. 

We have given a number of highly 
important applications of electricity, all of 
which are due to the two older sources of 
electric energy,—the frictional machine, with 
its development of intensity of current, and 
the galvanic or voltaic battery, with its de¬ 
velopment of quantity. But for some of the 
more valuable electrical results, such as the 
electric light and electric motor, a new 
and more powerful source of electricity was 
needed, and this in due time was discovered, 
as an interesting outcome of electro-mag¬ 
netism. The utility of the magnet both in 
telegraphy and telephony has been shown. 
In the new source of electric power it is in¬ 
dispensable, the dynamo being based upon a 
peculiar and highly useful relation between 
magnetism and electricity. 

This relation is no recent discovery. It 
has long been known that on the approach 
of an armature to the poles of a magnet a 
current of electricity is induced in it, and 
that on its withdrawal from the poles a 
similar current, but in the opposite direc¬ 
tion, is induced. If the ends of the arma¬ 
ture be connected by a wire, these currents 
will flow through it and complete the cir¬ 
cuit, however long, and their presence can 
be readily perceived by the use of the gal¬ 
vanometer, or by other means. There ap¬ 
pears to be a measure of resistance in the 
magnet to the motion of the armature, and 
it is believed that the force necessary to 




144 


THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


overcome this resistance is converted into 
electricity within the iron moved, and is the 
source of the current that appears. If the 
operation be reversed, the armature being 
fixed while the magnet approaches or re¬ 
cedes, the same effect takes place, temporary 
currents being induced. This principle, 
simple in its statement, has proved of im¬ 
mense importance, for to it we owe the now 
familiar dynamo, in use wherever large 
amounts of electricity are to be generated. 

The Development of the Dynamo. 

For the discovery of the principle above 
described we must go back to the days of 
Faraday. The first to apply it in a machine 
was an Italian named Pixii, in 1832. He 
mounted a horseshoe magnet on a shaft and 
made it revolve before two soft iron cores 
wound with wire, their ends being opposite 
the poles of the magnet. Afterwards he 
rotated the iron cores, and left the magnet 
fixed, as an easier process. As a result, he 
obtained rapidly alternating currents of elec¬ 
tricity, changing in direction as the arma¬ 
ture approached and receded from the poles 
of the magnet. 

This apparatus was afterwards improved 
by combining a number of magnets and 
adding to the number of cores or armatures. 
In 1857, Professor Siemens, of Berlin, began 
to wind the wire from end to end of the 
armature, instead of round and round like a 
spool of thread, as before, the armature 
being now set crosswise to the legs of the 
horseshoe magnet. Other important inven¬ 
tions followed. The alternating currents 
were made to flow in one direction by means 
of the commutator, a device for shifting the 
opposed currents that came from the arma¬ 
ture into one continuous line. Subsequently 
Pacinotti, of Florence, devised a “ring 
armature,” in which the current flowed in 
one direction without the need of a com¬ 
mutator. Dynamos built on this principle 
are still extensively used for many purposes. 
Another highly important invention was 
made in 1866 by Wilde, of Manchester, 
England. After the current had been pro¬ 
duced, he carried it back into coils of wire 
around the arms of the magnet, which at 
once grew more powerful. This increased 
the strength of the current, and this in turn 


gave new power to the magnet, until it had 
reached its highest possible strength. 

Up to this time permanent steel magnets 
had been used, and the machines were 
called magneto-electric. Wilde’s invention 
led to the discarding of these in favor of 
the soft iron electro-magnet, and the ma¬ 
chine was afterwards named the dynamo- 
electric, a compound which soon became 
shortened to the one word, dynamo. It 
was this invention which made possible the 
huge field-magnet of the modern dynamo, 
which is not a magnet at all, in the strict 
sense. There is, indeed, some slight degree 
of magnetism in almost every piece of iron, 
enough to make a very faint current in an 
armature. Weak as this may be, it acts 
through the coils upon the soft iron core 
of the magnet, slightly increasing its mag¬ 
netism. The current at once grows some¬ 
what stronger, and this adds a second 
increment to the strength of the magnet. 
Thus, step by step, the current increases in 
strength and the great iron field magnet 
gains a more powerful attraction, soon 
reaching its highest power, and yielding a 
current enormously stronger than that with 
which the process began. 

The Developed Dynamo. 

Such were the steps of invention which 
led to the dynamo, that wonderful source 
of modern power. It was not practically 
known until 1870, when Gramme invented 
his continuous current ring armature, a 
machine much more powerful than any 
preceding one. As late as 1873 the word 
‘ ‘ dynamo ’ ’ was not known, and magneto¬ 
electric machines were still talked of. 
Since then Edison, Weston, Thomson, 
and others have been busy in developing 
the machine which had thus slowly come 
into existence. In its use one fact clearly 
appears—nature never gives something for 
nothing. The dynamo gives back only the 
power that is given to it. It needs power 
to drag the armatures away from the attrac¬ 
tion of the magnets, and as the machines 
increased in size some source of power 
greater than man’s became necessary. The 
steam engine was early employed to whirl 
the armature rapidly before the poles of the 
magnet, and in the great dynamos now in 






THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


use engines of hundreds of horse-power are 
needed to overcome the immense resistance 
and to yield the great speed of rotation em¬ 
ployed. More recently the vast power of 
the cataract of Niagara has been applied to 
this same purpose. 

In present usage various forms of arma¬ 
ture are in existence, such as the ring, the 
drum, the disk, the pole, and the spherical 
types. The latter, in which the coil is 
wound on the surface of an iron sphere, is 
the form employed in the Thomson-Hous¬ 
ton machine. In the earlier machines the 
whole current was passed through the coils 
of the magnet, but, as a rule, only a part of 
it is now thus utilized, this proving abund¬ 
antly sufficient to develop its magnetism. 
In addition to the continuous current dyna¬ 
mos there are many forms now used with 
the alternating current, the commutator 
being omitted. These are of importance 
from their use in connection with trans¬ 
formers in electric lighting. In the appli¬ 
cation of power through the medium of the 
dynamo some degree of loss is inevitable, 
but in good machines 90 per cent., or even 
more, of the driving power is preserved. 

The Electric ITotor. 

What we have told is only half the story 
of the dynamo. Its purpose is to convert 
mechanical into electrical energy. To 
make this useful the reverse operation, that 
of converting electrical into mechanical 
energy, is necessary, and for this the elec¬ 
tric motor is employed. The latter is 
simply a reversed dynamo. As a revolving 
magnet or armature causes an electric cur¬ 
rent to flow in the wire coils of the latter, 
so this current, passing through the coils of 
a second armature, forces this or the magnet 
associated with it to revolve, and with an 
energy capable of giving motion to con¬ 
nected machinery. A familiar example of 
this is the vigorous motion of the electric 
street-car, whose motor is simply a dynamo, 
varied in form and reversed in action to 
adapt it to its special purpose. 

Faraday long ago showed that such a 
reverse action was possible, and various 
machines were made that did work on a 
small scale. It it said that the first was 
10 C 


*45' 

made in 1847 by an American named Moses 
G. Farmer. But it was not until after the 
invention of the Gramme machine that the 
full significance of the principle was ob¬ 
served, and then almost accidently. At the 
Vienna Exposition of 1873, there was a 
Gramme machine which it was intended to 
operate by a primary battery, in order to 
show that a battery current could operate a 
machine. There was also a second machine 
present, its purpose being to generate a cur¬ 
rent. But the primary battery happened to 
be wanting at the time for opening, and the 
perplexed electrician,—a Frenchman named 
Hypolyte Fontaine,—not knowing what to 
do, conceived the idea of connecting the 
two machines, and of working one of them 
with the current developed by the other. 
He borrowed a piece of wire from a friend 
and joined the two machines. The operat¬ 
ing machine was connected as a motor with 
a pump, and to his utter surprise it went to 
work so energetically that the water was 
thrown over the sides of the tank. Here 
was more power than he had dreamed of, 
and he was obliged to use a much longer 
piece of wire, in order by its resistance to 
the current to bring the motor down to 
milder action. He had discovered not only 
the electric motor, but had demonstrated 
the extremely important fact that great 
power can be carried to a distance over a 
thin wire, and there employed to set ma¬ 
chinery in motion. To-day pow T er is thus 
conveyed from Niagara to Buffalo, and 
much farther in some other localities. 

It is not our purpose here to describe 
minutely the forms of dynamos and motors 
in use. They are so numerous and varied 
that, to do so, would be to take far more 
space than we have at disposal and to deal 
in unwieldy technicalities. It must suffice 
to say that the dynamo is now very widely 
employed for the purpose of generating light 
and power, and varies in size from the small 
machine needed to light a single building to 
the huge ones installed in the Niagara 
power-plant, where there are some twenty 
dynamos,each developing 5,000horse-power. 
These generate the alternating current, as 
this proves capable of conveying electricity 
for long distances with much less loss than 
in the case of the direct current. 




146 


THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


The Electric Light. 

There are two great purposes to which 
the powerful currents yielded by the dynamo 
are applied, the electric light (with electric 
heat as a secondary result) and the electric 
motor, with its many applications to the 
movement of machinery. Of little less im- 
portance to mankind is the electric furnace, 
which has of recent years proved of great 
utility. In the first named of these, the 
electric light, we are dealing with no new 
discovery. The principle of the incandes¬ 
cent light was discovered early in the nine¬ 
teenth century, when it was found that a 
fine wire could be heated to incandescence 
by the passage of a voltaic current. The 
principle of the arc-light was known much 
earlier. It is embodied in the electric 
spark, which was the one evidence of the ex¬ 
istence of electricity known in ancient times. 

Setting aside natural phenomena, as the 
lightning and St. Elmo’s fire, and all mere 
experiments with the electric spark, the 
first inventor of the electric light was Sir 
Humphrey Davy, who in the early part of 
the nineteenth century produced the arc- 
light with a battery of 2,000 cells. The 
mode of producing this light is as follows : 
When the terminal wires of an electric bat¬ 
tery are brought together and then sepa¬ 
rated slightly an intense, bright light 
between them results, and this, because of 
its curved form, is called the electric arc. 
This light, in temperature as well as bright¬ 
ness, exceeds all other artificial sources of 
heat; by its means the hardest substances, 
even the diamond, being entirely consumed. 
The wires of the battery were seen to melt 
and drop off in globules, but it was found 
that hard carbon points on the wires would 
prevent this, as well as increase the in¬ 
tensity of the light. Davy used pieces of 
charcoal. Foucault, in his experiments in 
1844, used carbon from the retorts of gas¬ 
works, which is much harder. Foucault’s 
improvement led to the first practical use of 
the electric light. It was used to illumi¬ 
nate the Place de la Concorde, in Paris, be¬ 
ing placed on the knee of one of the statues 
there, and amazing all beholders with its 
brilliant power. The carbon points, though 
not destroyed as rapidly as wire, yet of 


course must waste in the consuming heat 
of the light. In time the distance between 
them is increased until the light is inter¬ 
rupted, and they must be brought together 
again to renew the illumination. Thomas 
Wright, of London, invented the first appa¬ 
ratus for moving the points automatically 
toward each other, a feature which now be¬ 
longs to several forms of electric lighting. 
As it has been found that the positive car¬ 
bon wastes more rapidly than the negative, 
that point is made to move over a wider 
space than the other in the same interval 
of time. 

In 1855 Jules Duboscq’s electric lamp— 
thus far the most perfect of the kind—was 
shown at the Paris Exhibition, and Pro¬ 
fessor Tyndall, of England, adopted it for 
the illustration of his lectures on light and 
colors. In 1858 the works of the new 
Westminster bridge, London, were illumi¬ 
nated by Watson’s electric light, and the 
following year the magneto-electric light, 
invented by Professor Holmes, was success¬ 
fully tried at the lighthouse at Dover. In 
1861 the French Government provided for 
the illumination of eight coast lighthouses 
by the electric light. 

The Arc-Light. 

Fifteen years passed before anything 
further of importance in the development 
of the arc-light was achieved, but in the 
year 1875 a Russian electrician of ability, 
named Paul Jablochkoff, on his way to the 
United States to visit the Centennial Expo¬ 
sition, stopped at Paris, where a noted 
chemist placed at his disposal a large labor¬ 
atory. Here, in a few months, he made a 
great sensation, by his discovery and exhi¬ 
bition of the electric candle. In this the 
two carbons of the arc-light were placed 
side by side, insulated from each other, ex¬ 
cept at their extremities, by a fusible in¬ 
sulating substance, which encased and sep¬ 
arated them. As the carbons wasted under 
the influence of the light, this substance 
also burnt away, leaving the upper ends of 
the carbons constantly exposed at the same 
distance apart. The light of these lamps 
was soft and steady, while very brilliant, 
and a large number of them soon came into 
use in Europe. 




THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


*47 


Up to the time mentioned the galvanic 
battery was the only source of the cur¬ 
rent used in the electric light, and was 
much too costly an agent for this light to 
come into common use under its auspices. 
The discovery of the dynamo made a revo¬ 
lution in this industry, the arc-light was 
greatly cheapened, and from that time for¬ 
ward the progress of this light has been 
steady and rapid. Previously only a single 
lamp could be used with effect in a circuit. 
If two were introduced, the pair gave less 
light than a single one. In 1879, C. F. 
Brush, of Cleveland, demonstrated that with 
properly constructed dynamos and lamps 
almost any number could be placed in a 
circuit, it being simply necessary to increase 
the strength of the current for every new 
lamp introduced. If one arc needed 50 volts, 
two would need 100, three 150, and so on. 
If large arcs are to be produced there are 
needed large carbons, sometimes as much 
as three or four inches in diameter, and 
using currents of 100 or 200 amperes in 
energy. The common street-light seldom 
yields more than 800 candle-power, but a 
large search-light may yield a glow equal 
to fifty million candles. This light, placed 
in the focus of a large parabolic reflector, 
can be turned in any direction, and may be 
seen, in a clear atmosphere, 100 miles or 
more away. 

There are numerous varieties of arc- 
lights now in use, some of them having the 
carbons parallel, as in the Jablochkoff 
candle, others being regulated, like Wright’s 
early invention, by clockwork or other 
means, which keeps the carbons at a fixed 
distance apart. The varied adaptations of 
this principle are covered by numerous 
patents, of which the best known in the 
United States is the Brush light. The de¬ 
tails of clockwork for moving forward the 
carbon rods as they are consumed are too 
technical to be given here. There is 
another style of lamp in 'which the carbons 
are inclined to each other, and some very 
successful lamps, as the Soleil, are made 
on this plan. 

The development of electric lighting, 
alike in America, Europe, and other civilized 
lands, has been enormous, and some of our 
cities are very largely lit up with this 


powerful agent of illumination. While 
exact figures are not to be had, it may safely 
be said that over 500,000 arc-lights and 
more than 20,000,000 incandescent lamps 
are now in use in the United States, the 
capital invested in this business being 
placed by conservative authorities at 
$1,000,000,000. 

The Incandescent Light. 

If we send an electric current through 
two wires, one of iron and one of copper, of 
the same length and thickness, the iron wire 
may become so hot as to yield a bright glow, 
while the copper wire is scarcely heated at 
all. This is due to the fact that copper is a 
far better conductor of electricity than iron. 
A poor conductor resists the passage of the 
current, part of which is changed from elec¬ 
tricity into heat—from one mode of motion 
into another. Early attempts, then, to make 
an incandescent electric light consisted in 
sending the current through a fine wire, of 
poor conduction and high resistance, the 
heat generated increasing as the current 
grew stronger and the resistance greater. 

As the high heat produced soon rendered 
metals unsuitable for this purpose, from its 
tendency to fuse them, Mr. Starr, of Cincin¬ 
nati, in 1845, tried a fine wire made of car¬ 
bon. This gave a bright glow, but it soon 
burned out. Then he sealed the carbon 
wire in a glass globe from which the air was 
exhausted. This, by removing the oxygen, 
prevented combustion, and the incandescent 
lamp was achieved. But the galvanic bat¬ 
tery could not furnish the necessary current 
at a low enough price, and the invention 
was forgotten. It was not until after the 
arrival of the dynamo that the idea was re¬ 
vived, or rather rediscovered, a fine filament 
of carbon being enclosed in a hermetically 
sealed glass bulb from which the air was 
exhausted. 

Chief among those who attacked this 
problem was Edison. In 1879 he set him¬ 
self to the double task of making a lamp 
that would give a definite candle-power, and 
of dividing and distributing a current be¬ 
tween numerous lamps on one circuit. 
After experimenting with a large number of 
vegetable fibres, he selected bamboo as the 
most suitable substance. By means of 



148 


THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


machinery the bamboo is divided into small 
fibres, which are pressed in U-shaped moulds 
and then carbonized in ovens. They are 
then attached at their ends to platinum wire, 
and placed in the glass bulbs, the platinum 
being fused into the stopper of the bulb and 
connected with the copper conducting wires 
outside. Such is the general principle of 
the incandescent lamp. Other inventors use 
other sources of carbon, and in some in¬ 
stances the bulb, instead of being exhausted, 
is filled with nitrogen or other non-supporter 
of combustion. The Swan lamp uses cot¬ 
ton fibres soaked in sulphuric acid and car¬ 
bonized, the Maxim lamp Bristol paper, the 
Lane-Fox lamp hemp fibres, the Bernstein 
lamp—one of the most brilliant—silk car¬ 
bonized in coal-dust. But in no case are 
the filaments permanent. They are gradu¬ 
ally consumed, and after about four hun¬ 
dred hours’ use a new lamp usually needs 
to be introduced. 

The second problem attacked by Edison, 
that of dividing the current between the 
lamps, he solved by connecting every lamp 
to both wires from the dynamo, so that each 
should be independent, the wire feeding 
them crossing between the dynamo wires 
like the steps in a ladder. This is known as 
“parallel distribution.” In the opposite 
method of ‘ ‘ series distribution ’ ’ the lamps 
are so placed that the whole current goes 
through each. In the first system any lamp 
may be turned on or off without interfering 
with the others, the current from the dynamo 
varying with the number of lamps lighted. 
In the second, the current varies with the 
number of lamps in the circuit, as it must 
traverse them all. It scarcely needs to be 
said that the current is turned on or cut off 
by means of a key, the turning of which 
serves to light or extinguish the lamp. 

Other Methods of Electric Lighting. 

The above are not the only methods of 
producing light from electricity. If a cur¬ 
rent be discharged through a glass tube 
whose vacuum has been made very com¬ 
plete, a glow of light appears. Geissler’s 
tubes are of this kind, though the amount 
of light they yield is small. MacFarlane 
Moore, of New Jersey, has lighted large 
vacuum tubes, several feet long and two or 


three inches in diameter, by sending very 
rapid discharges of strong currents through a 
vacuum. A very high electric pressure is 
produced, the tube shining with a light of 
thirty or forty candle-power. Tesla, by the 
use of his enormously rapid alternations of 
powerful currents, has made wonderful ex¬ 
hibitions of the electric glow, which flows 
brilliantly from the end of a single wire, and 
he thinks it possible in the future to suffuse 
a whole room with such a glow of electric 
illumination. But as yet no practical result 
has arisen from these varied experiments. 

Electric Power and Its Transmission. 

There are at present in use two sources 
of electric power, the dynamo, which 
utilizes the energy of steam or water, and 
the storage ’battery, based upon chemical 
action. The former is the one most in evi¬ 
dence. It is applied to a large number of 
purposes, chief among which is electric 
traction. Aside from this, numerous small 
machines, of varied kinds, are run by elec¬ 
tricity, and motors, small or large, may be 
employed for almost any purpose to which 
the steam engine is applicable, varying from 
the small power consumed by an electric 
fan to the 1,000 horse-power Baltimore loco¬ 
motives. The vast power, aggregating 100,- 
000 horse-power, of the Niagara Falls elec¬ 
tric plant is utilized in operating machines 
of varied kinds, largely situated at Buffalo, 
some twenty miles away. This distance is 
much exceeded in other localities, one plant 
in California generating electricity from 
water-power, and transmitting it for use to 
a distance of 83 miles. Wherever a dy¬ 
namo can be installed, a distributing centre 
of power may be provided. The first-class 
battle-ships Kearsarge and Kentucky manu¬ 
facture their own current and use it in all 
parts of their internal organization, electric 
motors doing everything, from steering the 
ship to handling the huge guns and the 
turrets that contain them. 

The Storage Battery. 

It must be noted that the term ‘ ‘ storing 
electricity ” conveys, usually, an altogether 
erroneous idea to the uninitiated. They are 
apt to conceive of it as pouring electricity into 
some receptacle, as we pour oil into a lamp, 




THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


149 


to be used when needed. But, in fact, elec¬ 
tricity is an energy, not a substance, and 
therefore is not capable of storage in the 
ordinary sense. What is really done by the 
‘ ‘ storage ’ ’ apparatus is to convert electric¬ 
ity into chemical energy, under such cir¬ 
cumstances that, by proper arrangements, it 
may be readily converted back into elec¬ 
tricity. The secondary batteries used for 
the storing purposes are more correctly 
termed accumulators. The first battery of 
this kind was made by Ritter about 1840, 
and it consisted of a series of disks of a sin¬ 
gle metal, alternated with cloth or card 
moistened in a liquid by which the metal 
would not be affected chemically. 

In 1859 Mr. Gaston Plante made a sec¬ 
ondary battery, for which he used plates of 
lead. Passing a current through these, lead 
oxide was deposited, and, after the charging 
current was removed, the lead and lead oxide 
were found to yield a very slight current. 
To increase this Plante devised the plan of 
first charging the plates, then discharging, 
then charging again with the battery current 
reversed, and so on, until, by repeated oxi¬ 
dations and subsequent reductions of the 
oxidized material, very porous plates were 
made. These, by their porosity, exposed a 
large surface to the oxidizing action of the 
current, so that a small porous plate took 
up as much electricity as one of large super¬ 
ficial area. Plante found that by connect¬ 
ing a number of cells together, and, after 
charging them, arranging them in series— 
that is, the positive plate of one connected 
with the negative plate of another, and so 
on—he could store for use quite powerful 
currents of electricity. 

In 1880 another electrician, M. Camille 
Faure, devised the plan of coating Plante’s 
lead plates with red lead, and then encasing 
them in flannel. The advantage of the red 
lead is that it is very quickly made porous, 
and therefore the process of repeated charg¬ 
ing of the plates, known as the “ forming ” 
process, was reduced from weeks to days, 
and even to hours. This discovery, by re¬ 
ducing the time and expense of making the 
secondary battery, gave it a commercial 
value that it never had before, and it was 
hailed as a great advantage. Since that 
time a number of patents have been obtained 


for storage batteries, and they now exist in 
different forms, but generally modeled on 
the inventions of Plante and Faure. The 
efforts of inventors have been mainly di¬ 
rected toward reducing the weight of the 
cells, and to devising new ways of holding 
the red lead on the plates; this, from its 
porosity, having a tendency to fall off. 

Chemical Action in the Storage Battery. 

A storage battery, it may be said, is an 
apparatus of the type of the galvanic battery. 
There exists in it dissimilar chemical con¬ 
ditions, the spongy lead being opposed to 
the oxide, or rather peroxide, of lead. 
These set up galvanic action, the oxygen of 
the oxide attacking the pure lead, with the 
formation of an electric current. The re¬ 
sult is that the peroxide (Pb02) becomes 
monoxide (PbO), while the spongy lead is 
oxidized into a monoxide. When this is 
completed the chemical diversity disappears 
and the current ceases, but by sending an 
electric current through the cell the opera¬ 
tion is reversed, peroxide and spongy lead 
are reproduced, and the battery is put again 
in shape for action. 

The storage battery is specially useful 
for traction purposes of a kind to which the 
ordinary current cannot be conveniently ap¬ 
plied, as for automobile carriages, 
electric boats, or cars running inde¬ 
pendently. In the latter each car is pro¬ 
vided with a set of storage cells, placed 
under the seats, and replaced by others when 
near exhaustion. This system cannot com¬ 
pete in cheapness and efficiency with the 
trolley system, and the storage battery is 
now used only where the dynamo current 
is not available, or is utilized in storing up 
current which is not needed and is running 
to waste, preserving it for later employment. 
Thus in the case of wind-mills, tidal-motors, 
or other utilizations of the forces of nature, 
the power engendered, when not otherwise 
employed, can be used in charging storage 
batteries for later use, and in such ways 
this device may in the future become large¬ 
ly employed as a useful power-saver. 

The Electric Railway. 

One of the earliest and most important 
applications of the current from the dynamo 



THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


150 

was its employment for traction purposes. 
As early as 1880 three persons, S. D. Field, 
Dr. Siemens and Thomas A. Edison, ap¬ 
plied for patents for inventions in this 
direction. Field was the first to file his 
application and obtain his patents, which 
covered the use of a motor in or under the 
car, operated from a central source of elec¬ 
tricity. In these early conceptions it was 
proposed to carry the current on the rail. 
Several short railway lines were constructed 
in Europe on this principle. One laid at 
Eichterfelde (Berlin) in 1881, used the two 
rails as conductors, but not with success. 
The longest was that between Portrush and 
Bushmills, in the north of Ireland, con¬ 
structed in 1883. This, six miles in length, 
used a third fail beside the roadbed and 17 
inches above the ground, for the conductor, 
it being supported by insulated posts. The 
current was conveyed to the car-motor by 
steel springs, one at each end. In the 
Edison and Field railway, 1553 feet long, 
which was exhibited at the Chicago Exhi¬ 
bition of Railway Appliances, the third rail 
lay between the other two, and the current 
was taken from it by stiff wire-brushes 
pressing on each side of the rail. 

There were several objections to this 
system, an important one being earth induc¬ 
tion, with its resisting action upon the 
current; the result being that the overhead 
trolley system came first into use, the 
trolley being a small, grooved wheel run¬ 
ning upon a wire supported by poles in the 
air, and conveying the current from the 
dynamo. The current is conducted down¬ 
ward by a metallic pole leading from the 
trolley to the car and is conveyed by insu¬ 
lated conductors to the motor, which is 
usually placed under the car and geared to 
the truck-axle. In a recent improvement 
the axle is made to serve as the shaft of the 
motor armature. 

Central Power Houses. 

Electric railways possess central power- 
plants, in which great dynamos and power¬ 
ful engines are installed, capable of furnish¬ 
ing current to many miles of track and a 
large number of cars, the conductors being 
thick copper wires. In most systems the 
current, after passing through the motor, is 


carried to the rail and thence into the 
ground, but in some there is a “ metallic 
circuit,” two wires being employed. The 
motorman, by the use of the lever at his 
hand, can make or break the current at 
will, or introduce “ resistance coils,” so as 
to regulate the strength of current supplied 
to the motor. The varying speeds of the 
car, and its easy stoppage, are readily con¬ 
trolled. 

In a number of instances the conduct¬ 
ing wire is carried underground instead of 
overhead, a more costly but otherwise suc¬ 
cessful system. One of the earliest exam¬ 
ples of this was at Budapest, Hungary. In 
the city of New York—not Greater New 
York—law forbids the use of the trolley 
system, and that city was confined to the 
horse-car railway for years after other cities 
were enjoying the far more expeditious and 
satisfactory trolley-car. The underground 
electric system is now being gradually in¬ 
troduced there, and must eventually banish 
the horse from this field of duty. In 1899 
the Third Avenue Railway was changed 
from cable traction to the underground 
conduit electric service, and with complete 
success. It is expected that in a few years 
every street railway in the city will be 
equipped with this electric system. 

Feeders for Over-Head Trolleys. 

In the overhead trolley system separate 
feeding wires are carried from the central 
station, their purpose being to supply elec¬ 
tricity to the main wire at successive points 
in the line. In cities these are carried 
under ground, ascend the supporting poles 
at intervals, and are extended from the tops 
of these poles to the central trolley wire. 
In the underground system two methods 
are in use. In one of these a continuous 
bare conductor is placed in a conduit with 
an open surface slot, the current being 
taken off by means of a traveling brush or 
roller, known as a plow, sled or shoe, 
through which the electric force reaches 
the motor. In the other the conducting 
wire is divided into sections, so arranged 
that each section receives the current auto¬ 
matically as the car passes over it. The 
wire is ingeniously lifted by the attraction 
of magnets under the car, touches short 




THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


sections of conductive material in the top 
of the conduit, and supplies electricity 
through them to the motor. When the car 
has passed the attraction ceases, the wire 
falls, and the connection is broken, while 
the succeeding section of the conduit is 
brought into action. 

Progress of the Electric Railway. 

The general railroad system was only a 
few years old when the first proposition to 
run cars by electricity was made. In 1835 
Thomas Davenport, of Brandon, Vermont, 
constructed an electric car, operated upon 
a circular track by a current obtained from 
galvanic cells. In 1842 Robert Davidson, 
of Scotland, propelled in this manner a 
five-ton car which ran four miles in an 
hour. In 1850 Professor Page, of the 
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, em¬ 
ployed the current from 100 large Grove 
cells in operating an electric locomotive. 
He developed 16 horse-power and obtained a 
speed of 19 miles an hour on the Baltimore 
and Ohio Railroad. But the cost of the power 
confined these efforts to experiments, and 
the true era of the electric railway came 
only after the invention of the dynamo. 

Mileage of Electric Railways. 

Of the trolley street-railways, the earliest 
was established at Richmond, Virginia, in 
1887, and began operations early in 1888, 
with twenty cars. Others quickly followed, 
and by the end of that year there were 
nearly 150 miles of track in the United 
States and Canada. By 1892 over 450 
roads were established, with more than 3,000 
miles of track and nearly 6,000 cars. In 
1897 there were in the United States 15,000 
miles of street-railway, of which 90 per cent, 
were operated by electricity. These used 
more than 25,000 cars, and employed a capi¬ 
tal of about $1,500,000,000. By the end of 
the century nearly the entire street-railway 
service of the United States was operated by 
electricity, there being more than 1,000 rail¬ 
ways, with a capital approaching $2,000,- 
000,000. These were not confined to city 
streets, but extended like rays miles into 
the country, while in addition numerous 
rural lines existed, connecting small towns 
and covering very many miles of country 


151 

roadway. One may travel from Paterson, 
N. J., to Portland, Me., by a nearly con¬ 
tinuous line of electric rail, and from Chi¬ 
cago to Milwaukee, a distance of 85 miles. 
Still longer ones are projected. A similar 
system had also widely invaded Europe, 
and trolley cars were running in Capetown, 
South Africa; Sydney, Australia; Madras, 
India; Bangkok, Siam, and in cities in 
various other remote parts of the world. 

The Elevated Electric Railway. 

The first elevated electric railway in 
Europe was the Liverpool Overhead Rail¬ 
way, seven miles long, opened in 1893. In 
the same year an elevated electric road was 
run in the World’s Fair grounds at Chicago, 
in which city the Metropolitan road began 
operation in 1895, and the Lake street ele¬ 
vated was operated by electricity after 1896. 
The elevated roads of New York, long 
worked by steam, began to change their 
motive power to electricity near the end of 
the century, the “ third-rail ” system being 
used there as in Chicago. Underground 
electric roads have also been installed, there 
being somewhat extensive systems in Boston 
and London. In the latter city, as also in 
New York, underground electric traction on 
a large scale is likely to be established in 
the near future. 

Electric Locomotives. 

The application of electric power to 
heavy railroad traffic has been made to some 
small extent, the most notable instance being 
in the Baltimore Belt-Lim* Tunnel. In this 
steam locomotives have been discarded, and 
powerful electric locomotives, operated on 
the overhead wire system, have taken their 
place, drawing heavily-laden trains daily 
through the tunnel. The great advantage 
of the use of electricity in tunnels and exca¬ 
vations is the escape from the serious annoy¬ 
ance of smoke, noxious gases, soot, and 
general unpleasantness. It seems probable 
that the electric system may in coming 
years displace steam on surface roads in 
general, the third rail being employed, with 
suitable precautions, to protect the public 
from death by contact with this apparently 
harmless but really very perilous stretch of 
loaded iron. 



152 


THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


Electric Telpherage. 

Electric carriage has been applied in 
other ways than those mentioned. A sys¬ 
tem known as Telpherage was devised by 
three English electricians, Jenkin, Ayrton, 
and Perry, and first applied in 1886 on a 
line about a mile long at Glynde, near 
Lewes, England. It was used to transport 
clay from a pit to a railway, so as to avoid 
cartage over fields and water. Another was 
erected in Cornwall to transport minerals 
from a mine over a difficult section of coun¬ 
try. The system has also been used to 
transport logs from a forest. In telpherage 
the conducting wire is suspended in the air 
on posts or otherwise, while small electric 
motors run on the wire, which supplies 
them with power. From these motors are 
suspended carriages, in which the load to be 
moved is placed. The system has its ad¬ 
vantages, especially if water-power is con¬ 
venient to generate the current, but it 
has as yet been little employed. Reference 
should be made here also to attempts to 
move canal-boats by electricity. This is 
Still in the stage of experiment. 

Heating and Cooking by Electricity. 

It becomes important now to consider 
another application of electricity, closely 
connected in character with the electric 
light, that of electric heat. It is well 
known that electricity develops heat in 
passing through even the best conductors, 
and that if the conductor be poor a large 
quantity of the electric motion is trans¬ 
formed into heat of the conducting sub¬ 
stance. The temperature is greatest where 
there is a partial break in the circuit, as in 
the arc-light, whose temperature rises in the 
central point of action to about 6,ooo° F., 
twice the degree necessary to melt iron. 
When there is no break, but considerable 
resistence exists, much heat is also pro¬ 
duced. This fact has been utilized in the 
heating of street-cars and also for cooking 
and general heating purposes. The heaters 
consist of coils of circuits of some refractory 
metal, the wires being of the thickness 
adapted to produce the greatest heating 
effect. The coils are placed inside metal 
boxes or radiators, which receive and throw 


off the heat. If it is desired to heat water 
or some other liquid, the coils or the radiat¬ 
ing boxes are placed in the liquid, so that it 
may absorb all the heat evolved. 

In the street-car the heater uses up a 
considerable portion of the energy, and can¬ 
not be largely employed without an in¬ 
creased power-plant. Various electric cook¬ 
ing utensils have been devised, though the 
cost of the current stands in the way of 
their rapid adoption. Each of these carries 
its own heating coil, and it is only necessary 
to attach the wire and turn the switch to 
bring it into service. Its great advantage 
is the ease and rapidity of action, the ab¬ 
sence of ashes and dust, and the escape 
from the vexations of ordinary fuel. The 
only thing that prevents the general use of 
electricity as a means of cooking and house¬ 
heating is its cost. A sufficient reduction 
in this may revolutionize the system of 
household light and heat and introduce ease 
and cleanliness into the kitchen. 

The Electric Furnace. 

In another direction electric heat is being 
very usefully applied. The exceedingly 
high temperature produced by the voltaic 
arc has put into the hands of practical men 
a most efficient agent, enabling them to fuse 
refractory substances which hitherto defied 
their efforts. The electric furnace finds one 
of its applications in the extraction of 
metals from their ores. The crushed ore is 
permitted to fall through the arc. by which 
it is melted ; the liquid substance being re¬ 
ceived in a vessel in which the separation 
of the metal can be effected. In other fur¬ 
naces the ore is placed between electrodes 
of some refractory substance and a powerful 
current passed through it. In the Cowles 
furnace, employed to reduce aluminium, 
melted copper forms an alloy with the alum¬ 
inium as soon as separated. Among the 
important products of the electric furnace 
are carbide of calcium, the source of acety¬ 
lene gas, and carborundum, or carbide of 
silicon, a substance not before known, but 
of great value from its abrasive powers. 

Electric Welding. 

Another important use of electric heat is 
in the welding of metals, which it performes 






THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


*53 


with a rapidity and perfection previously 
unknown. In this system, as devised by 
Blihu Thomson, powerful currents are pass¬ 
ed through the metals, heating them to in¬ 
candescence, and they are then caused to 
unite by pressure or hammering. In the 
dynamo used for this purpose the commuta¬ 
tor is discarded, alternating currents very 
well answering the purpose. All that is 
necessary is to bring the surfaces to be uni¬ 
ted into firm contact, and pass the current 
through them. As it crosses the imperfect 
j unction the resistance to its passage causes 
intense heat, sufficient to soften the metal, 
the pieces being at the same time pressed 
strongly together. Usually the metals are 
made to touch at a single point. This first 
heats and welds, and new parts come into 
contact, until all the surface is at welding 
temperature. The process is remarkably 
rapid, a few seconds sufficing to produce 
union in small work and only a few minutes 
being needed in large work. As the heat¬ 
ing is confined mainly to the contact parts 
there is no waste of energy. Large masses 
of metal have been joined in this way, and 
rails have been united in continuous sec¬ 
tions, after being laid in position in railroad 
construction. 

The Transformer and Alternating 
Currents. 

In the use of powerful currents, and their 
division and application to special purposes, 
one difficulty exists, which has been over¬ 
come by the ingenious apparatus known as 
the Transformer. At times powerful cur¬ 
rent and low voltage, or electo-motive force, 
are needed ; at other times currents of re¬ 
duced quantity and high voltage. The 
change from one of these conditions to the 
other is effected by the transformer. This 
consists of an induction coil in which the 
primary wire is long and thin and the sec¬ 
ondary wire short and thick. Alternating 
currents of small strength but considerable 
voltage can be sent with little loss over long 
wires, their high potential aiding them 
greatly in overcoming resistance. Thus, by 
aid of the transformer, they can be conver¬ 
ted into currents of considerable strength and 
low voltage. In this way currents of small 
quantity may be economically sent over 


thin wires from generating stations, and 
there changed into currents of large quan¬ 
tity but reduced force by the thick wire of 
the transformer. A current of 10 amperes, 
at 2,000 volts, may be changed into one of 
twenty times its strength, or 200 amperes, 
with only one-twentieth its voltage, or 100 
volts. This is technically known as a step 
down transformer. In the step-up tra?is- 
former the action is opposite to that de¬ 
scribed. By use of the latter, Tesla suc¬ 
ceeded in obtaining currents of very low 
strength but enormous voltage. A power¬ 
ful current of 2,000 volts will exert on the 
human body the process named Electrocm 
tion, producing instant death. But Tesla 
has passed currents of 200,000 volts through 
his body without injury. In these the 
electro-motive force was so intense that the 
electricity streamed from parts of his body 
into the air. As already stated, a room can 
be illuminated in this manner, copperplates 
being placed in the ceiling and floor, while 
the glow comes from vacuum tubes anywhere 
between them. 

Electric Blasting. 

Among the applications of electric 
power not already mentioned is the impor¬ 
tant one of exploding gunpowder or other 
explosives by the electric spark, a method 
long employed and of great utility. Dan¬ 
ger to operatives in blasting is greatly re¬ 
duced when the old-fashioned time-fuse is 
replaced by long wires and the work is done 
by simply bringing the ends of the wires 
into contact. In some great operations the 
use of this system is indispensable. Such 
was the case in the blowing up of the reefs 
at Hell-gate, New York. Here the rock 
was extensively tunnelled, many ramifying 
passages being made, and a large number of 
dynamite blast charges were introduced. It 
was necessary for the full effect that these 
should be exploded simultaneously, and the 
only known method by which this could have 
been done was by the use of electricity, the 
whole series being connected by wire, so that 
the passage of the current produced simul¬ 
taneous sparks in each charge. In under¬ 
water explosions, as of mines in naval war¬ 
fare, electricity is similarly useful, and in this 
direction generally its importance is obvious. 



154 


THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


Electrocution. 

We may, in passing, allude to another 
recent use of the electric current, that of 
capital punishment with its aid. This has 
been the method of execution in New York 
State since January i, 1889, and in Ohio 
since July 1, 1896. The first criminal to 
suffer death by this method was a murderer 
named Kemmler, who was executed Au¬ 
gust 6, 1890. He was fastened in a specially 
constructed chair, and the current passed 
through his body from the top of the head 
to the lower part of the spine, contact being 
made with moistened sponges. An alter¬ 
nating current was used, with a voltage of 
over 1,500. Seventeen seconds sufficed to 
produce apparent death, though contact 
was repeated for 70 seconds to make assur¬ 
ance absolute. In all later executions one 
electrode has been applied so as to cover 
the forehead and temples and the other 
placed upon the calf of the leg. In addi¬ 
tion to these legal executions by electricity, 
what may be called involuntary electrocu¬ 
tion is of somewhat frequent occurrence, 
through operatives and others coming into 
contact with heavily charged wires by acci¬ 
dent or carelessness. 

Resistance Coils. 

These are coils of wire introduced into 
an electric circuit, and of use for various 
purposes, one of these, as already stated, 
being to produce heat, another being to 
locate faults in telegraph wires or cables. 
For this purpose the coil is arranged in 
sections, so contrived that new sections may 
be introduced at will, and the resistance 

• THE FORCES 

Heat is of almost supreme impor¬ 
tance in human affairs, since the employ¬ 
ment of electric power is very largely a 
secondary application of the force of heat, 
and steam power is directly due to heat. 
As a preliminary, therefore, to the discussion 
of our special subject, a brief statement of 
the scientific aspects of this very useful agent 
of nature will be in place. 

The Caloric Theory of Heat. 

Heat, like other powers of nature, was 


successively increased or diminished. By 
an ingenious use of these resistance coils the 
locality of a fault in a cable or an under¬ 
ground wire can be very neatly traced, the 
resistance of the remaining wire closely 
indicating its length, a fact of inestimable 
advantage in prompt and economical repair. 

Units of Measurement. 

There are units of measurements which 
recent progress in electrical engineering has 
rendered necessary. These units have been 
named after the great discoverers in elec¬ 
trical science, a well-deserved and practical 
way of perpetuating their memories. Two 
of these we have already mentioned, the 
ampere and the volt. The ampere is the 
unit of current, the volt (shortened from 
Volta) that of pressure or electro-motive 
force, the ohm that of resistance. One 
ohm equals the resistance of a hundred feet 
of copper wire of the size of a pin, and one 
ampere the current which one volt of pres¬ 
sure will force through one ohm of wire. 
The coulomb is the unit of quantity of one 
ampere flowing for one second, and the 
farad (shortened from Faraday) the unit of 
capacity to contain one coulomb. Other 
units are the henry, representing the induc¬ 
tion which a wire exerts upon itself when 
the current is made or broken; the joule, 
the unit of heat developed in passing one 
ampere through a resistance of one ohm; 
and the watt, the unit of power, it being 
equivalent to a volt-ampere, or the com¬ 
bination of current and pressure. These 
units of measurement are in constant em¬ 
ployment by electricians, and are of great 
utility in the practice of their profession. 

OF NATURE 

long misunderstood, its true nature and 
origin not being generally perceived until 
the nineteenth century. It was previously 
supposed to be a subtle and imponderable 
form of matter, capable of penetrating all 
material things, and known by the name of 
Caloric. The entrance of this substance 
into our bodies was held to be the cause of 
warmth, its departure that of cold. Its 
particles were supposed to repel each other 
and attract those of other substances, thus 
causing contraction and expansion. And it 




THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


i55 


was thought that compression, as-when iron 
is condensed by heavy blows, left less room 
for caloric, so that it was forced out, pro¬ 
ducing external heat. 

Heat as a Mode of Motion. 

This theory is no longer entertained. 
Heat is now believed to be a motion, not a 
substance, and the name Caloric is becoming 
one of the lost words of our language. This 
idea, it is true, is not strictly a new one. It 
was advanced by Lord Bacon, several cen¬ 
turies ago, and later by Locke and Descartes. 
In 1797 Count Rumford (originally Benja¬ 
min Thompson, an American) advanced a 
similar theory, based upon his observations 
on the boring of cannon, in which the quan¬ 
tity of heat produced seemed out of all 
proportion to the small weight of metal 
removed. He concluded that anything 
which an insulated body could yield without 
liviitation could not possibly be a substance, 
and that it must be a motion. But these 
views gained little attention, and the mate¬ 
rial theory of heat remained in vogue. 

A few years later Sir Humphrey Davy 
gave the caloric theory what was practically 
a death-blow, by showing that heat could be 
generated by the friction of two pieces of ice 
in a freezing temperature, either in the air 
or in a vacuum. - The ice was liquified by 
the friction, being converted into water, 
whose heat-containing powers are much 
greater than those of ice. If heat, then, 
were a substance, the water should have 
grown colder; and the production of heat 
in this instance proved that it was a result 
of the force of friction, and therefore motion 
instead of matter. This view was still dis¬ 
puted, but it soon became generally ac¬ 
cepted, and in 1843 Mr, Joule, of Manches¬ 
ter, developed a heat-unit, by showing that 
one degree of heat is produced by the ex¬ 
penditure of 772 foot-pounds of work, or 
that one pound of water, falling 772 feet, 
will have its temperature raised i° F. by 
collision with the earth. 

Transference of Heat. 

Heat is now believed to be due to rapid 
vibration of the minute particles, or mole¬ 
cules, of matter, which dart back and forth 
with an energy that is capable of performing 


mechanical work. The sensation of warmth 
is the result of the flow of this motion into 
the flesh, causing its particles to move more 
rapidly, and thus affecting the nerve termin¬ 
ations ; cold comes from the loss of this 
motion. The heat motion escapes from all 
substances in the form of radiation, and heat 
continues to make its way from warmer to 
colder substances until their speed of mole¬ 
cular motion is the same and equilibrium is 
established. 

Heat of the Sun. 

There are two main sources of heat, the 
emanations from the sun and chemical 
action upon the earth. Our solar orb pours 
forth continually an extraordinary volume 
of this motive force, much of it reaching us 
as light, or visible heat, much more as in¬ 
visible heat, the rate of vibration of the 
latter being above or below that of light. 
It has been calculated that the heat received 
by the earth in a year would be sufficient to 
melt a stratum of ice surrounding the whole 
surface and 105 feet in thickness. But the 
sun actually sends out 2,300,000,000 times 
this amount of heat, since only a minute 
fraction of its total emissions reach the 
earth. It is calculated that the heat at its 
surface is sufficient to melt ice at the rate 
of 2,400 feet in thickness every hour, and 
that if it was composed of burning coal it 
would be reduced to ashes in 5,000 years. 
All the vast number of stars—except the 
planets—which are visible in the heavens 
are sending out heat and light in similarly 
immense volumes, though their distance is 
so immensely great that we receive from 
each of them but little light and scarcely 
any traceable heat. 

Terrestrial Heat. 

There are three general sources of heat 
upon the earth’s surface. It is yielded by 
mechanical motion, when this produces fric¬ 
tion, percussion or compression ; also when 
motion is checked or stopped by any means. 
It is yielded by electricity, as in the effects 
of lightning, or of the flow of a current 
along a poor conductor. But its principal 
cause is chemical action, the union of 
chemical elements into compounds, or of 
compounds with one another, the usual 



THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


156 

result being an outflow of heat of greater or 
less intensity. A fourth source of terrest¬ 
rial heat is its upflow from the heated in¬ 
terior of the earth, which seems to be in a 
greatly heated state. We gain vivid evi¬ 
dence of this in the ejection of molten lava 
from volcanoes, but the ordinary outflow of 
heat through the earth’s crust is very slight, 
it being estimated to raise the temperature 
not more than 6*0 of a degree. 

Combustion. 

Chemical action varies greatly in its in¬ 
tensity and its production of heat. In one 
case it may proceed in the slow manner of 
the gradual decay of wood or rusting of 
iron ; in another by the rapid oxidation, or 
the burning, of these substances, with the 
emission of intense heat and light. In 
other instances its action is still more rapid, 
as in the case of the explosion of gunpowder 
or dynamite, in which chemical combi¬ 
nation is practically instantaneous, great 
volumes of gas resulting and expanding 
with explosive force. This explosion is 
really due to heat, or the vibration of the 
molecules, which are set free from the force 
of attraction and rush outwards with all 
their native energy. But what we are here 
especially concerned with is ordinary com¬ 
bustion, the union of the oxygen of the air 
with the carbon of wood, coal, or other 
combustible substances, which forms our 
most useful source of heat. 

Uses of Heat. 

The application of the heat of combus¬ 
tion to man’s uses is one of the chief means 
of rendering the earth habitable outside the 
tropical regions. By its aid the chill of 
winter is overcome and the food substances 
of the earth are rendered far more palatable. 
Of its other uses the most important is its 
employment as a power-producer, usually 
through the conversion of water into steam 
and the use of the latter in the steam 
engine. In this process coal is now the 
fuel generally used, though petroleum, 
natural gas, and other combustible sub¬ 
stances are employed to some extent. It 
may briefly be said that water boils at the 
comparatively low temperature of ioo° C. 
or 212 0 F., that one cubic inch of water ex¬ 
pands into 1,700 cubic inches of steam, and 


that this steam exerts a powerful pressure, 
the conversion of one cubic inch of water 
into steam being equivalent to 2,125 foot¬ 
pounds of work. 

The Steam Engine. 

The steam engine, useful as it is to man, 
is of very late origin, though its principle 
was recognized more than 2,000 years ago. 
The first steam engine on record is the 
Eolopyle (. /Eolus , the God of the Winds; 
and pila, a ball) of Hero of Alexandria, 
who lived about 120 b.c. This machine 
consisted of a hollow globe containing wa¬ 
ter, capable of turning about a horizontal 
axis, and having two bent tubes with small 
apertures inserted in a plane perpendicular 
to the axis at its centre. When the globe 
was heated the steam escaped from the 
tubes, and by its reaction caused the globe 
to revolve. Porta (1580), De Caus (1615), 
and Worcester (1663), conceived independ¬ 
ently the idea of employing the pressure of 
steam to raise water. Subsequently (1698) 
Captain Savery took out a patent for a 
machine on the same principle for raising 
water from a mine. In 1690 Papin thought 
of using steam to raise a piston,, and in 
1705 Newcomen constructed an engine 
worked by a piston moving in a cylinder. 
The steam from the boiler passed to the 
lower part of the cylinder and raised the 
piston. The steam was then cut off, and a 
jet of cold water sent into the cylinder so 
as to condense the steam contained in it. 
The upper part of the cylinder communi¬ 
cated with the air; consequently, after the 
condensation of the steam, the atmospheric 
pressure and its own weight brought down 
the piston. The communication with the 
boiler was then renewed, and the whole 
action repeated. In 1763 James Watt, of 
Glasgow, while repairing a Newcomen en¬ 
gine, conceived, and, by laborous study, 
realized improvements which constitute the 
chief features of the modern steam engine. 

James Watt’s Engine. 

The improvements which have immor¬ 
talized the name of Watt are the follow¬ 
ing 

1. In order to avoid the waste of heat 
consequent on the alternate heating and 



THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


J 57 


cooling of the cylinder, Watt introduced a 
condenser apart from the cylinder. When 
the piston reached its highest point, there¬ 
fore, he opened a communication between 
the lower part of the cylinder and a sepa¬ 
rate chamber into which a jet of cold water 
was made to play, its effect being an imme¬ 
diate condensation of the steam. 

2. Watt also introduced an air-pump 
into the condensing chamber to remove the 
heated water and air. 

3. Another improvement was the double 
action on the piston. The steam was intro¬ 
duced above and cut off from below when 
the piston was required to descend, and the 
communication above was closed and that 
below opened when the piston had to ascend. 

4. Watt also introduced the plan of cut¬ 
ting off the steam before the piston reached 
its limiting position, so that its momentum 
should be destroyed gradually, and not by a 
sudden percussion at the end of the stroke. 

Low-Pressure Engine. 

Watt’s engine was what is now known 
as a condensing or low-pressure engine. In 
modern practice non-condensing or high- 
pressure engines, in which the steam, after 
moving the piston, passes directly to the 
atmosphere, are very generally used. The 
first of these, of a practical character, was 
invented about 1787 by Oliver Evans, of 
Philadelphia. It is now usual to employ 
steam of a higher pressure than formerly, 
even with condensing engines. The force 
of the steam from the moment the steam 
valve is closed is continually diminishing to 
the end of the stroke, and if it were cut off 
at a small fraction of the stroke, it might 
become so attenuated as not to drive up the 
piston. On this account, when the expan¬ 
sive system is used, steam of higher pres¬ 
sure is employed. The term high-pressure, 
however, has been generally applied to 
engines in which the exhausted steam is 
driven into the air. Such steam must evi¬ 
dently always exceed the pressure of the 
atmosphere. 

High=Pressure Engine. 

The non-condensing engine is more sim¬ 
ple, and consists of fewer parts than that 
which has been described. It is generally 


used for locomotive engines, steam car¬ 
riages, and steam vessels required to possess 
lightness and rapidity. Although it is 
more elementary and simple than the other, 
it was not invented until many years after 
the condensing engine had been brought 
nearly to perfection. In condensing en¬ 
gines the pressure of the steam in the boiler 
is much lower than in non-condensing, in 
which the boiler-pressure has been increased 
until pressures of 200 pounds per square 
inch are now common, being eight times as 
much as was usual about i860. 

The locomotive engine differs from the 
stationary engine in several important feat¬ 
ures. Such engines require to be smaller 
and lighter than others ; hence the appara¬ 
tus for condensation is rejected, and high- 
pressure is used. The boiler is an oblong 
cylinder, through which a number of tubes 
are arranged horizontally, in communica¬ 
tion with the furnace and chimney. By 
this means a very large surface is heated in 
contact with the water. After moving the 
pistons, the steam escapes from the cylin¬ 
ders by two pipes meeting in a common 
tube or blast pipe, which passes into the 
chimney! When the expedient of turning 
the exhausted steam into the chimney was 
first adopted by George Stevenson, it was 
found that the speed of the locomotive on 
which the experiment was tried had been 
doubled. 

How Steam-Power is Measured. 

The working power of a steam engine 
is estimated in horse-powers, one horse¬ 
power being equivalent to 33,000 foot¬ 
pounds per minute, that is, the power to 
raise 33,000 pounds one foot in one minute. 
There are three kinds of horse-power re¬ 
ferred to in connection with engines, nomi¬ 
nal, indicated , and actual. 

The nominal horse-power is found by 
multiplying the area of the piston in inches 
by the average pressure, and multiplying 
this product by the number of feet the pis¬ 
ton travels in feet per minute, then dividing 
this last product by 33,000. The quotient 
will be the nominal horse-power of the 
engine. 

The indicated horse-power is found by 
multiplying together the mean effective 



158 


THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


pressure in the cylinder in pounds per 
square inch, the area of the piston in 
square inches, and the speed of the piston 
in feet per minute, and dividing the prod¬ 
uct by 33,000. 

The actual horse-power is the indicated 
horse-power minus the amount expended 
in overcoming the friction. The following 
is a general rule for calculating the horse¬ 
power of an engine: 

Rui,K. —Multiply the area of the piston 
in square inches, the mean pressure of the 
steam on the piston per square inch , and the 
velocity of the piston in feet per minute, to¬ 
gether, and divide this product by 33,000. 
The quotient will be the horse-power. 

In modern engines, of high initial boiler- 
pressure, it is growing customary to employ 
two or more cylinders, so as to use the en¬ 
tire pressure of the st«am. Thus, if the 
initial pressure be 200 pounds and the steam 
be cut off at one-half, a pressure of 90 
pounds can be obtained in a second engine, 
and if a similar cut-off be used, a 40-pound 
pressure can be utilized in a third cylinder, 
about 15 pounds in a fourth and 5 pounds 
in a fifth. Usually, however, this process 
is not carried beyond the third stage, double 
expansion being used for locomotives and 
large stationary engines, and triple expan¬ 
sion for the large engines of ocean steamers. 
These are termed respectively “com¬ 
pound ” and “ triple-expansion ” engines. 

Modern Engines. 

The power of the steam engine has 
steadily increased from the time of Watt 
till the present date, engines of greater and 
greater horse-power being employed, until 
hundreds or even thousands of horse-powers 
in a single engine are not uncommon. The 
power employed in the great ocean passen¬ 
ger steamers, for instance, has increased 
until some of these are driven through the 
waves with a force of more than 20,000 
horse-power, and cross the ocean in less 
than six days. Of course, this power is 
divided between a number of engines. A 
similar power is employed in the great 
battle-ships and cruisers of our navy, the 
Columbia, for instance, having 18,500 and 
the Minneapolis 20,862 horse-power. I11 
stationary engines the power employed has 


been similarly increased, until enormous 
engines are now employed for pumping, 
ore-grinding, and other purposes, including 
the running of dynamos, whose extraordinar¬ 
ily high speeds are rapid consumers of power. 

The Steam Turbine. 

Of recent years steam has been adapted 
to the movement of engines in a new manner 
and with remarkable effect. In the Chicago 
Exposition of 1893 was shown an early ex¬ 
ample of this apparatus, known as the De 
Eaval Steam-turbine. This novel invention 
was constructed on the principle of the tur¬ 
bine water-wheel, though of diminutive size, 
and consisted of wheels having deflecting 
plates, which were turned by the impact of 
the steam. This was admitted near the 
centre and discharged at the periphery, driv¬ 
ing the wheels by its escaping force, rather 
than by its pressure, as in the steam engine. 
To obtain the best results with this appa¬ 
ratus, the wheels are rotated at a tremen- 
duous speed,—fifty rotations a second in a 
wheel of four inches diameter developing 
five horse-power. 

The most important application of the 
steam-turbine, up to the present time, has 
been to torpedo-boats. The first example 
of this was the Thornycroft torpedo-boat 
Turbinia , which was fitted in 1897 with 
the Parsons’ steam-turbine, and was driven 
through the water at a speed never before 
attained in nautical records. It has been 
surpassed by the Viper, a later ocean-flyer, 
which has reached the extraordinary official 
mean speed of 36.58 knots, with a maximum 
speed of 37.1 knots per hour, doubling the 
rapidity of motion of the battle-ship against 
which it is designed to be used. To attain 
this speed 12,300 horse-power was employed. 
It is still an open question whether this ma¬ 
chine can be economically and efficiently used 
in larger vessels. If it should be introduced, 
one result of great value would be attained, 
which is that the boats named, even when 
driven at their highest speed, show a total ab¬ 
sence of vibration. All ocean travelers can 
appreciate the advantage of this, as com¬ 
pared with the extreme vibration of the 
high-speed passenger steamer, and it would 
be of equal value in war-ships, as giving 
the vessel a steady gun-platform. 



THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


159 


Superheated Water=Motor. 

Still another method of applying steam 
for power purposes has been recently de¬ 
vised, the employment of water in a state of 
intense heat. By subjecting it to enormous 
pressure while heating, water may be made 
to take up a large quantity of heat without 
forming steam. This superheated water is 
forced, under great pressure, into a tubular 
reservoir under the car-floor, insulating 
jackets of magnesium preventing the escape 
of the heat. By an ingenious device the 
water is made to fall, drop by drop, into a 
high-pressure cylinder, where, having room 
to^expand, it at once flashes into steam. As 
the tanks become exhausted, they can be 
refilled at proper intervals along the road. 
The saving over the ordinary steam engine 
is claimed to be one-half, and in a recent 
test a speed of forty-five miles an hour was 
attained. 

Water-Power. 

In the steam engine the power of water 
in its gaseous form is employed, but nature 
has provided liquid water under conditions 
capable of yielding enormous power, with 
no expense beyond those of apparatus and 
operation. This is by the utilization of the 
energy of falling water, which is manifested 
in a vast multitude of descending streams 
upon the earth’s surface. For this power 
we are primarily indebted to the sun, which 
lifts sea-water in the form of vapor high 
into the air. This, discharged from the 
clouds as rain or snow, on hill and plain 
alike, makes its way back to its mother- 
ocean, descending in thousands of slopes, 
rapids, and falls, each of which possesses 
energy capable of being used by man. 

The total volume of water-power upon 
the earth is, as above said, enormous. Use 
has been made of it for a long period of 
time, and it is now employed to a very large 
extent. It has often, however, the disad¬ 
vantage of being inconveniently located, for 
which reason the steam engine has largely 
replaced the water-wheel. Steam power, 
while more costly, has the advantage of 
adapting itself to use in any desired situa¬ 
tion. 


Electric Conveyance of Water=Power. 

In the later years of the nineteenth cen¬ 
tury inventions were made which went far 
to put an end to the disadvantage of water¬ 
power as compared with coal and steam. 
It became possible to convert this power 
into electricity, convey the latter by wire 
for many miles from its place of origin, and 
reconvert it into power, while it was equally 
possible to divide and distribute the single 
current to hundreds of motors, small and 
large. In this the first step was taken 
towards dismissing the steam engine from 
many of its old fields of action and replac¬ 
ing it by the electric motor. 

The great installation at Niagara, with 
its 100,000 horse-power, is thus largely 
utilized in Buffalo, and electric power of 
similar origin is in use in many other 
localities. It seems far easier to convey 
electricity on a wire than to carry coal in 
cars and carts, and the simple motor takes 
up but a fraction of the space needed for 
coal-storage, fire-room, boiler, and engine. 
When the problem of carrying electricity 
for much longer distances, without serious 
leakage on the way, is solved, and the cost 
of the power plant and its working is suffi¬ 
ciently cheapened, the electric motor is 
likely to come very largely into use. That 
this will be achieved, and in no long period, 
is a very probable event. 

Water-Wheels. 

The immediate apparatus by which the 
power of running streams and falls is util¬ 
ized is the water-wheel, in some one of its 
various shapes. This consists of a wheel 
provided with buckets or float boards on 
which the water exerts its energy of motion. 
Water-wheels usually turn in a vertical 
plane around a horizontal axis, and are of 
three kinds, undershot, overshot, and breast 
wheels. In undershot wheels, used when 
there is a large quantity but slight fall of 
water, float boards on the surface of the 
wheel are immersed in the water, and moved 
by it as it shoots under the wheel. Over¬ 
shot wheels are used where the fall is high 
and the water small in quantity. Here 
buckets of suitable shape stud the circum¬ 
ference of the wheel, are filled by the falling 



i6o 


THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


water, and turn the wheel as their weight 
carries them downward. In the breast 
wheel both the weight and the impact of the 
water are utilized. 

The turbine wheel, now very largely 
used, is a horizontal wheel with a vertical 
axis, the water being received and dis¬ 
charged in all directions around the axis. 
Both the weight of the water and the impact 
of its fall act to turn the wheel. Turbines 
have the advantage of being small in bulk 
in comparison with their power, and being 
applicable to high and low falls alike. In 
such great installations as the Niagara 
Falls power-plant they are the only form 
that can be conveniently introduced. 

Tidal Motors. 

The above are not the only ways in 
which the force of water is adapted to the 
use of man. In addition to the energy of 
falling water, there is an energy of lifting 
water that would far more than supply man’s 
utmost needs, if it could be easily utilized. 
This is the lift of the tides, which passes 
twice daily around the earth. Tidal waters, 
indeed, rise and fall, and may be utilized in 
both phases. But this action ceases for a 
half hour or more at each turn of the tide, 
and for this and other reasons no successful 
effort has yet been made to take advantage 
of tidal action. If tidal motors are to be 
utilized there must be some way of storing 
up the power of the water when strong for 
use when weak, and the most convenient 
way of doing this seems to be by use of the 
electric storage battery. Some tidal motors 
have been constructed, but as yet very little 
use has been made of this immense, but in¬ 
convenient, supply of natural energy. 

Air Motors. 

Another great reservoir of power, pro¬ 
vided by nature, is in the motion of the air, 
the winds, which are rarely quite at rest, 
though of highly variable strength. The 
use of wind power, through the aid of the 
familiar wind-mills, has been common for 
many centuries, these mills, with their 
rotating sails and internal machinery, being 
widely employed for such minor purposes 
as pumping water, sawing wood, grinding 


corn, and other agricultural needs. This 
source of power does not seem likely soon 
to be utilized for any more important pur¬ 
pose, the great irregularity of the winds in 
force and direction, and their frequent ces¬ 
sation, standing in the way of any general 
application. 

There is reason to believe that wind¬ 
mills were brought from Asia to Europe 
during the Crusades, and it is certain that 
they were in use in Europe during the 12th 
century. Their employment increased un¬ 
til, by the opening of the 19th century, they 
were very widely employed. After that 
date the steam engine largely took their 
place, though they are still very familiar ob¬ 
jects in the Netherlands and are numerous 
in France and the United States. In good 
situations and under ordinary conditions, a 
wind-mill can be trusted, as an average per¬ 
formance, to do eight hours’ work out of 
the twenty-four. In some places they serve 
as an auxiliary to the steam engine, which 
is stopped when the wind sails begin to turn. 
In one such instance, at Faversham, Eng¬ 
land, a 15-horse-power wind-mill raised 
21,000,000 gallons of water from a depth of 
109 feet in ten months, saving the con¬ 
sumption of 100 tons of coal. 

In former times the dome of the wind- 
tower had to be turned by hand to meet 
every shift of the wind, but about the year 
1750, Andrew Meikle devised an appliance 
for moving the sails automati ;ally so as to 
face every wind. Formerly a wind-mill 
sail was covered with a sheet of canvas, 
which could be fully spread or partly furled 
as the wind varied in strength. At present 
various other methods for ‘ ‘ reefing the 
sails ’ ’ are in use. Many other improve¬ 
ments in wind-mills have been made, and 
the light and graceful forms now seen in our 
rural landscapes are much more effective 
and easily managed than those formerly em¬ 
ployed. But the variable character of the 
wind has hitherto forbidden its employment 
for any purpose where a steady and contin¬ 
uous power is needed. Lord Kelvin has 
advocated its use for charging electrical 
storage batteries; and this, in view of the 
vast amount of power going to waste in 
the winds, may in the future be widely 
adopted. 



THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


161 


Hot>Air Engines. 

Another application of the atmosphere 
as a motive power is in the form of heated 
air, which there have been many efforts to 
apply in the same way as steam. Inven¬ 
tions in this direction were made early in 
the 19th century; the first air engine 
which had any success being made by the 
Rev. Dr. Stirling, a Scotchman, in 1816. 
This was improved in 1827, and again in 
1840, and various other inventions were 
made, several in France, and a half dozen 
or more in the United States. Of these the 
most generally in use is that produced by 
Ericsson. 

The chief advantage of the hot-air engine 
is that it needs no boiler, thus avoiding the 
weight and the danger of this appendage of 
the steam engine. Air engines also are 
much the cheaper and need less skill and 
attention. But, on the other hand, the 
pressure of hot air is much less than that of 
steam, so that a considerably larger cylinder 
and piston are necessary. There are two 
classes of air engines, one drawing its 
supply directly from the atmosphere, heat¬ 
ing it, and discharging it after use again 
into the atmosphere; the other employing 
a fixed supply of air, which is heated and 
cooled alternately. The Ericsson engine, 
the form most in favor in the United States, 
adopts the first of these methods. Belon’s 
engine, a French invention, is the only one 
that has been used on a large scale in an 
important industry, this being an extensive 
paper manufactory at Cusset, France. This 
machine also uses air drawn directly from 
the atmosphere. Though of 120 indicated 
horse-power, only about 30 is actually util¬ 
ized, the remainder being consumed in 
gathering the supply and overcoming the 
resistance, while there is a large loss of heat, 
the air escaping into the chimney being at a 
temperature of 450° F. 

Compressed Air Hotors. 

The power of the air has recently been 
applied in a different form and with very 
useful results. In this method the air is con¬ 
densed by pressure into a small fraction of 
its original volume, and then set free to 
exert its force upon machinery. Some of ' 
11 C 


the first important uses of this powerful and 
convenient agent were in excavating the 
tunnels in the Swiss mountains and in 
the Hoosac Mountain, Massachusetts. At 
Mont Cenis, Italy, the air was compressed 
by the power of descending streams on thfe 
mountain side and conveyed by pipes into 
the tunnel. At Hoosac Mountain the air 
was compressed by steam power. The 
compressed air was used in working the 
rock drills in the tunnel, the ease with 
which the pipes conveying it could be 
moved from point to point and carried to 
greater depths rendering it very service¬ 
able. 

Despite the evident advantages of com¬ 
pressed air as a motive power, there have 
been certain difficulties which stood in the 
way of its general use. One of the first in¬ 
ventions to overcome these difficulties was 
the Beaumont engine, of English origin. 
This utilizes the entire power of the air, no 
matter how high the pressure may be. The 
air is admitted from the compressors into 
successive cylinders, the smallest being used 
first, so that, as the pressure falls, the volume 
of air increases, and the force is thus kept 
uniform. American inventors have of late 
years been busy in this field, and with very 
considerable success, particularly in the ap¬ 
plication of compressed air to the moving of 
street cars. Cars equipped with compressed- 
air motors were tried in 1896 and 1897 on 
some of the lines in New York city, and 
similar cars are in use in France, Switzer¬ 
land, and elsewhere in Europe, as also on 
some American roads. Motors of this kind 
seem destined to come far more widely into 
use. Another utilization of compressed air 
is in the working of pneumatic tubes in the 
post-office service, letters being driven by 
its aid from the central to the branch offices 
in large cities. 

Uses for Compressed Air Motor. 

The uses to which compressed air is now 
applied are quite numerous, and only a few, 
in addition to those named, can be spoken 
of here. It is employed very effectively in 
drilling, stone surfacing, riveting, and for 
various other purposes in which a rapid and 
strong blow, easily moved or rotated, and 
varied in strength, is demanded. Power 



162 


THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


\ 


rammers, for heavy work in foundries, are 
of recent introduction, and are being rapidly 
adopted in Europe and the United States. 
One of these machines, operated by one 
man, can do the work of from eight to 
twelve men. The rammers use air at a 
pressure of about 80 pounds per square inch, 
and strike from 250 to 300 blows per minute, 
the air supply being strictly under the con¬ 
trol of the operator, who can make the blow 
heavy or light at will. A recently exhibited 
use was the chipping of toughened steel by 
a pneumatic hammer, the chisel, driven by 
air at 80 pounds pressure, conveyed in a 
flexible tube, cutting off thick slices of the 
steel at the rate of one foot in a minute. 
For such purposes as street-car motors the 
air is used at pressures much lighter than 
the above. 

The Air Brake. 

One of the most important uses of 
compressed air is in the air brake on rail¬ 
road cars, which is coming universally into 
use. The pneumatic or dynamite gun is 
another invention, which was used with 
some effect at Santiago in 1898. The 
rubber tire of the bicycle wheel owes its 
elasticity to compressed air, and air cush¬ 
ions for invalids have been for many years 
in use. Cellulose silk is made by driving 
wood pulp by air pressure through minute 
holes in a metal plate. Compressed air is 
used in a hose for the dusting of railroad 
cars and shops. It is employed in machine 
shops for operating cranes, hoists, and tools. 
In short, its present and possible uses are so 
numerous that we cannot venture farther in 
naming them. 

\ 

Liquid Air. 

The liquefaction of air offers a new and re¬ 
markable source of power. Its rapid and great 
expansion when vaporized would render it 
extremely suitable for this purpose but for 
certain disqualifying circumstances. The 
principal of these is its active tendency to 
return spontaneously to the gaseous state, 
the result being that a steady waste cannot 
be avoided. These difficulties seem to 
stand in the way of its economical utiliza¬ 
tion as compared with steam or oth$r usual 
sources of power. In the proposal to use 


it as an explosive in blasting the same diffi¬ 
culties exist, and the hopes of those who 
are seeking to employ it as an effective 
power-agent do not seem likely to be rea¬ 
lized under present conditions. 

Gas Engines. 

There is a class of engines of small 
power in which coal gas mixed with air and 
ignited is used as a motor. Several varie¬ 
ties of these are in common use, much 
alike in principle, the construction being 
usually the same as in a horizontal steam 
engine, except in the parts that convey the 
gas. This is led first to a mixing chamber, 
where it takes up the proper proportion of 
air. The explosive mixture thus made is 
admitted in successive small quantities 
within the cylinder and there ignited, the 
gas resulting from its explosion exerting a 
pressure upon the piston. In some engines, 
of which the Eenoir is a type, an electric 
spark ignites the gas at the proper moment. 
In others, as the Hugon engine, the igni¬ 
tion is performed by gas jets. These are 
extinguished by the explosion, but are 
quickly relit by an ingenious arrangement. 
Some of the more recent of these engines 
work with gas under compression. Such 
engines have been greatly reduced in cost 
of operation, and can be run at an expense 
of two cents per hour per horse-power. 
This is not as cheap as steam, but the gas 
engine presents advantages of compactness, 
ease of management, etc., which render it 
desirable for certain purposes, such as the 
propulsion of automobiles or motor car¬ 
riages. In the oil engine petroleum is used 
as a fuel on the same principle, it being 
vaporized and the gas exploded along with 
air. Gasoline, a highly volatile liquid dis¬ 
tilled from petroleum, is now commonly 
employed in this manner in automobiles, in 
which service it competes favorably with 
steam and electricity. 

The Solar Motor. 

We have not exhausted in the above all 
the natural sources of power. In truth, the 
basic form of all of them remains to be 
considered, the vast streams of solar light 
and heat which pour upon the earth, and to 
which we owe the fuel that yields us steam- 




THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


163 


power and the rain which is the source of 
our water-power. If the motive-power in 
the solar rays could be directly and easily 
utilized, all other sources of mechanical 
energy might be safely abandoned, but the 
attempts to make use of the heat of the sun 
in this direction have hitherto not been 
very successful. In the solar engines, of 
which a number have been invented, con¬ 
cave mirrors or reflectors are used to con¬ 
centrate the rays upon a water-boiler, or in 
some other way to make use of the great 
heat thus obtainable. Among the workers 
in this direction, one of the most active and 
persistent was th^celebrated engineer, John 
Ericsson, who devoted years to the effort to 
produce a solar engine suitable for use on 
the sunlit plains of southern California. 
He died before his experiments were com¬ 
pleted, but others have taken them up, and 
a solar motor of much efficiency has been 
recently invented and is at present in opera¬ 
tion at South Pasadena, California. This 
device consists of a concave reflector 34 feet 
in outer diameter and 15 feet in inner, it be¬ 
ing zone-shaped like a lamp-shade. Its 

WIND AND 

It seems to us a remarkable circumstance 
that animals are able to live and thrive at 
the bottom of the ocean, at a depth of sev¬ 
eral miles beneath the surface. Yet it is 
well to consider that we ourselves are 
dwelling at the bottom of a much deeper 
ocean, an ocean of air, probably not less 
than five hundred miles in depth, one hun¬ 
dred times that of the ocean of water. This 
atmospheric ocean has certain important 
peculiarities. While the oceanic water cur¬ 
rents reach to no great depth and storm- 
waves are confined to the surface, the cur¬ 
rents of the aerial ocean reach to its lowest 
depths, and its storm-waves sweep the sur¬ 
face of the earth. This fact is of very great 
importance to us, for without it the land 
surface would be a very undesirable place of 
habitation, if, indeed, any of the higher 
forms of life could exist in a sluggish or 
torpid atmosphere. 

These air currents or winds are due to 
a variety of causes. The atmosphere, while 
composed of about 70 per cent, of nitrogen 


inner surface is covered with small mirrors, 
1788 in all, each about 31^ by 24 inches, 
they being so arranged as to reflect the sun’s 
rays to the focal point of the mirror. At 
this point is suspended a boiler 13^ feet 
long and with capacity for 100 gallons of 
water and a steam capacity of 8 cubic feet. 
The steam is carried by tubes to an engine, 
and after condensation is returned to the 
boiler. The reflector is turned towards the 
sun, and is moved by clock-work, so as to 
face the solar orb all day long. The heat 
at the focal point is intense, and so far yields 
ten-horse power of steam, though fifteen is 
claimed for it. It is engaged in pumping 
water for the irrigation of arid lands, and 
is capable of lifting 1,400 gallons per minute. 
The inventors are experimenting with the 
purpose of storing electricity during the day 
so as to run the engine at night and in 
cloudy weather, also with the idea of adding 
to the efficiency of the engine. This inven¬ 
tion is a very hopeful one, as it taps a 
source of power which is absolutely costless, 
and is illimitable in quantity. 


WEATHER. 

and 30 per cent, of oxygen, with a minute 
proportion of carbonic acid gas, also holds 
a variable quantity of water vapor, the lat¬ 
ter being one of the most effective agents in 
causing the movements of the air known as 
winds and storms. The tendency of this 
vapor to rise when heated, and carry the 
air with it, is a prolific source of air move¬ 
ments, the surrounding air flowing freely in 
to fill the partial vacuum. If the latter is 
strongly marked or covers a wide area, the 
resulting movement of the air will be de¬ 
cided, and may be felt for many miles from 
the centre of influence. The other winds of 
the lower atmosphere are very largely due 
to variation of temperature, arising from 
difference of latitude, propinquity of land 
and ocean areas, and other causes. 

Trade-Winds. 

Winds are usually classed in three divis¬ 
ions, permanent, periodical, and variable. 
The first of these—air currents which move 
Steadily in fixed directions the year round— 




164 


THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


are known as Trade-Winds, their cause 
being the constant upflow of heated air in 
the tropics and the equally constant inflow 
of air from the temperate zones to fill the 
rarefied air space. If the earth were at rest 
these winds would move directly southward 
in the northern hemisphere and northward 
in the southern, but the daily rotation of the 
globe changes their direction. This rota¬ 
tion causes any point on the equator to 
move at the rate of about 1,000 miles an 
hour, or 17 miles a minute, while points on 
the pole simply turn without changing place. 
Points between the poles and the equator 
move with intermediate speed, the speed at 
6o° latitude being about miles. Thus, 
as the winds blow towards the equator, they 
constantly enter regions of more rapid mo¬ 
tion. and the moving air lags behind, seem¬ 
ing to come from the east. This is due to 
the fact that the earth turns eastwardly, 
so the trades form north-easterly winds in 
the northern hemisphere and south-easterly 
winds in the southern. The north and 
south trades do not meet, there being an 
equatorial region of calms four or five 
degrees wide between them. This region 
is the seat of frequent thunder-storms and 
violent downpours of rain. The declina¬ 
tion of the sun to north or south as the 
season advances causes a variation in the 
position of the trade-winds, and from this 
cause in some localities they become pe¬ 
riodical, blowing one half the year in one 
direction and the other half in the oppo¬ 
site direction. These winds, blowing over 
the Indian Ocean and Southeastern Asia, 
are called Monsoons. 

Anti-trade and Periodical Winds. 

While the heated air ascends in the 
tropics, and the colder air rushes in to take 
its place, the ascending air, in its turn, 
flows towards the poles in the upper atmos¬ 
phere, forming what are known as the 
anti-trade winds. These slowly descend, 
reaching the surface in about 25 0 to 35 0 of 
latitude, where they take the place of the 
lower air that is drawn by the trades towards 
the equator. Here they form westerly winds, 
their direction being opposite to that of the 
trades. 


Periodical winds are usually due to the 
counter influence of temperature over land 
and sea, producing the air movements 
known as land and sea breezes. 

The origin and nature of these are easily 
explained. The temperature of the sea 
varies much less during the day than the 
temperature of the land. Thus, during the 
heat of the day the sea is cooler than the 
land ; at night the sea is warmer than the 
land. Hence, in the day time, the air flows 
in from the sea to supply the place of the 
air which rises from above the heated land, 
while at night the heavier air over the 
cooled land flows towards the sea. When 
the land is hottest the sea breeze flows with 
the greatest force, and the land breeze gains 
its greatest strength during the coldest part 
of the night. 

Variable winds are due to numerous 
local causes, such as the general configura¬ 
tion of the surface, the counter influences of 
hills, plains, and valleys, the increase of 
moisture over lakes and streams, the devel¬ 
opment of fogs and clouds, and the fall of 
rain and snow, all of which seem to affect 
the volume of the atmosphere in local re¬ 
gions and to cause movements of the ad¬ 
joining air. We need scarcely say that rain 
and snow are the more or less immediate 
results of the distribution of moist air by 
the winds, and of the variation in density 
caused by the meeting of currents of air of 
different temperatures. 

The Cyclone or Storm Wind. 

The above are the more ordinary condi¬ 
tions of atmospheric disturbance, but occa¬ 
sionally special and much more vigorous 
causes operate, producing those violent 
movements of the air known as storms, or 
more distinctively as cyclones and torna¬ 
does. Other names that have been given 
them are hurricanes, typhoons, etc. The 
cyclone is a vast circular storm, seldom less 
than 600 miles in diameter and occasionally 
extending over a width of more than 3,000 
miles, and is marked by winds which are 
often of destructive violence as the centre 
of the disturbance is approached. It 
usually is the result of a rarefaction of the 
atmosphere extreme in intensity or wide¬ 
spread in area. 







t nmi 


0RK5 


THE IRON INDUSTRY 

From the mine to the complete tool and machine is nowja series of operations so nicely perfected and operated on 
such a large scale that results are marvelous, both^in the quantities produced and in the cheapness of 
manufactured articles. Thejseveral steps aie here shown. 







































THE ELECTRIC TOWER-BUFFALO EXPOSITION 

A. marvel of inventive ingenuity and architectural skill and one of the great attractions of the Pan-American Exposition 1901 














THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


Commencing with an inrush of air from 
all sides towards a central region of rarefac¬ 
tion, it is easily seen that a rotary motion 
must needs be communicated to the result¬ 
ing atmospheric disturbance. For, if we 
consider a definite region in the northern 
hemisphere towards which air is rushing 
from all sides, we see that the air coming 
from the north would be deflected towards 
the west before reaching the centre of dis¬ 
turbance, while the air coming from the 
south would be deflected towards the east. 
And all the air-currents with northing 
would exhibit a westerly displacement of 
greater or less extent, while all the air cur¬ 
rents with southing would exhibit an east¬ 
erly deflection. Thus the region of air 
would be moved by westerly forces in its 
northern half, and by easterly forces in its 
southern half, and so would exhibit a rota¬ 
tion opposite to that of the hands of a watch 
placed face upwards on a map of the region. 
Throughout the progress of a hurricane in 
northern latitudes, this form of rotation is 
exhibited. On the other hand, in southern 
latitudes the rotation is in the reverse direc¬ 
tion. 

Origin and Paths of Cyclones. 

Cyclones exhibit a motion of translation, 
sometimes very rapid, which carries them 
from the equator first westwards, and after¬ 
wards eastwards, along paths correspond¬ 
ing closely with the course of the principal 
oceanic currents. Those which visit the 
United States have two general localities of 
origin. The greater number of them arise 
in the great plains west of the Mississippi 
River, and move northeastwardly, frequently 
following the line of the Great Takes and 
passing out to sea by way of the Gulf of St. 
Lawrence. Less frequent, but much more 
violent, are those of tropical origin, arising 
in or eastward of the region of the West 
Indies, and entering the States from this 
region or that of the Gulf of Mexico. 
Sometimes their journey north takes place 
far out to sea, causing the well-known hur¬ 
ricanes of the Atlantic. Others follow the 
coast, and occasionally with a very disas¬ 
trous effect. Still others take an inland 
course, one of the most violent on record 
of the latter being that which visited Gal- I 


165 

veston in the autumn of 1900 and almost 
swept that flourishing city from the face of 
the earth. 

The circular or spiral whirl of the winds 
in a cyclone may be readily observed. The 
centre of the storm is sometimes nearly sta¬ 
tionary, at others moves with varying 
speed, of from 10 to 50, or, in extreme cases, 
70 miles an hour. As the storm ap¬ 
proaches, moving north, if we are in or 
near its central line of passage, winds set¬ 
ting westerly will first be felt. These in¬ 
crease in violence as the centre draws near, 
and are usually attended by heavy rains. 
When the centre comes over us the winds 
fall; a temporary lull succeeds ; the clouds 
are apt to break and the sun to appear. 
But as the storm moves onward the rains 
begin again, while the winds set to the east, 
at first blowing violently, but gradually de¬ 
clining in force as the storm passes farther 
to the north. The cyclone is frequently 
attended with hail or thunder storms, and 
one of its characteristic features in the West 
is the terrible tornado. 

The Anti=Cyclone. 

Opposite in origin and character to the 
cyclone is the anti-cyclone. As the cyclone 
is due to an upflow of warm, humid air, and 
is marked by a considerable, sometimes an 
extreme, fall of the barometer, the anti¬ 
cyclone is due to a downflow of dry cold air, 
increasing the surface pressure and causing 
the mercury to rise in the barometer. The 
winds resulting are opposite in character to 
those of the cyclone, flowing outward from 
a centre of condensed air instead of inward 
to a centre of rarified air. The attendant 
weather is dry, clear, and cold, the cold 
wave being one of its ordinary results. 
The force of the winds is never so great as 
in the case of the cyclone. There is prob¬ 
ably a close connection between these two 
forms of storm. As we have seen, there is 
an uprush of air in the cyclonic centre. 
This, on reaching the upper atmosphere, 
spreadsihorizontally outward, and may cause 
increased pressure in some distant region. 
The result will be a condensation and over¬ 
weighting of the upper air, which in conse¬ 
quence ‘sinks downward, cold and dry, from 



i66 


THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


its elevated place of origin, and subsequently 
flows outward in all directions as the dry 
anti-cyclone. 

The Tornado. 

There is another and the most violent of 
all storms still to be considered, the one 
known by the name of tornado in the United 
States, of typhoon in the Eastern seas, and 
elsewhere as the whirlwind, the sand-storm, 
the water-spout, and by other names. The 
tornado seems to be a secondary and local 
result of the cyclone, the outcome of some 
special and extreme disturbance of the air 
currents. In the cyclone the winds move 
mainly in a horizontal direction, and cover 
an extensive area. In the tornado the air 
movement is mainly vertical and the area 
covered very small. It is a gyration or 
spiral whirl upwards, into which the air is 
drawn with ex traordinary violence. The tor¬ 
nado forms the extreme development of the 
air whirl, which may be traced downward 
through a series of less violent gyrations to 
the little dust whirl which is so common an 
incident in our streets in windy weather. 
Various theories to account for it have been 
offered, but it is probably the result of the 
meeting of two opposite currents of air, 
whose checked motion is converted into a 
spiral whirl. The traveling motion of the 
tornado may be due to the meeting of the 
fronts of two winds at an angle, so that the 
point of contact travels rapidly along the 
front. 

Tornadoes are more frequent and violent 
in the United States than elsewhere, their 
special location being the great plain of the 
valley of the Mississippi, where severe ex¬ 
amples often occur, causing great loss in 
life and property. They appear to originate 
in the clouds not far above the earth, and 
present the appearance of vast cloud fun¬ 
nels, with narrow flexible ends that descend 
to the surface, destroying everything in 
their path. Fortunately their track is very 
narrow, less than a quarter-mile wide on an 
average, while the bottom of the dangling, 
whip-like cloud occasionally lifts and leaves 
broad spaces unharmed. The greatest vio¬ 
lence is in the centre of the whirl, in which 
everything touched is destroyed; houses 
being unroofed, lifted bodily, or torn to 


pieces and their fragments thrown long dis¬ 
tances ; great trees torn from the ground or 
twisted off like reeds; such weights as 
locomotives lifted bodily and hurled aside, 
and enormous power displayed in other 
directions. The wind pressure of a tornado 
has been estimated from its effects to vary 
from 18 to 112 pounds to the square foot and 
the wind sometimes to attain the enormous 
velocity of 2,000 miles an hour. The time of 
passage of a tornado over any spot is less 
than a minute, sometimes only a few 
seconds, it striking like a gigantic hammer 
which instantly destroys whatever it touches. 
Its whirling motion is clearly indicated in 
the twisting of trees and the turning round 
of houses which have been lifted from their 
foundations. In the United States several 
thousand persons have been killed by these 
storms and the loss of property has reached 
scores of millions of dollars. The most re¬ 
markable series of tornadoes on record was 
that of February 9, 1884, when more than 
60 occurred between the Mississippi and the 
Appalachian Mountains, there being in all 
more than 10,000 buildings destroyed, 800 
persons killed, and 2,500 wounded. 

Aerial Vapor and Rain. 

The movements of the winds of which 
we have spoken produce a result of high 
importance in the wide distribution of the 
vapor of water, which the heat of the sun is 
constantly raising from the surface of the 
seas. This is carried by the winds widely 
over the land surface of the earth, con¬ 
denses in the air into clouds at various alti¬ 
tudes, from the fog that rests upon the 
surface to the feathery cirrus that floats at 
a height of many miles, and falls as rain or 
snow from the dense, dark nimbus, or rain- 
cloud. The humidity of the air in any re¬ 
gion, and its consequent degree of rainfall, 
are governed by the direction and force of 
the prevailing winds and the configuration 
of the surface. The winds which bring 
strong rains are those which have blown 
over a broad reach of ocean. Those whose 
path is over the land, like the northwest 
winter winds of the eastern United States, 
bring sunshine and dry air in their track. 
Mountain ranges which the vapor-bearing 
winds must cross are great rain-producers, 





THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


167 


their effect being to cause condensation of 
vapor and rainfall. Thus the greatest rain¬ 
falls are those which come from winds 
which have crossed a broad ocean area, and 
afterwards blow up against and over a high 
mountain ridge lying in their path; espe¬ 
cially if they pass from warmer into colder 
regions—since cold condenses the moisture 
of warm winds into clouds and rain. Be¬ 
yond the mountains the rainfall grows less, 
the air having been robbed of much of its 
moisture, and where the various causes 
leading to a diminution of the rainfall reach 
their extreme phase, deserts appear, the 
clouds failing to yield the water necessary 
to support animal or vegetable life. 

Regions of Great Rainfall. 

The heaviest annual rainfall on the 
globe is due to the southwest monsoon, as 
it carries the vapor gathered from the trop¬ 
ical Indian Ocean over the peninsulas of 
southern Asia. At points in India the 
rainfall is enormous, reaching at Banca 251 
inches, and at Mahabalishwar 263 inches 
of annual depth. It is also great in Burma, 
varying in different localities from 100 to over 
200 inches annually. In desert regions, on 
the contrary, the rainfall almost disappears. 
At San Diego, on the seaboard of Lower 
California, the annual fall is only 10 inches, 
while inland it grows less, and the interior 
basin of Arizona, Nevada, and Southern 
Utah is a desert in almost as full a sense as 
the Sahara, its rainfall ranging from 3 to 17 
inches annually. For short periods, the 
heaviest rainfalls are those which occur 
with thunderstorms and tornadoes, or in the 
famous “ cloud burst,” when the rain falls 
for short intervals at the rate of 5 or 6 
inches or more per hour. In the United 
States a day’s rainfall of from 5 to 7 inches 
has been repeatedly recorded, and as high a 
fall as 13 inches has been reached. These 
amounts have been greatly exceeded in 
tropical latitudes. At Bombay 24 inches 
have fallen in one night, and on Khasi 
Hills, India, on one occasion, 30 inches fell 
on each of five successive days. 

Temperature and Atmospheric Pressure. 

All the influences above named have 
their direct effect upon the weather at any 
locality, while another of its important 


characteristics is that of temperature, which 
varies greatly in different localities, its 
changes being due not alone to latitude and 
the varying power of solar heat, but to 
elevation, to the direction of the winds, to 
the influence of such heated ocean currents 
as the Gulf Stream, and to various other 
causes. The mean temperature of the 
northern hemisphere is given by Dove at 
6o° F., and of the southern at 56°, while 
the extremes for the globe, taking the an¬ 
nual means, are 8o° F. and zero. If we 
take the monthly mean averages, the ex¬ 
tremes on record are no° F. for parts of 
India, and the very low mean of—61.2 0 F. 
for Verkhayausk, Siberia. The latter 
place has given the lowest reading of the 
thermometer on record, —88.8° F. The 
highest readings are questionable ; 125 0 F. 
is not uncommon, and various higher read¬ 
ings have been made, but under somewhat 
doubtful conditions. 

The Use of the Barometer. 

As regards the pressure of the atmos¬ 
phere, it varies daily for every locality, the 
height of the mercury in the barometer 
moving through a range of about four 
inches. These changes in barometric read¬ 
ings are very significant indications of com¬ 
ing changes in the weather, and the barom¬ 
eter is in constant use by weather observers 
as perhaps their most important instrument 
of observation. The usual range of height 
in the barometer is confined within an inch 
or two, but it becomes much greater during 
marked weather changes. The lowest, sea- 
level, marking yet observed was 27.333 
inches, at Ochtertyre, Scotland, and the 
highest 31.360 at Barnavl, Siberia, but such 
extremes as these are of rare occurrence. 
The usual mean height is a little below 30 
inches. It should be said, further, that the 
height of the mercury in the barometer de¬ 
creases steadily as higher elevations are 
reached, so that this instrument is of great 
utility in determining height of mountains. 

The ordinary use of the barometer is as 
a “ weather glass.” Generally speaking, a 
falling barometer indicates rain ; a rising 
barometer, fair weather; a steady barom¬ 
eter, a continuance of the prevailing 
weather. When the mercury is low the 



i6S 


THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


weather is generally broken or stormy; 
when high, it is fair. A sudden fall indi¬ 
cates a storm, whose violence is in propor¬ 
tion to the degree of fall. An unsteady 
barometer indicates unsettled weather, while 
gradual changes point to some fixed weather 
condition, whether foul or fair. The causes 
of these changes are not very well under¬ 
stood, though it may be said that, as moist 
air is lighter than dry air, the barometer 
will read low whenever drier air is replaced 
by humidity. Warm air is also lighter than 
cold air, and the barometer must change 
when these replace each other. The upflow 
of air in or near a storm centre, causing a 
rarefaction and decrease of weight, is natur¬ 
ally attended by a barometric fall, while the 
downflow and condensation in the anti¬ 
cyclone centre has the opposite effect of a 
barometric rise. Elaborate codes of rules 
have been drawn up to serve as a key to the 
fluctuations of the barometer, but as these 
are not greatly to be depended upon, there 
is no occasion to give them here. 

Weather Observations. 

Systematic observations of weather 
changes have been made by individuals 
for many years, both in Europe and the 
United States, and numerous records of 
their results are in existence. Of recent 
years the United States has taken the lead 
in weather observation. Benjamin Franklin 
was one of the earliest to observe the move¬ 
ment of storms, and Thomas Jefferson made 
arrangements for systematic observations at 
several points in Virginia. It remained for 
Joseph Henry, after the founding of the 
Smithsonian Institution, to organize a sys¬ 
tem of simultaneous observations over the 
whole United States, and these were con¬ 
tinued for more than forty years, yielding a 
large amount of tabulated information con¬ 
cerning American meteorology, of which 
several volumes have been published. 
These form the basis of the science of the 
weather in the United States, and have been 
of the utmost service to later observers. 
The invention of the telegraph proved of the 
greatest aid in the daily gathering of these 
widely scattered facts, and Professor Henry 
began after 1850 to display daily upon a 
map, by moveable symbols, the state of the 


weather at various points in the United 
States. This proved of much interest, but 
it was brought to an end by the Civil War. 

The systematic observations of Henry, 
Maury, and others antedated any similar 
systematic work in Europe, and gave the 
suggestion to England and France to insti¬ 
tute systems of weather service under gov¬ 
ernment auspices. In 1861 Fitzroy started 
the English system of weather forecasts, 
and Leverrier, at Paris, began to issue the 
P'rench weather maps in 1863. Other coun¬ 
tries instituted similar systems at later 
dates. In 1869 the intermitted work of 
Professor Henry was taken up by Cleve¬ 
land Abbe, director of the Cincinnati Ob¬ 
servatory, his data being collected by the 
Western Union Telegraph Company, free 
of charge, while the maps were drawn by 
Professor Abbe in the telegraph office, and 
locally distributed. His work excited so 
much interest that an Act of Congress was 
passed in 1870, requiring the War Depart¬ 
ment to undertake a similar work for the 
whole country. This duty was intrusted to 
the chief signal officer of the army, General 
A. J. Myer, who at once called Professor 
Abbe to his assistance, rapidly organized 
his work, and began to issue weather 
bulletins and storm warnings in November, 
1870. 

General Myer issued his daily bulletins 
as probable weather conditions, and soon 
became known as “ Old Probabilities,” but 
they were marked by so great a percentage 
of correctness that much confidence was 
placed in them. He died in 1880 and was 
succeeded by General W. B. Hazen, who 
superintended the service for seven years. 
His successor was General A. W. Greeley, 
of Arctic exploration fame. In 1891 the 
weather service was transferred from the 
War to the Agricultural Department, in 
which it was made a Weather Bureau under 
the charge of Professor Mark W. Harring¬ 
ton, who was succeeded in 1895 by Willis 
E. Moore. The forecasts of the Bureau 
have so improved with time that they are 
widely relied upon, nine out of ten proving 
true. There are considerably over a hun¬ 
dred telegraph stations in the United States, 
thirty stations of exchange with other 
countries, and State services in nearly every 



THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


169 


State in the Union, with reports from over 
2,500 voluntary reporters. More than 200 
stations report floods and other river data, 
1,700 stations show weather and temperature 
signals, while about 200 stations display 
storm signals, and 500 show frost sig¬ 
nals. Forecasts are made and weather- 
maps published in over 100 stations, the 
total number of weather-maps issued an¬ 
nually being about 2,500,000. -The Cana¬ 
dian Weather Service co-operates freely 
with that of the United States, to the 
benefit of both, and it is being extended to 
Cuba and Porto Rico, so as to cover as wide 
an area of the earth’s surface as can con¬ 
veniently be controlled. 

Twice each day, morning and evening, 
the observers note simultaneously the 
weather conditions at their stations, such as 
temperature, barometric reading, humidity, 
force and direction of the wind, cloudiness, 
etc., telegraphing the results in cipher to 
Washington. These daily results are care¬ 
fully studied at each station, with aid from 
Washington, and the probabilities of the 
weather for the succeeding 24 or 36 hours 
are publicly announced, the forecasts being 
widely disseminated by the newspapers and 
otherwise. The weather-map is daily posted 
in thousands of places soon after it is 
printed, and in the country and on the coast 
signals are displayed for the benefit of farm¬ 
ers at a distance or of ships within sight of 
land. 

Weather Signals. 

No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 No. 5 

White Flag Blue Flag White and Black Trian- White Flag 
Blue Flag gular Flag with black 
square in 
centre 



Clear or fair Rain or Local rains Temperature Cold 
weather snow or snow signal wave 


On March i, 1887, a new system of 
weather signals was introduced by the 
United States Signal Office of the War De¬ 
partment. This is still in use, with such 
additions as experience has dictated. These 
signals are given by flags or steam-whistles, 
the flags being five in number, and of the 
form given above. 


When number 4 is placed above number 1,2, 
or 3, it indicates warmer; when below, colder; 
when not displayed, the temperature is expected to 
remain about stationary. During the late Spring 
and early Fall the cold-wave flag is also used as a 
frost-warning flag to indicate anticipated frosts. 

When displayed on poles, the signals should be 
arranged to read downward; when displayed from 
horizontal supports, a small streamer should be 
attached to indicate the point from which the 
signal^, are to be read. 

Whistle Signals. 

The warning signal, to attract attention, will 
be a long blast of from fifteen to twenty*seconds’ 
duration. After the warning signal has been 
sounded, long blasts (of from four to six seconds’ 
duration) refer to weather, and short blasts (of 
from one to three seconds duration) refer to tem¬ 
perature ; those for weather to be sounded first. 


Blasts. Indicate. 

One long.Fair weather. 

Two long.Rain or snow. 

Three long.Focal rain or snow. 

One short.Lower temperature. 

Two short.Higher temperature. 

Three short.Cold wave. 


By repeating each combination a few times, 
with an interval of ten seconds between, possibili¬ 
ties of error in reading the signals will be avoided, 
such as may arise from variable winds or failure to 
hear the warning signal. 

In addition to the signals indicating 
ordinary weather changes, there is a series 
of signals specially adapted for storms, giv¬ 
ing information regarding the winds and 
other particulars. 

Storm Signals. 

A red flag with a black centre indicates that a 
storm of marked violence is expected. 

The pennants displayed with the flags indicate 
the direction of the wind ; red, easterly (from 
northeast to south); white, westerly (from south¬ 
west to north). The pennant above the flag indi¬ 
cates that the wind is expected to blow from the 
northerly quadrants ; below, from the southerly 
quadrants. 

By night a red light indicates easterly winds, 
and a white light above a red light westerly winds. 

Information Signal. 

Red or white pennant displayed alone. When dis¬ 
played at stations on the Great Lakes this indicates 
that winds are expected which may prove danger¬ 
ous to tows and smaller classes of vessels, the red 
pennant indicating easterly and the white pennant 
westerly winds. 

When displayed at stations on the Atlantic, 
Pacific and Gulf coasts it indicates that the local ob¬ 
server has received information from the Central 
Office of a storm covering a limited area, dangerous 


















THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


170 

only for vessels about to sail to certain points, and 
serves as a notification to shipmasters that informa¬ 
tion will be given them upon application to the 
local observer. Only the red pennant is displayed 
on the coasts. No night information or hurricane 
signals are displayed. 

Hurricane Signal. 

Two red flags with black centres, displayed one 
above the other, indicate the expected approach of 
tropical hurricanes, and also of those extremely 
severe and dangerous storms which occasionally 
move across the Lakes and Northern Atlantic coast. 

In this connection the following table 
may be of interest: 


Standard Table Showing Velocity 
and Force of Winds. 


Description 

Miles 

per 

Hour 

Feet 

per 

Minute 

Feet 

per 

Second 

Force in 
lbs. per 
Square 
Foot 

Perceptible . . . 
Just Perceptible . 

Gentle Breeze . . 

Pleasant Breeze . 

Brisk Gale .... 

High Wind . . . 

Very High Wind 
Storm. 

Great Storm . . . 

Hurricane .... 

{! 

{5 
is 

r 20 

1 25 
f 30 

1 35 
r 40 
l 45 
50 

j 60 
\ 70 
r 80 
\ 100 

88 

176 

264 

352 

440 

880 

1,320 

1,760 

2,200 

2,640 

3,080 

3,520 

3 , 96 o 

4,400 

5,280 

6,160 

7,040 

8,800 

1.47 

2-93 

4.4 

5.87 

7-33 

14.67 

22.0 

29-3 

366 

44.0 

5 i -3 

58.6 

66.0 

73-3 

88.0 

102.7 

H 7-3 

146.6 

.005 
.020 
.044 
.079 
.123 
.492 
1.107 
I.968 
3-075 
4.428 
6.027 
7.872 
9963 
12.300 
17.712 
24.108 
31.488 
49.200 


The average hourly velocity of winds in 
the United States varies, for different points, 
from 5 to 11 miles per hour. The highest 
velocity on record for a period of five min¬ 
utes was 96 miles per hour, at Denver, 
Colorado, and North Platte, Nebraska. The 
velocity during the 1900 storm at Galveston, 
Texas, may have surpassed this, but the 
wrecking of the instruments prevented its 
full force being observed. 

In addition to the general rules for fore¬ 
telling the weather from the readings of the 
barometer already given, the following more 


detailed rules, adopted for use with the 
aneroid barometer, but applicable to the 
mercury barometer, may be of service : 

A Rising Barometer. 

A rapid rise indicates unsettled weather. 

A gradual rise indicates settled weather. 

A rise with dry air and cold increasing 
in Summer indicates wind from the north¬ 
ward ; and -if rain has fallen, better weather 
may be expected. 

A rise with moist air and low tempera¬ 
ture indicates wind and rain from the north¬ 
ward. 

A rise with southerly winds indicates 
fine weather. 

A Steady Barometer. 

With dry air and seasonable tempera¬ 
ture this indicates a continuance of very fine 
weather. 

A Falling Barometer. 

A rapid fall indicates stormy weather. 

A rapid fall with westerly wind indicates 
stormy weather from the northward. 

A fall with a northerly wind indicates 
storm, with rain and hail in Summer, and 
snow in Winter. 

A fall with increased moisture in the air, 
and heat increasing, indicates wind and rain 
from the southward. 

A fall with dry air and cold increasing in 
Winter indicates snow. 

A fall after very calm and warm weather 
indicates rain with squally weather. 

The barometer rises for northerly winds, 
including from northwest by north to the 
eastward for dry, or less wet weather, for 
less wind, or for more than one of these 
changes, except on a few occasions, when 
rain, hail, or snow comes from the north¬ 
ward with strong wind. 

The barometer falls for southerly wind, 
including from southeast by south to the 
westward, for wet weather, for stronger 
wind, or for more than one of these changes, 
except on a few occasions, when moderate 
wind, with rain or snow, comes from the 
northward. 












THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


171 

LATEST SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS 


During the closing decade of the nine¬ 
teenth century science and invention by no 
means stood still. On the contrary, they 
advanced with accelerated rapidity, moving 
by bounds rather than by steps, with the 
result that, in this brief period, a consid¬ 
erable number of striking and remarkable 
achievements took place. And the twen¬ 
tieth century, young as it still is, has already 
added its share to these discoveries, and 
promises to be yet more active in the service 
of man than its predecessor has been. Our 
knowledge of nature is still far from com¬ 
plete. Our utilization of the forces of 
nature, great as it has been, may still be 
largely added to. And when it is consider¬ 
ed that the number of nature students has 
enormously increased within the past hun¬ 
dred years, that the instruments of research 
have been greatly developed, that science 
and mechanics are taught in hundreds of 
well-equipped institutions, that the pioneer 
work has been completed and we are now 
dealing with the advanced results, it be¬ 
comes evident that the opportunity and 
equipment for new discovery is very much 
greater than it was a century ago and that 
we may hope for achievements still more 
wonderful than those of the past. With 
this preliminary statement we shall proceed 
to review some of the most important re¬ 
sults reached during the past decade. Many 
of these, as might be expected, relate to 
electricity, the wonder-worker of the age, 
and these we shall first consider. 

The Telautograph. 

Telegraphy, while still largely confined 
to sound signals, has developed in various 
other directions. For instance, a number 
of printing telegraphs have been devised, by 
which messages are printed in plain English 
text with great rapidity. They are trans¬ 
mitted by an automatic machine, which can 
send and print about two hundred words 
a minute. But a paper tape, with holes 
punched through it to represent the letters, 
has to be prepared for each message, and 
the time gained in sending is lost in punch¬ 
ing. A printing telegraphic system recently 
invented in Austria is claimed to be far 


more rapid in operation than is above stated, 
but it also has the defect of losing time in 
preparing the tape message for transmission. 

The Telautograph, invented by the late 
Prof. Elisha Gray, and first shown at the 
Chicago Exposition of 1893, is an interest¬ 
ing invention in this direction. By this in¬ 
strument ordinary handwriting can be sent 
in exact fac simile, drawings transmitted, 
etc. The message is written on paper with 
a pencil to which two silk cords are attach¬ 
ed. As these follow the movements of the 
pencil, they send electric impulses through 
the wire, and a glass pen at the receiving 
end duplicates the pencil in its motions, re¬ 
producing the message in exact correspond¬ 
ence with the hand of the writer. This in¬ 
teresting invention has not yet come into 
practical use. Four wires were at first 
necessary. These were reduced to two in 
1897, but the instrument still awaits a 
cheapening process. 

Telegraphing from Trains. 

It it easy now to send a telegraph mes¬ 
sage from a railroad train moving at full 
speed. This is performed on the principle 
of electric induction. A telegraph wire is 
laid between or alongside the rails, so as to 
bring it near the car. A magneto-telephone 
apparatus is then placed in connection with 
metallic roof of the car, and a pipe or other 
conductor low down under the car-body. 
With ordinary Morse instruments on the car 
a message can be sent, being taken up by 
induction, and following the ground wire to 
a station. But the system is expensive, on 
account of the difficulty of insulating a wire 
on the ground level, and there is not enough 
business for such a system to make it pay. 
Therefore it has not been introduced. 

Wireless Telegraphy. 

Of the highly important recent system of 
sending telegraphic messages without the 
aid of conducting wires mention has been 
made in a preceding chapter. But, as this 
system has been developed within the past 
decade, and as it is one of the leading dis¬ 
coveries of the age, a fuller account of it 
seems necessary at this place. 



172 


7 HE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


The wireless telegraph is usually asso¬ 
ciated with the name of Guglielmo Marconi, 
an Italian inventor, who has been working 
upon it since 1896. But the principle was 
of earlier development, his merit being con¬ 
fined to his method of operation. In 1893 
messages were sent a distance of three miles 
to an island in the British Channel, and 
somewhat later to a distance of four and 
one-half miles. But in those experiments 
and earlier ones, the principle of induction 
was utilized between wires laid along the 
water’s edge on each side, and this principle 
was not capable of being greatly developed. 

The use of what are known as the Hert¬ 
zian waves, flowing from powerful charges 
of electricity, was adopted in 1895, by Dr. 
J. C. Bose, a Hindu physician of Calcutta, 
who telegraphed by their aid from one room 
to another seventy-five yards away, through 
three brick walls. Others tried the same 
method, among them Marconi, who, while 
experimenting with the Hertzian waves in 
1896, sending them to a receiver a mile 
away, was surprised to find that he was 
affecting another receiver at the same dis¬ 
tance, though a hill three-quarters of a mile 
thick lay between. The waves seemed to pass 
out in all directions from the transmitting 
instrument, and could be picked up by any 
number of suitable receivers in a circle 
around their sphere of action. The value 
of Marconi’s experiments lay in his special 
receiver, in which was a glass tube contain¬ 
ing finely-divided metallic particles. The 
action of electricity caused these to cohere 
so that a local current could pass easily 
through them. When once brought together 
they continued to cohere and the current 
to pass. To break this coherence and check 
the current Marconi devised a tapper—a 
very light hammer worked by the current, 
which struck the tube lightly after each 
electric action and caused the fine grains of 
metal to fall apart. Thus there was a rapid 
making and breaking of the circuit as each 
wave of electricity passed, and it became 
easy to receive the electric waves which 
flowed out in all directions from the trans¬ 
mitter. 

By the use of this device, and suitable 
apparatus, Marconi rapidly increased the 
range of his messages from one mile to 


nearly a hundred miles, and became hopeful 
that in brief time he would be able to tele¬ 
graph from London to New York. But it 
seemed necessary to use lofty masts for 
transmitter and receiver alike. In his early 
experiments in England he used a mast 177 
feet high to send a message thirty miles. 
This seemed a serious difficulty in the de¬ 
velopment of his system, but, fortunately, the 
use of the tall mast now seems to be unneces¬ 
sary, since he has succeeded in telegraphing 
sixty miles with the receiver only four feet 
from the ground. 

A second difficulty was the fact that the 
messages sent lacked the element of privacy, 
as they could be picked up at a distance of 
many miles in every direction, and might be 
read by enemies as well as friends. Even if 
a cipher was used, this would not be a safe 
device, as ciphers can be somewhat easily 
read. This difficulty Marconi claims to 
have overcome, by a system of “ tuning’ ’ 
his instruments to each other, so that only a 
receiver in harmony with the transmitter 
will be affected by the message. He is said 
to have sent messages a distance of thirty 
miles, each of which was taken up only by 
the receiver in sympathy with its trans¬ 
mitter. Other messages sent at the same 
time from discordant transmitters were not 
received and did not interfere with the re¬ 
ception of the one in harmony. The in¬ 
struments used in this experiment were 
only twenty-five or thirty feet above the 
ground. 

All this seems to indicate a wonderful 
future for wireless telegraphy. It is in its 
infancy as yet, and the years to come may 
develop it to an extent and in ways of which 
we scarcely dream, making it of untold 
value to mankind. 

The Telephone Gazette. 

Passing now from the telegraph to the 
telephone, it may be of interest to describe 
a highly interesting development of the 
latter wonderful instrument. Edward Bel¬ 
lamy, in his famous novel entitled “Looking 
Backward,” describes a newspaper of a new 
kind, a spoken instead of a written paper. 
By the aid of telephone connections, the 
events of the day in all parts of the world 
are to be “ phoned 1 ’ to subscribers in their 





PASTEUR IN HIS LABORATORY 

The discovery ol the mission of the exceedingly minute organisms known as bacteria in producing disease ranks 
among the greatest and most beneficient of our age By it the art of the physician was firsi 
raised to the rank of a science. The honor of this discovery belongs to 
Louis Pasieur, the eminent French chemist and biologist 


♦ 









EDISON AND HIS GREAT INVENTION 

The invention of the phonograph is probably the most marvelous invention of recent years. The discovery of the principle of vibration in metal, due to sound of voice, is said to 

have been due to chance. Edison saw the possibility and achieved additional fame. 





THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


173 


homes, while great orations, theatrical en¬ 
tertainments, concerts, etc., may be en¬ 
joyed by people without leaving their 
rooms. 

This wonderful paper is to appear late in 
the twentieth century. Bellamy did not 
dream that there would be such a paper in 
existence within less than ten years after his 
book was published. Yet, for a number of 
years past there has been such a spoken 
newspaper in active operation, the Tele¬ 
phone Gazette , of Budapest, Hungary. This 
singular concern has a corps of some forty 
reporters and literary men engaged in col¬ 
lecting and preparing news, which is sent 
every day and all day long to clubs, res¬ 
taurants, public buildings, hotels, and pri¬ 
vate residences, the hours of publication 
beginning at 8.30 A. m., and continuing 
without interruption till 11 p. m. Each 
hour is devoted to some special class of 
news, so that the subscribers, whose num¬ 
bers are constantly increasing, know at any 
hour what kind of information they will 
hear by putting their telephone receivers to 
their ears. 

Beginning with the telegraphic news 
from abroad, it follows with local and pro¬ 
vincial news, etc. At 8 o’clock in the even¬ 
ing begins a series of concerts, lectures, 
recitations, and other forms of instruction 
and entertainment. The senders are men of 
clear and distinct enunciation, there being a 
number of them, so that they may relieve 
one another at suitable periods. It might 
be imagined that such an enterprise as this 
would not succeed, yet the Telephone Ga¬ 
zette has become one of the established in¬ 
stitutions of Budapest. It is one of the 
most remarkable developments of the recent 
century. 

Long=Distance Telephony. 

It has long been a desirable thing to ex¬ 
tend the distance to which people could talk 
over the telephone wire. Beginning with a 
few miles of city streets, the wires were 
gradually extended to neighboring towns, 
to cities in the same section of the country, 
and so on, until Chicago was reached from 
New York, and greater distances were 
reached. The best that can now be done 
with land wires is to talk from Boston to 


Omaha, half-way across the continent, 
while under the sea the longest available 
distance is across the English Channel, by 
a wire which connects London with Paris. 

The longer the distance the thicker the 
wire must be. For local service a copper 
wire weighing 120 pounds to the mile will 
serve, while the long-distance wire must 
weigh 425 pounds to the mile. By the use 
of “repeaters,” it is very easy to telegraph 
from New York to San Francisco, but no 
telephone repeater has been invented, and 
the weight of copper wire needed for such a 
distance would be prohibitive. 

In this dilemma a new invention has 
come forward which promises to overcome 
the difficulty and enable men to talk with 
each other across the continent by the aid 
of the ordinary telegraph wire, and even 
under the ocean. This is the production 
of Professor Michael Pupin, of Columbia 
University, who has recently perfected it 
after several years of experiment. 

The purpose of this invention is to over- 
corn * the resistance to the passage of the 
current. To do this Prof. Pupin cuts the 
wire or cable at fixed intervals and intro¬ 
duces a well-known electrical device called 
*a “choke coil.” This .consists of a little 
wire wound into the form of a hollow spool, 
and overlaid with some more wire. Such a 
coil, introduced into a wire at the intervals 
in which the electric wave reaches its nodal 
points, has the property of strengthening 
the wave. If we shake a long rope, for in¬ 
stance, a wave will run along its length, 
with nodes, or points of rest, at certain in¬ 
tervals. These are well defined near the 
hand, but at a distance they become con¬ 
fused and lose their clear definition. If now 
weights be attached at the intervals where 
these nodes occur, and the rope be again 
skaken, the wave will be found to run 
clearly to the end, the weights aiding in its 
movement. In Prof. Pupin’s invention, 
the coils serve the same purpose, stimulat¬ 
ing the electric wave and enabling it to 
overcome the obstacle of inductive resist¬ 
ance. By a careful mathematical analysis, 
that took him several years, he calculated 
the exact spots in which the coils should be 
placed. Then, by practical experiment, he 
proved the truth of his calculations. 



i 74 


THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


It is claimed that this valuable invention 
will be useful in enabling telephone mes¬ 
sages to be sent under the ocean as well as 
over the land. The difficulty of submarine 
telephoning is that the electric waves em¬ 
anating from the telephone used by the 
speaker move faster over the first part of the 
cable than they do towards the last. Thus 
the first waves are overtaken by subsequent 
waves while the first are still in the cable, 
producing a chaotic jumble by the time they 
reach the other side. 

This phenomenon is caused by the fact 
that the first pulsation or signal which is 
let into the cable fills the capacity of the 
conductor so that each subsequent signal 
must, before it can get through, displace a 
certain amount of electrical fluid equal to 
that let in by the fresh signal. 

For example, if a vessel is filled with 
water and it is desired to pour in another 
pint of fluid, a pint of the original con¬ 
tents must be forced out before the new 
pint can be accommodated. It is the neces¬ 
sity of forcing a way through the cable 
when already charged to its capacity that 
retards the speed of new signals, and makes 
it necessary to wait until each wave has 
registered before letting in another. 

To overcome this condition, Prof. Pupin 
proposes to place on the cable his newly- 
constructed coil, one to each eighth of a 
mile, the capacity of which will be equal to 
the interval between coils, so that when the 
cable is charged by the first signal, the nu¬ 
merous coils take up the charge already in 
the conductor, and by relieving the cable 
permit the electrical waves to flow with less 
resistance. 

The inventor also claims that the coil 
will, in relieving the capacity of the sub¬ 
marine telegraphic cables, enable the oper¬ 
ator to send 500 times as many words as can 
be sent under present conditions. 

The first application of the system, how¬ 
ever, will probably be to land lines. It 
ought to be an easy matter to extend these 
across the continent, or for a much greater 
distance. Great economies in the use of 
metal will also be secured on circuits of a 
few hundred miles as well as on circuits of 
much longer distances. 


ELctric Telpherage. 

The trolley system of car propulsion is 
extended, in the system called telpherage, to 
include general transportation. This is a 
system of aerial electric transportation by 
means of rope, cable or wire, useful in min¬ 
ing or other districts where railroads cannot 
be easily built, and where there are heavy 
weights to carry. It is a very cheap form of 
transportation, the line costing little, and 
crossing with ease all inequalities of ground 
which would prove serious obstacles to sur¬ 
face carriage. On these wires may be con¬ 
veyed heavy timbers from a lumber camp, 
ore from a mine, etc. 

There are two systems of telpherage. In 
one there is a stationary fixed rope or cable, 
on which the carriers or hangers run along 
by small pulley-wheels. In the other and 
more common an endless wire rope is moved 
by a stationary source of power, the carriers 
and their loads moving with it. 

In electric telpherage the carriers possess 
their own source of power, small electric 
motors running on the wire, from which 
they take the current that sets them in mo¬ 
tion . Where there is water-power to run a 
dynamo, this system is cheap and useful, 
but so far it has been little employed. 

Storage Batteries. 

The electric storage battery is no new 
invention. It has been for years in use to 
some extent, and has been much improved 
upon. But it seems destined to come into 
play in a new and very useful way of which 
something may here be said. In many 
sources of power there is a great waste, 
which little has been done to overcome. 
Let us consider the very irregular windmill, 
which depends on the variable movements 
of the air, and whose action is so uncertain 
that it can be employed only in pumping or 
other duties of secondary importance. The 
same variability is likely to appear in the 
solar motor, when it comes more fully into 
use; and it renders the tidal motor almost 
useless. Water-power, too, often runs to 
waste, especially at night, when mills and 
factories are at rest. 

In these and other sources of power 
there is often a large waste of energy which 




THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


x 75 


it is desirable to have stored up until wanted. 
The most available way of doing this is by 
use of the electric storage battery. The un¬ 
used power can be set at work storing elec¬ 
tric energy at such intervals, and this energy 
be afterwards put at useful labor. Tittle has 
so far been done in this direction, but much 
may be done in the future. Man will not 
sit down content forever and see useful 
power wasted at his elbow, exerting its 
strength idly on the air. 

The Electric Furnace. 

One of the most important of recent de¬ 
vices is the electric furnace, an apparatus for 
utilizing the intense heat of the electric 
glow. In this the principles of incandes¬ 
cence and of the arc light are both employed, 
the latter most commonly. The heat of the 
electric arc is enormous, the temperature 
reached being far higher than can be at¬ 
tained in any other form of furnace, so that 
the most refractory substances may be fused. 
In the ordinary arc light the heat ranges 
from about 4,000° F. at the tip of the cone 
to 6,000° in its central portion. It is from 
this intensely hot centre, not more than the 
tenth of an inch square/that the most brill¬ 
iant glow emanates. Few substances can 
pass through this heat without melting or 
volatilizing. Iron melts at 3,000° F. ; pla¬ 
tinum at 3,500° F. ; both quickly flow in 
the electric furnace, while rocks and clay 
are easily fused. Carbon, one of the most 
refractory of substances, is softened and 
vaporized, though it does not fuse. 

In some furnaces the substance to be 
treated is crushed and let fall through the 
electric arc. The melted matter is received 
in a suitable vessel. In other furnaces the 
ore to be fused is placed between electrodes 
of carbon and a powerful current passed 
through it. In the Cowles furnace, used in 
the reduction of aluminium, molten copper 
forms an alloy with the aluminium as soon as 
it is separated from its ore. Among the 
substances which the electric furnace has 
yielded is carbide of calcium, a source of 
acetylene gas. This was formerly known, 
but not in commercial qualities. A com¬ 
pletely new substance is carborundum. 
These two products of the furnace call for 
special mention. 


Carborundum. 

Carbon is known to form compounds 
with many of the metals, these being for¬ 
merly called carburets. One of them is the 
carbide of iron, which gives many of their 
valuable properties to steel and cast-iron. 
New carbides have been formed in the heat 
of the electric furnace, the most interesting 
being the carbide of silicon, a compound of 
carbon and silicon. This was discovered 
about 1890 in an attempt to make artificial 
diamonds by sending the electric current 
through a mixture of carbon and clay. 
There appeared some bright blue crystals, 
hard enough to cut precious stones. 

This substance was supposed to be a 
carbide of aluminium, but proved, when 
analyzed, to be a carbide of silicon. It was 
given the name of carborundum, and its re¬ 
markable hardness soon brought it into use 
as an abrasive mineral. In its powdered 
form it proved to be superior to emery or 
even diamond dust. It is now largely pro¬ 
duced at Niagara, and is coming widely 
into use as a sharpening substance, being 
made into the form of wheels, hones, files, 
etc. Dental instruments are also made of it. 

Carbide of Calcium and Acetylene. 

Another important carbide made in the 
electric furnace is that of calcium. This is 
produced by the treatment of lime and car¬ 
bon in any form—coal, peat, petroleum, 
charcoal, etc.—in the arc, the calcium and 
carbon combining at that intense heat into 
a solid substance of very useful properties. 
It is a greenish-gray, stone-like substance, 
not unlike serpentine rock, and with an 
odor resembling that of garlic. 

The value of this substance was discov¬ 
ered by accident. Some of it was plunged 
into water, when a gas immediately rose, 
which was soon found to be an illuminant 
of remarkable powers. This gas was one 
already known as acetylene, but which had 
not been produced in large quantities. The 
carbide of calcium is found to be decom¬ 
posed by the water, yielding C2 O, or lime, 
and C 2 H 2 , or acetylene. 

Acetylene is a colorless gas which burns 
with a bright, smoky flame. But if it is 
burned in a flat-flame gas-burner it yields a 
light brighter than that of any other gas 




176 


THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


known, being more than twelve times as 
bright as the light of ordinary coal gas. Its 
illuminating capacity for five cubic feet per 
hour is 240 candles. 

Numerous efforts have been made to 
utilize this brilliant light-giving gas. In its 
most available form it is reduced to the 
liquid state, under a pressure of about fifty 
atmospheres. Cylinders of this liquid can 
be conveyed into stores and houses and con¬ 
nected with the ordinary gas-pipes. The 
liquid gradually evaporates and arises as 
gas through the pipes to the burners. Here 
it burns with so brilliant a glow as to throw 
a shadow from both the gas-flame and the 
incandescent electric light. Yet acetylene 
has not come largely into use. It will ex¬ 
plode under certain conditions, and the risk 
is more than people care to take. There 
are also other difficulties in the way. 

The Welsbach Light. 

Passing from electricity to its sister ele¬ 
ment, light, several results of much interest 
are to be chronicled. The acetylene light 
and the incandescent electric light both 
seem to be largely set aside for ordinary 
purposes by the Welsbach gas light, now 
very widely used in houses and stores. 

The principle of this light has long been 
known, but only of late years has it been 
usefully applied. It rests in the power of 
many refractory minerals, when raised to in¬ 
candescence, to yield a glow of great brill¬ 
iancy. The lime light, long used in photog¬ 
raphy and for other purposes, is an ex¬ 
ample of this principle, a piece of lime, 
when highly heated, yielding an intense 
light. Various other minerals display a simi¬ 
lar power, and many experiments have been 
made with a view of employing this prin¬ 
ciple as a useful source of illumination, but 
success was first attained by Auer von 
Welsbach, a German chemist. 

The principle of the Welsbach light lies 
in the deposition of certain very refractory 
minerals on a cylindrical web of woven 
cloth, in such quantity that when the web 
is burnt away the mineral matter remains as 
a very thin and fragile “ mantle ” of incan¬ 
descing material. This, placed over a gas- 
burner, and protected by a glass chimney, 
is found to yield a brilliant glow of light. 


The minerals employed are obtained from a 
substance called monazite, which is a phos¬ 
phate of cerium, lanthanum and other rare 
elements, which are among the most refract¬ 
ory substances known. It need scarcely be 
said that the Welsbach light has attained an 
immense popularity. 

The Roentgen or X Ray. 

Among recent discoveries in science, one 
of the most wonderful is that of a new form 
of light, of remarkable properties, named by 
its discoverer the X Ray, but often called 
the Roentgen Ray in honor of William O. 
Roentgen, the German physicist, to whom 
its discovery is due. This peculiar and 
highly interesting light is given off by a 
Crookes tube, which is a glass bulb from 



X-RAY PHOTOGRAPH OF A HAND. 


which the air has been exhausted and into 
which is introduced the terminals of an 
electric circuit. When a current is sent 
through this tube a bright glow of light ap¬ 
pears, especially brilliant in the region sur¬ 
rounding the terminals. 

The cathode rays, those emanating from 
the negative terminal, are thought to be 
streams of electrified molecules, which strike 
against the walls of the tube, yielding a soft 









THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


r 77 


light. The Roentgen rays flow out from 
the tube where thus illuminated, or from a 
platinum plate in its interior which is simi¬ 
larly lit up. Their peculiar property is that 
they are able to pass through substances 
which are opaque to ordinary light, while 
they fail to pass through certain substances 
transparent to ordinary light. 

There is a great difference in the trans¬ 
parency to these rays of different substances. 
Glass acts like metal ; zinc is six times as 
permeable as platinum ; leather is much 
more transparent than iron, so that if the 
rays are passed through a boot, the nails 
show darkly and distinctly. The most in¬ 
teresting fact is that the human body is per¬ 
meable, the flesh being more transparent 
than the bones. It is this fact that lends 
their great utility to the Roentgen rays. 
When they penetrate the body, the flesh is 
dimty visible while the bones are clearly 
seen, and various details of the anatomy can 
be made out. Clothing does not prevent 
this, as it is transparent to the rays. If 
there be any foreign substance, as a needle, 
a shot or bullet, or other article, in the 
body, its locality can be exactly determined, 
and a surgical operation for its removal be¬ 
comes easy. It is in the domain of surgery, 
therefore, that this signal discovery has so 
far proved useful. 

Liquid Air. 

There are two special ways in which air 
may be made serviceable : one that of rare¬ 
faction, some of whose results have just 
been described, the other that of compres¬ 
sion, one result of which is the compressed- 
air motor, of which we have already spoken, 
and which promises to become among the 
most useful of power agents in the future. 
A highly important outcome of compression 
and refrigeration combined is liquid air, of 
which we have spoken, but which is of such 
interest as to demand a fuller treatment. 

The reduction of the supposed permanent 
gases to the liquid, and even to the solid, 
state is not particularly new. From time to 
time one after another of these has been 
thus dealt with, and in 1878 the world was 
startled by the announcement that both 
oxygen and nitrogen, the principal gases of 
the atmosphere, had been compressed and 
12 C 


chilled until they became liquids. The 
temperature of liquid oxygen was found to 
be —184° C. and of nitrogen —193 0 C. 

This result was equivalent to reducing 
the air to the liquid state, and it was not 
found difficult to convert a portion of the 
atmosphere into a hard and intensely cold 
solid. All this is past history, but the im¬ 
portant point to speak of is the fact that air 
can now be liquified with ease and in such 
large quantities that it may be used for 
commercial purposes, and it is proposed to 
use it as a power agent and as an explosive. 
The method by which this is done, the in¬ 
vention of Charles E. Tripler, of New York, 
is of late origin, and calls for description. 
The process is simple in character, and 
cheap and abundant in results. 

The cheapness comes from the fact that 
the air is forced to do the work of chilling 
itself. In the apparatus used the air is first 
compressed by engine-power in a suitable 
receiver. Compression of the air, as is well 
known, produces heat, as expansion pro¬ 
duces cold. In this case, after compression, 
the air cylinder is cooled again—which can 
be readily done with cold water. The air is 
then allowed to expand into a new receiver, 
and in doing so becomes greatly chilled. 
This is the first process. It is now repeated, 
the cold air being compressed much more 
than at first, the heat again carried away, 
and expansion again permitted. This causes 
the temperature to fall to a much lower 
degree than before. A third compression, 
still more severe, now takes place, after 
which some of the air is allowed to expand 
and pass around the receiver, which becomes 
so cold that, on opening a stop-cock, liquid 
air runs out like water. Thus the produc¬ 
tion of liquid air has become a mere ques¬ 
tion of engine power, the cooling process 
being performed by the air itself. The 
liquid thus produced is a powerful refriger¬ 
ant. As its nitrogen evaporates before its 
oxygen, these gases can be easily separated, 
and pure oxygen, a useful agent in the arts, 
may be cheaply produced. 

New Gases in the Atmosphere. 

A special line of research has led to the 
discovery of several new gases in atmos¬ 
pheric air. One of these, named argon, was 





78 


THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


discovered by Lord Rayleigh and Professor 
Ramsay in 1895. It is somewhat heavier 
than nitrogen and composes nearly 1 per 
cent, of the atmosphere. In the same year 
Professor Ramsay discovered another gas, 
named helium, which had been previously 
known only in the atmosphere of the sun. 
It was found in a rare mineral of Norway 
called cleveite. It has since been found in 
other minerals, and proves to be a gas of 
about twice the density of hydrogen. It 
was reduced to the liquid state at about the 
same time as hydrogen. 

Since then three other gases have been 
discovered by the study of liquid air and 
argon. They have been named neon, 
krypton, and xenon. They exist in very 
minute quantities, and would probably 
never have been known but for the lique¬ 
faction of air. These new gases have ap¬ 
proximately the following densities : Hy¬ 
drogen being 1, helium is 2, neon 10, argon 
20, krypton 40, and xenon 64. 

Artificial Ice. 

The discovery of the art of refrigeration 
led to a very important application in the 
manufacture of ice—styled artificial in dis¬ 
tinction to natural ice, or that produced by 
the processes of nature. The ice machine 
works on the same general principle 
as the liquid-air machine above described. 
The chilling effect is produced by the use 
of some volatile fluid, such as ether, am¬ 
monia, or sulphur dioxide, whose evapora¬ 
tion draws heat from surrounding sub¬ 
stances, just as the expansion of compressed 
air does in the liquid air machine. 

Anhydrous ammonia, a liquid which 
boils at —27 0 F., is usually employed. 
The ammonia is placed in a coil surround¬ 
ing a tank containing brine, and as it evap¬ 
orates it draws heat from the brine, which be¬ 
comes chilled. The brine circulates around 
vessels containing water, which is robbed of 
its heat and converted into ice. In some ma¬ 
chines brine is not used, and the ammonia 
extracts heat directly from the fresh water. 

The ammonia can be used again and 
again. Escaping as a vapor, it is com¬ 
pressed and cooled until it becomes liquid, 
when it is returned to the coils, and the 
same process is repeated. There is but 


little loss of ammonia. The ice is made in 
cakes of considerable size, distilled water 
being used if intended for household use. 

The Automobile. 

One of the most interesting of recent 
developments is the sudden popularity ol 
the motor carriage, which now divides with 
the bicycle the allegiance of those who pre¬ 
fer to travel without depending upon the 
horse. Motor carriages are not new. They 
have been invented from time to time for a 
century past. But the earlier ones were 
crude and costly vehicles, and it is only of 
late that cheap and satisfactory carriages, 
moved by their own power, have appeared. 
The progress of these vehicles was first made 
prominent by a long race of automobiles in 
France in 1895, followed by similar races in 
the United States. By the opening of the 
twentieth century they were becoming com¬ 
mon on our streets, and the use of the 
horse seemed on the decline. 

The power used in these vehicles varies 
in character. In some of them gasoline is 
used, the gas rising from it being conveyed 
by a small tube to the cylinders, where it 
comes in contact with the air, and is ex¬ 
ploded by an electric spark or other source 
of heat. The gas evolved operates a small 
engine that turns the axle of the carriage. 
In others, the electric storage battery is 
used, and in'still others steam-power is em¬ 
ployed—gasoline being used as the fuel. 
The latter carriages are known as locomo¬ 
biles. Examples of all these kinds of motor 
carriages are becoming numerous, in differ¬ 
ent styles, varying from the motor bicycle 
to the heavy delivery wagon. 

Flying iTachines. 

While progress over the land is provided 
for in the way just described, travel through 
the air has set many inventors at work. As 
yet the problem of the flying machine has 
not been fairly solved, though much has 
been done in that direction. 

Many of the experiments have been made 
for the purpose ot producing a machine 
capable of flying as a bird flies through the 
air. Professor Langley, of the Smithsonian 
Institution, devised a steam-power aero¬ 
drome , which moved gracefully through the 




THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


179 


air till the steam gave out. But this was a 
quite small affair. Lelienthal, a German 
experimenter, invented one that would sus¬ 
tain him in the air for short flights. But 
in one of his descents, in 1896, he came 
down too suddenly and was killed. Several 
others have made similar machines, one of 
the most interesting being the Maxim flying 
machine, which made a short flight through 
the air in 1894. 

But hope of producing a machine of this 
character that will carry a man for any con¬ 
siderable distance safely through the air 
seems to be lost, and later experimenters are 
using some form of elongated balloon to sus¬ 
tain the weight of the machine, and a light 
engine of some kind to propel it through the 
air. The latest results in this direction 
seem hopeful, and the air may yet become 
one of man’s favorite fields of travel. 

The Submarine Boat. 

There is still another field of travel 
which has hitherto seemed closed to man 
and to belong solely to the fish, the sub¬ 
marine realm. But man, in his restless 
activity, is not satisfied to be debarred from 
that great realm, and boats have been built 
which are capable of navigating the under 
waters of the sea. 

Boats adapted to this purpose are not 
quite recent in origin. David Bushnell, of 
Connecticut, constructed one of them, called 
the Turtle , in the Revolutionary War. Its 
purpose was to blow* up, with cans of gun¬ 
powder, the British vessels in New York har¬ 
bor. Though it did not succeed in this, it 
could be steered and directed under water 
with some accuracy, and carried air enough 
to supply its occupant for an hour. 

Since 1890 a number of submarine boats 
have been invented, which are capable of 
carrying a number of men for several hours. 
The problem of breathing is solved by the 
use of tanks of highly compressed air, 
which is let out gradually as needed, and is 
sufficient to serve several men for a consid¬ 
erable length of time. 

Of these boats the most interesting is the 
Holland submarine torpedo boat, tested in 
New York harbor in 1896 and 1897, and 
subsequently accepted for naval purposes 
by the United States government. The 


first boat was named the Holland. A sec¬ 
ond, to be called the Plunger , was ordered, 
but was not completed. In the spring of 
1901 fourteen of these boats were under 
contract, five of them being built for the 
government. The latter are to be 63 feet 4 
inches long, 11 feet 9 inches wide, and 12 
feet 1 inch deep, the displacement when 
submerged being 120 tons. When running 
on the surface they will be moved by gaso¬ 
line engines of 160 horse power, but under 
water storage batteries and electric motors 
will be used. They are expected to be able 
to journey sixty miles, with a speed of nine 
knots an hour on the surface and seven 
when submerged. Some of these vessels 
are to be used for submarine research, for 
which they may prove very useful. What 
value they will have as torpedo boats in the 
presence of a hostile fleet remains to be 
shown. We may hope that it will not soon 
need to be demonstrated. 

Printing Without Ink. 

We have by no means exhausted, in the 
above review, the discoveries and inven¬ 
tions of the last decade. Many others of 
some note might be named, though we 
must confine ourselves to the more import¬ 
ant. One of these is a method of printing 
without ink, the invention of Mr. F. 
Greene, a London photographer. 

He has produced a paper which can be 
printed upon by the use of an electric cur¬ 
rent. It is not “sensitized” in the usual 
manner, but the chemicals used are mixed 
with the pulp in the paper machine, the 
paper produced being colorless and stable, 
and unaffected by any agent but the electric 
current. It is printed on with an ordinary 
press, in which no ink is used, the current 
being sent through the types when at work, 
and yielding, where they touch the paper, a 
dense black, permanent impression. At an 
exhibition at Blackpool, England, a large 
company of printers and scientists witnessed 
the operation, a rotary press being run at 
the rate of 6,000 impressions per hour. 
The work was declared perfect in every 
respect. 

A Movable Stairway. 

A late invention, which competes with 
the lift or elevator, is a stairway in constant 



i8o 


THE WORLD OF SCIENCE 


motion, which travelers can ascend without 
lifting a foot. It is moved by a link belt, 
the steps traveling upward smoothly, and 
sliding closely under the floor boards at the 
top, to be returned out of view. The pas¬ 
senger needs only to set his feet upon the 
lower step, and will be carried swiftly and 
gently upward, at the rate of ninety feet a 
minute. On reaching the top, he steps off 
to the floor above. In this way three thou¬ 
sand passengers per hour can ascend, six or 
seven times as many as could be carried in 
a large passenger elevator. Stairways of 
this kind are successfully at work in some 
establishments, doing their service without 
need of the elevator boy. 

Mosquitoes and Disease Germs. 

It will be well to conclude this review 
with a statement of one of the most interest¬ 
ing discoveries of recent years, that of the 
mission of the mosquito in propagating dis¬ 
ease. It is claimed that a certain speckled- 
wing species of this troublesome family of 
gnats becomes infested with the germs of 
malaria and some other diseases, and, when 
stinging its human victims, leaves behind 
not alone its own poison, but occasionally a 
far more dangerous venom, the bacteria of 
infectuous diseases. 

Several experiments have been made of 
recent years to discover if the mosquito was 
justly blamed for spreading disease, the 
most significant being in the summer of 
1900 by two scientists who spent that season 
in the malaria-infected Roman Campagna. 
Going abroad freely during the day, at 
night, when the mosquito was on the wing, 
they shut themselves up in an insect-proof 
hut. The result was that they escaped the 
disease, though it is almost or quite certain 
to attack any stranger who spends even a 
single night on the Campagna. 

The result of this experiment rendered 
it exceedingly probable that the mosquito is 
the carrier of malaria—possibly not the only 
one, but apparently the principal and most 
efficient one. Still more recently this insect 
has been charged with the propagation of 
another disease, the deadly yellow-fever. 
An American commission, under Dr. Reed, 
made experiments at Havana, and an¬ 
nounced as its conclusion that the mosquito 


was alone responsible for the spread of the 
disease. In the course of the commission’s 
investigations six non-immune persons were 
infected directly by the bite of mosquitoes 
which had previously bitten yellow-fever 
patients, and five of these developed yellow- 
fever. 

The last experiment made was held as 
proving conclusively the theory of propaga¬ 
tion by mosquitoes. A special building 
was constructed of disinfected material, and 
one of the rooms was divided into two sec¬ 
tions by a wire mosquito screen. In one 
section were placed disinfected bedding and 
clothing, and in the other bedding and 
clothing from the yellow-fever hospital 
which had not been disinfected. 

Two non-immunes occupied the two sec¬ 
tions. In the former were put several in¬ 
fected mosquitoes. The patient remained 
in this room only long enough to be bitten, 
and in four days a pronounced case of yel¬ 
low-fever developed. The other subject 
slept in the infected bedding for many nights 
and did not contract the fever. 

Both these persons slept twenty nights 
in garments worn by yellow fever victims 
and in bedding from the yellow-fever hos¬ 
pital without infection, and in no instance 
in the course of the commission’s investiga¬ 
tions did a case of yellow-fever develop 
from exposure to infected bedding or cloth¬ 
ing. 

Destroying the Mosquito. 

In view of the dangerous character of 
the disease-carrying mosquito—which for¬ 
tunately seems confined to a few species— 
some means of eradicating this insect is de¬ 
sirable. But it is far less easy to get rid of 
the highly prolific insects than of the larger 
animals, and the gnats occur in such vast 
multitudes that they would seem to defy 
the efforts of their enemies. Fortunately, 
the mosquito spends its larval life in quiet 
ponds, to ‘whose surface the larvae must 
come for oxygen. It is found that a thin 
film of oil spread over the surface will eradi¬ 
cate all those existing in any body of water. 

This simple fact gives us some hope. 
By a concerted onslaught on the mosquito 
larvae it seems possible to clear any district 
from these dangerous insects. 



BOOK III 


MECHANICS 

A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO THE USE OF TOOLS, SELECTION AND PUR¬ 
CHASE OF MATERIALS—HELPFUL AIDS IN CARPENTRY, PLUMBING, 
BRICK AND STONE WORK, PAINTING, PAPER HANGING AND OTHER 
BUILDING TRADES—THE MANIPULATION OF ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES 
—WORKSHOP RECIPES AND PRACTICAL MEASUREMENTS AND ESTI¬ 
MATES. 

EVERY MAN HIS OWN MECHANIC 













the Practical Mechanic 

HOW TO MAKE YOUR OWN REPAIRS—HELPS IN CARPENTERING, 
BRICKLAYING, METAL WORKING, PAPER HANGING, AND OTHER 
USEFUL OCCUPATIONS—INSTALLATION OF ELECTRIC 
BELLS, TELEPHONES AND OTHER MECHANICAL 
APPLIANCES—PRACTICAL RECIPES 
AND DIRECTIONS. 


EVERY MAN HIS OWN MECHANIC 


Mend your broken chairs and crippled 
furniture; put fresh panes of glass into 
your broken windows; do your own re¬ 
pairs as far as it is practicable, indoors and 
out of doors ; look after your own locks and 
fastenings; make your own garden tools 
and appliances; put up your own sheds, 
greenhouses, and garden buildings, and I 
shall answer for it that if you check what 
you save on each job, you will find your¬ 
self in pocket at the end of the year merely 
through resorting to self-help. 

Let us take a simple case of common 
occurrence, as for example, a broken win¬ 
dow, and see, by comparing the cost of re¬ 
pairs when executed by a glazier on the one 
hand, and done by the householder himself 
on the other, how much may be saved by 
means of a little practical knowledge and 
self-help. 

Broken Window, How to Mend It. 

We shall first look into the cost of the 
work when the householder is his own 
mechanic. The man who lays himself out 
to do odd jobs of this kind will of course 
have at hand the tools necessary for carry¬ 
ing out the work, namely, a hammer, a 
suitable knife for hacking out or cutting 
away the hardened putty and fragments of 
glass still remaining in the window frame, 


and a putty knife. The first thing to be 
done is to clear the rebate or groove in the 
sash-frame for the reception of the new pane 
The next step is to measure accurately the 
length and breadth of the aperture, includ¬ 
ing the rebate, and procure a piece of glass 
of the required size from any painter and 
glazier or store which cuts glass for those 
who may require it. A little putty must 
also be procured. Now, supposing, that the 
glass measures 18 in. by 12 in., or, in other 
words, contains one and a half superficial 
feet, the cost of the glass will be 10 cents. 
The cost of the putty may be reckoned at 
1 cent, putty generally speaking being 5 
cents per pound, though it may be fre¬ 
quently purchased at the paint store for 4 
cents per pound. The expense, then, of 
putting things as they were before to the 
householder who can use his hands is no 
more than'n or 12 cents. It will cost 25 
cents or more if a journeyman is called in. 

It may be argued that a man who as¬ 
pires to be his own mechanic cannot possi¬ 
bly gain a sufficient knowledge of all or any 
of the various building trades to enable him 
to do the necessary work of construction or 
repairs in a workmanlike manner, and that 
even if he could do so he would never be 
able to find time enough to do all that may 
be wanted in house and garden from year’s 

i8 3 




THE PRACTICAL MECHANIC 


184 

end to year’s end. Yet, so far as time is 
concerned, it may be pointed out at once 
that the most hard-worked man has his 
regular or occasional half-holiday, to say 
nothing of the summer evenings when 
there is light enough for handi-craft 
work even after 8 o’clock ; and if these 
be not enough, he must—as people are often 
told to do who object that they can find 
no time for this, that, and the other— make 
time. 

Knowledge Must Be Paid For. 

It is good policy, then, lor every man 
who seeks to do a little as a handicrafts¬ 
man, to lay out a few dollars in obtaining 
the services of any moderately skilled artisan, 
who, for such a sum, would willingly show 
the aspirant how to use his tools, and how 
to keep them in working order. Thus, for 
example, if a man desired to follow up car¬ 
pentry, it will be beneficial to him in the 
highest degree to enlist the services of a 
carpenter who will show him how to use 
his saw and his plane, and how to keep his 
saw fit for use by sharpening it with a file, 
and his plane and other cutting tools in 
proper condition by means of the grind¬ 
stone and oilstone. If, again, he wished to 
be able to build a brick wall, he should get 
a bricklayer to show him how to prepare 
his foundations with spade and level, and 
how to put in the footings of his wall, and 
to raise it, course after course, so that its 
faces within and without, may be truly 
perpendicular, inclining neither to the one 
side nor the other. Having once learned how 
to do a thing, a fairly intelligent man will 
not require so very much practice to enable 
him to do such work as inclination or 
necessity may suggest, in a tolerably work¬ 
manlike manner. 

Carpentry Most Desirable. 

If it be asked what branch of handi¬ 
craft trade, or, to bring matters within a 
narrower compass, what branch of the 
building trade is most suitable and most 
useful for amateurs generally, and house¬ 
holders especially, it must be answered that 
a knowledge of carpentry and joinery will 
be found by far the most desirable. Next 
to this, it is necessary to know something 


about painting and glazing, which comes 
fairly within the province of the amateur. 
Collaterally with these useful arts, paper¬ 
hanging may be mentioned. It is unlikely 
that a man will do much smith’s work, but 
even in this it is possible for an amateur to 
do something, and a slight acquaintance 
with the arts of brazing, soldering, and 
working in metals will enable a man to 
make propagating cases that shall do him 
good service, and apparatus for heating a 
small greenhouse, if he have one, at little 
expense, even if he still leaves it to the 
peripatetic knife-grinder and tinman to stop 
up holes in leaking coffee-pots and sauce¬ 
pans, and to renew the damaged bottoms of 
colanders and milk-strainers. 

Bricklaying and Masonry. 

Bricklaying and masonry are trades which 
possibly an amateur will not meddle much 
with; but some slight acquaintance with 
the principles of each, and the materials 
employed, is desirable, even if it be for no 
other or better purpose than that of giving 
an eye to any workman who may be em¬ 
ployed in this way on the premises, in order 
to see that he is doing his work in a work¬ 
manlike manner, that he is using proper 
materials, and that he is not wasting his 
time—a thing which no workman who has 
any self-respect will do. It is, however, 
quite as well to be able to know oneself how 
to set a stone or step that has become loose 
by one cause or another, in cement, and 
how to prepare the cement for the work ; 
and know in what proportions sand and 
cement should be mingled for the purpose 
of making a suitable composition for fixing 
the step once again, so that it may remain 
immovable in its proper position. 

Excavating. 

Lastly, a knowledge of excavating in 
all its branches is attended with advantage. 
In the term “excavating” a far greater 
variety of work is comprised than appears 
upon the face of it at first sight. It means 
far more than digging or hollowing out a 
pit, as for a well or a trench, or for the 
foundation of a wall. It embraces these, it 
is true, but it also implies a knowledge of 
the manufacture—if we may use the word— 




THE PRACTICAL MECHANIC 


of concrete, and the purposes to which it is 
put, of making garden walks and paths, and 
of leveling, so far as it may be applied to 
the construction of drains for carrying off 
the surplus water from the soil of the gar¬ 
den, or even from a stable or pigsty, and 
the laying of drain-pipes for this purpose. 
It also gathers within its wide embrace a 
knowledge of the method of making tar 
paving and burning clay into ballast—pro¬ 
cesses which will often be found extremely 
useful in the garden. 

Kinds and Prices of Materials. 

It is important for every one who at¬ 
tempts to w r ork in wood that he should be 
familiar with the various kinds of wood 
that are used, and the purposes for which 
each is specially adapted. Experience will 
show that wood which is admirably fitted 
for one kind of work is by no means suit¬ 
able for another. The prices, too, of differ¬ 
ent sorts of wood differ as much as their 
qualities, and it is desirable that tne amateur 
artisan should become acquainted with these 
to some extent, that he may know what he 
is about when he is making purchases of 
his timber merchant. A knowledge of the 
prices of the different kinds of wood used in 
building and furniture making will also be 
useful to him in other ways. For example, 
if he intends to put up even so unambitious 
a structure as a weather-boarded shed, he 
can, after making his plans and working 
drawings, calculate to a nicety the quantity 
of wood that will be wanted, and its cost at 
the timber yard; and if he finds that the 
job will run into more money than he ex¬ 
pected, he can modify his plans and the 
mode of structure to suit his pocket. 

Working Drawings. 

We would urge strongly on the amateur 
artisan the necessity of preparing careful 
plans and working drawings to scale of any 
piece of work that he is about to take in 
hand, whether large or small, before he at¬ 
tempts to put it in hand. It is an old but 
true saying, that “Well begun is half done, * ’ 
and the worker in wood or stone or any 
other building material will be led to appre¬ 
ciate its truth and wisdom when he finds 
how helpful the making of correct and care¬ 


185 

ful plans and drawings will be to him in the 
actual performance of the work in question. 
The whole mode of procedure—what he has 
to do and how he must do it—will be clearly 
fixed in his mind before he even touches the 
material which he is about to work up into 
the desired form or object, and he will al¬ 
ways find the execution of the work to be 
quicker or slower, according to the extent 
to which he has previously worked out his 
plans*in his mind, and committed them to 
paper. 

Kinds of Woods Generally Used in Ordi¬ 
nary Carpentry. 

Of all the different kinds of wood, deal, or 
pine, is that with which the amateur will be 
most frequently employed, and of which it 
is most necessary that he should know the 
prices and sizes at and in which it can be pro¬ 
cured at the timber yard. We shall now en¬ 
deavor to convey some idea of the nature of 
a few common kinds of wood, and the pur¬ 
poses for which they are or may be used. 

The: Ash is a hardy deciduous tree, 
found generally in northern latitudes. In 
color the wood is greenish white when 
young, but the grain of timber cut from 
old trees is often dark and beautifully 
marked. When in this condition it is fre¬ 
quently used by the cabinet-maker. Its 
toughness, elasticity, and closeness of grain 
render the wood useful for making the frames 
of carriages, agricultural implements, felloes 
of wheels, etc. Hammer-handles and bil¬ 
liard-cues are frequently made of Ash, as 
well as the handles of croquet-mallets, and 
it is much used by coopers. It admits of 
being bent almost double without snapping, 
and on that account it is well adapted to be 
used for curved work. 

The: Bkkch, a hardy deciduous tree, is 
found in the northern States and Canada. 
The color varies ; it is mostly light or whit¬ 
ish brown in tint, but is found in all shades 
of brown, deepening at times to black. 
The wood is fine and straight-grained, and 
is, in consequence, easily worked. The 
grain resembles that of mahogany, and it is 
often stained to represent it. It is used in 
the manufacture of furniture-tables, beds, 
and chairs being made of it. It may be 
Stained to imitate ebony and rosewood. 



i86 


THE PRACTICAL MECHANIC 


The Birch is a forest tree of graceful 
appearance, found in cold and temperate 
regions, and on elevated situations, such as 
the sides of mountains in warmer countries. 
The wood is white, firm, and tough, and is 
used especially in northern countries for mak¬ 
ing wheels, casks and tubs, and in turnery. 

The wood known as Chestnut is de¬ 
rived from two widely different kinds of 
trees—the Horse Chestnut and the Spanish 
or Sweet Chestnut. The white brittle wood 
of the Horse Chestnut is used by turners in 
making fancy goods. The wood of the 
Sweet, or Edible, Chestnut, is hard and 
durable, and beautifully grained and varie¬ 
gated. Furniture is sometimes made of it, 
and it is used with effect for decorative pur¬ 
poses in building. 

The name of Pine is given to the timber 
of a great variety of cone-bearing trees, 
although the deal or pine cut from different 
trees varies considerably in quality and gen¬ 
eral utility. It may be broadly distinguished 
as Red or Yellow Pine—for the names are 
indifferently used—and White Pine. In the 
one kind, the ground color of the wood is 
yellow, diversified with markings of pale 
red; in the other kind,the wood is of a 
whitish color, whence its name. The Amer¬ 
ican White Pine is highly esteemed in car¬ 
pentry work from its softness and the ease 
with which it can be worked. While not 
strong, it is durable. The difference in the 
two kinds of wood is this : the grain of the 
Yellow Pine is generally very straight and 
free from knots, and it is very durable, 
though it is soft and easily worked. This 
renders it peculiarly appropriate for all 
building purposes, whether in the construc¬ 
tion of houses or ships. The great height 
and straightness of the pine renders it well 
suited for the masts of ships; and when 
stained and varnished the timber presents a 
handsome appearance for joiners’ work in 
houses. White Pine is harder and not so 
straight-grained as Yellow Pine, and it is 
generally full of knots. The variety known 
as Silver Fir is used for flooring, and also in 
the manufacture of household furniture. 

The Oak. The best Oak timber in the 
world is grown in America and Great 
Britain, from whose forests, until iron came 
so much into use for ship building, all the 


Oak was derived for the splendid fleets 
which have commanded the sovereignty of 
the seas. Although the grain is somewhat 
open—too open, indeed, for the purposes 
of the turner—the wood is extremely hard 
and durable, but difficult to work, and apt 
to take the edge pretty quickly off the work¬ 
man’s tools. The wood is dark in color 
and susceptible of a high polish. It is 
much used in house building, for houses of 
the better class, for floors, staircases, doors, 
the paneling of rooms, etc., and for tables, 
chairs, sideboards, and other pieces of 
household furniture. 

The Popear. This wood is white, soft, 
and brittle, and is chiefly used in the manu¬ 
facture of boxes, cases, and children’s toys. 
The softness of the wood causes glass grind¬ 
ers and lapidaries to use horizontal sections 
as polishing wheels. The wood of the pop¬ 
lar is not liable to shrink, warp, or swell. 
The fret-sawyer will find it useful for back¬ 
grounds, linings, and veneered work. 

The wood of the Waenut is extremely 
useful and valuable, and is used in the arts 
for many purposes, of which not the least 
important is that of the manufacture of 
ornamental furniture. Its only drawback 
is its want of density, which renders it 
liable to injury from blows and rough 
usage. It is as useful to the turner as to 
the cabinet-maker, and works well in the 
lathe. It is desirable to get walnut wood 
from old, well-grown trees, for the older the 
tree the more beautiful and diversified are 
the markings of the wood. 

For fret-sawing and all kinds of cabinet 
work, the wood known as Beack Waenut 
is the most suitable. Unless well seasoned 
by kiln-drying, or some similar process, it 
is apt to warp and split. It will take a 
beautiful polish, and still look well. Plain 
oiling seems to harden the fibre, and a dead 
polish will often show better in the work 
than though it shone like a mirror. This 
wood ought never to be varnished, since this 
gives a common look to the article, as it 
always brings out the grain. 

The White Waenut, known in the 
United States as the butternut , is a pretty 
wood, but soft. It cuts clean, and is 
adapted for many kinds of work, which, 
however, must not be delicate in design. 



THE PRACTICAL MECHANIC 


187 


It has the same grain as Black Walnut, 
stains well, and shows oiling to advantage. 

Strength and Breaking Strain. 

The most important qualities of build¬ 
ing material necessary to consider are its 
strength and breaking strain or breaking 
weight, and the amount of pressure which 
can be safely laid upon it in accordance 
with its form, thickness, position, etc. 
It has been ascertained by actual ex¬ 
periments that the strength of a beam or 
girder of timber, and hence of any piece of 
timber, whether large or small, increases 
directly as the width, and as the square of 
the depth. Thus, if a piece of wood meas¬ 
uring three inches in breadth and three 
inches in depth—that is to say, nine inches 
square in section—will bear a certain weight, 
a beam six inches broad and three inches 
deep will bear twice the weight; but a beam 
three inches broad and six inches deep will 
bear four times the weight. The strength is 
also inversely as the length. If two beams 
of equal breadth and depth be taken, but one 
of them be twice as long as the other, the 
longer beam will only bear half the breaking 
weight that the shorter one will sustain, or, 
in other words, will be only half as strong. 

It will now be clear why, in laying joists 
to sustain a floor, the timbers are so placed 
as to have considerable depth from top to 
bottom, while the breadth is comparatively 
narrow. 

A continued strain tends to weaken the 
power of resistance in a beam, and the power 
will be lessened still more when the weight 
is variable, or is a rolling instead of a 
dead weight. The nature of the wood must 
also be taken into account: thus, some in 
which the fibre is long and the grain straight 
will bend to a very great degree, while 

TOOLS USED 

An able author and artisan, describes 
the tools used in carpentry in groups as fol¬ 
lows, namely, “Striking tools, saws, cut¬ 
ting tools, planes, boring tools, pincers, 
guides, and auxiliary appliances.” It 
seems possible, however, to render the classi¬ 
fication more complete by the following 
arrangement: 


others in which the grain is short and close 
will scarcely bend at all, but break sud¬ 
denly. In framing timber, as the carpenter 
is called upon to do, all these points must 
be taken into consideration. 

The instantaneous breaking weight of 
any kind of wood is the weight under which 
it will give way and break when loaded with 
the weight in the centre. It has been said 
that the load with which a beam may be 
weighted without risk should never exceed 
more than one-third of the breaking weight ; 
but it is better and safer never to let the 
load exceed one-fourth of the breaking 
weight. Indeed, it is argued that timber is 
permanently injured if more than this is 
applied to it. The best authorities on car¬ 
pentry say that a load cannot be looked on 
as safe if it exceeds one-fifth part of the 
breaking weight. 

It is by no means a difficult thing to 
find the breaking weight of every piece of 
timber, and, this being known, the load that 
it will sustain without injury ; this as it has 
just been shown, estimated by different 
authorities at from one-fifth to one-third of 
the breaking weight. The following is a 
general rule for finding the breaking weight 
in the middle for girders of wood supported 
at both ends : 

Rule .—Multiply the breadth in inches by 
the square of the depth in inches, and divide 
by the length of bearhig in feet. The result 
obtained, when multiplied by a certain con¬ 
stant or invariable quantity,for the kind of 
timber under consideration,gives the breaking 
weight in the centre in hundredweights. 

This constant or invariable quantity, 
which has been determined by a series of 
experiments, is stated by Barlow to be: For 
Ash, 6 ; for Oak, 5 ; for Pitch Pine, 5; for 
Red Pine, 4; for White Pine, 3. 

N CARPENTRY 

I. Striking Tools. 

1. Tools that are used for striking only, 

as Hammers and Mallets . 

2. Tools that are usedfor striking and cut¬ 

ting, as Hatchets, Axes, Adzes, etc. 
II. Rasping Tools, or Tools that act 

BY ABRASION. 

i. Saws of all kinds, for cutting wood . 




i88 


THE PRACTICAL MECHANIC 


2. Rasps and Files, for smoothing, shap¬ 
ing, cutting, etc. 

III. Paring Tools of all Kinds. 

i . Planes of various kinds, for smoothing, 
moulding, etc. 

2. Spokeshaves and Drawing-knives. 

3. Chisels and Gouges. 

IV. Boring Tools. 

1. Bradawls, Gimlets, and Augers. 

2. Brace and Bit, sometimes called Stock 

and Bit. 

V. Holding or Grasping Tools. 

1. Pincers a 7 idPliers, Nippers, Spanners, 

and Wrenches. 

2. The Vice, including Hand-vice, Bench- 
* Vice, etc. 

VI. Tools of Guidance; and Dirfction. 

1. The Carpenter's Rule and Chalk Line. 

2. The Square, Bevel, Gauge, Mortising- 

Gauge, Mitre-Box. 

3. Spirit Level, Straight Edge, Plumb 

and Level. 

4. Compasses and Callipers. 

VII. Miscellaneous Tools not subject 

to Classification. 

1. Screwdriver, Nail-punch, Scriber, Ry- 
mer or Reamer, etc. 

Striking Tools. 

Of hammers, the amateur should possess 
three—namely, an ordinary joiner’s hammer 
for heavy work, a lighter one of the same 
form for medium work, and a light ham¬ 
mer with a small face, usually known as a 
“ladies’ hammer,” for driving brads and 
small fine nails into small light work. If 
he determines to do any veneering, there is a 
special kind of hammer used for this pur¬ 
pose which must be obtained. 

Many other kinds of hammers are used 
for various kinds of work, but those named 
will be sufficient for the amateur’s purpose. 

In striking a tool with a wooden handle, 
as a chisel, the wooden mallet, not the 
hammer, should be used, a convenient size 
having a head 6 inches long and 2^ by 3^ 
inches wide in face. The amateur must 
remember that tools of a medium size are 
always likely to be most useful to him. 


The tools that are used for cutting as 
well as striking, whose blow severs or splits 
as well as drives forward, are the adze and 
axe, or hatchet. The adze is not likely to 
be required by the amateur; it is used 
chiefly by shipwrights in ship building, and 
sometimes by the carpenter. It is with the 
Axe or Hatchet that the amateur artisan 
is more immediately concerned, and this is 
a tool that he cannot do without, for it may 
be made useful in a variety of ways. In 
framing timber together it can be used as a 
hammer, instead of the heavy carpenter’s 
hammer, which the amateur need not place 
among his tools ; and for sharpening stakes 
or cutting down timber to the size required 
in the rough, or for splitting pieces of wood, 
it is invaluable. It should be kept well 
sharpened, for a blunt axe is useless for any 
purpose, so far as cutting is concerned, ex¬ 
cept splitting firewood. 

Rasping Tools. 

Rasping Tools are those which act by 
abrasion or rubbing away the material to 
which they are applied. 

There are many kinds of saws in use, 
but those which the amateur artisan will 
most require are the Hand Saw, Tenon 
Saw, Dovetail Saw, Keyhole Saw, and 
Frame Saw. These are sufficient for all 
ordinary work. To these, in order to save 
wear and tear of the hand saw, a saw called 
a rip, or ripping, saw may be added. This 
saw has large, triangular teeth, and is used 
for sawing along the grain. It is therefore 
useful for sawing planks, battens, and 
boards the way of the grain ; the work be¬ 
ing done more expeditiously with a rip saw 
than a hand saw. 

The Hand Saw is generally useful, and 
will serve the purpose of a rip saw or a 
panel saw, a finer kind of saw used by 
joiners. 

The Tenon Saw is used more especially 
for cutting across the grain of the wood, 
and leaves the surface of the wood that is 
divided by it as smooth as is possible when 
the nature of the operation is considered. 
The blade is of necessity thin and fine, and, 
in order to keep it straight when in use, it 
is inserted into a back of iron or brass. It 
is worked by means of a handle differing in 




THE PRACTICAL MECHANIC 189 


form from that of the hand saw. A tenon 
saw to be really useful should be from 14 to 
18 inches in length. 

The Dovetail Saw and the Sash Saw 
are nothing more than tenon saws of small 
size, being identical with these in shape and 
make. They range from 8 to 12 inches in 
length. 

The Keyhole Saw consists of a long 
narrow movable blade. The handle is 
pierced throughout with a narrow slit suffi¬ 
ciently large to allow of the easy passage of 
the saw. It is useful for cutting out curved 
work, while rough coarse fretwork may be 
done with it, and perforated work for rough 
carving. 

Rasps, generally speaking, are used in 
carpentry for cutting away or smoothing 
wood, or for wearing away the sharp edge 
left in a circular hole that has been cut out 
with the keyhole saw, so as to impart a 
bevel to it sloping from above to the under 
part. A rasp is flat on one side and slightly 
convex on the other, and is covered with 
fine projecting points beaten up by a mallet 
and punch. They are of different degrees 
of roughness. 

The File, whose ridges are finer than 
those of the rasp, is used for cutting metal 
and sharpening saws. 

Paring Tools. 

Paring Tools, or tools which are used 
for cleaning away the rough, ragged surface 
left by the teeth of the saw and rendering 
wood smooth and even, or otherwise for 
cutting wood into various forms and shapes, 
are frequently called edge tools , as they 
present a sharp, keen edge. Indeed, if they 
are blunt in the least degree they are not fit 
for use. Watch an artisan at his work, and 
you will see him frequently rub his plane- 
iron or chisel on the oil-stone in order to 
sharpen it. An amateur, especially a be¬ 
ginner, in nine cases out of ten either does 
not think of doing so, or altogether forgets 
that there is any necessity for it, and this is 
one of the chief reasons why amateur’s work 
is often so badly done. 

It is important for the amateur to buy 
none but good tools, and to keep them under 
lock and key. He must supplement this by 
keeping them clean and free from rust, and 


learning to whet the edges of all cutting 
tools when they show signs of dullness. 

The tools that are comprised in the first 
group of paring tools are Planes. Of these 
there is a great variety, as formerly, before 
molding was made by machinery, every 
different pattern required a different plane 
or plane-iron. The planes that are most 
necessary to an amateur are a jack-plane 
and a smoothing-plane. 

The Jack-Plane is from 15 to 18 inches 
long and 2inches broad, and about the 
same in depth. Near one end is a handle 
projecting upwards, and near the other a 
hole for the reception of the plane-iron, 
which is held in its place by a wedge. 
Planes of this description, and smoothing- 
planes also, are usually made with double 
irons; that is to say, with two irons held 
together by a short screw. 

The Smoothing-Plane is different from 
the jack-plane in shape, being about 8 
inches long and 2 inches to 3 inches 
broad, in the widest part where the iron 
issues from the wood, tapering to a width 
of about 2 inches in front and 1 ^ inches 
behind, so that it may be more easily held 
in the hand. The jack-plane is used for 
taking the rough surface from the sawn 
timber, and when this has been removed 
the smoothing-plane is used to make the 
surface of the wood perfectly smooth and 
even. 

The SpokeshavE and the Drawing- 
Kniee are the tools that are comprised in the 
second division of paring tools. The draw¬ 
ing-knife is useful for reducing the size of 
any piece of wood that it may be incon¬ 
venient to cut down in any other way. 
The spokeshave, as its name implies, may 
be used for imparting a smooth surface to 
the spokes of wheels, but it is also useful 
for smoothing down any surface that is not 
required to be perfectly flat. Thus, a 
beveled edge may be given to a round hole 
of any large size cut in a piece of wood. 
The drawing-knife is always worked to¬ 
wards the operator, but the spokeshave may 
be used in a direction either towards or 
from the person who is using it. 

The third and last division of paring 
tools comprises Chisels and Gouges. In 
reality the plane in its simplest form, as 



190 


THE PRACTICAL MECHANIC 


seen in the jack-plane and smoothing-plane, 
is nothing more than a chisel of consider¬ 
able width set in a block of wood, which 
serves as a guide, and by means of which 
the operator is enabled to work the tool 
with greater ease and accuracy. A chisel 
is a flat and thick piece of steel, of which 
the cutting end is ground to a bevel, in or¬ 
der to obtain a keen edge, while the other 
is fashioned into a tang, with a projecting 
shoulder, which fits close against the 
wooden handle into which the tang is in¬ 
serted. The gouge differs from the chisel 
in being hollow instead of flat. Chisels are 
distinguished as firmer chisels, paring chis¬ 
els, mortising chisels, and turning chisels. 
It must be said, however, that the last- 
named variety differs from the other kinds 
of chisels in being ground to a bevel on 
both sides instead of one side only. 

It may be mentioned that the tool called 
a cold chisel is a long piece of steel, beveled 
on both sides at one end to a blunt edge, 
used by carpenters and others to knock out 
a hole in a wall of stone or brick for the 
insertion of a wedge, the end of a piece of 
timber, etc. 

About half-a-dozen chisels and the same 
number of gouges will be the utmost num¬ 
ber that the amateur will require; and, for 
both chisels and gouges, the widths to be 
selected may'be placed at in., *4 in., 
% in., 1 in., 1% in., and \ x / 2 in. The or¬ 
dinary carpenter’s chisels should be pur¬ 
chased first of all. A few paring chisels 
can be added to the stock at any time if 
required. 

Boring Tools. 

The tools comprised in the first division 
of boring tools are bradawls, gimlets, and 
augers. These tools are, for the most part, 
extremely simple in construction, the brad¬ 
awl being a piece of steel sharpened at the 
end and fixed for convenience of use in a 
wooden handle; and the gimlet a piece of 
steel so fashioned at one end that it may 
take hold of, and cut its way into, timber, 
and having a small piece of wood or iron 
attached crosswise at the other end, which 
serves as a lever to turn the steel shank of 
the tool, and press it into the wood. The 
auger is only a gimlet on a large scale, the I 


cross handle being turned by the operator 
with both hands, which are transferred from 
end to end of the handle at every half-turn 
of the tool. 

The Bit-brack or Stock-and-Bit, is 
the principal boring tool, and, indeed, the 
only tool of this kind with which the ama¬ 
teur artisan need concern himself. There 
are breast-drills, fitted with a plate to hold 
against the breast, steadied with a handle 
held in the left hand, and having a chuck 
at the further extremity, in which the drill 
is placed and caused to revolve at a rapid 
rate by a large toothed-wheel working in a 
smaller wheel, the former being turned by a 
handle held in the right hand. 

Other Tools. 

In good carpentry everything depends 
on accuracy of measurement of parts, and 
fitting the parts together at right angles, or 
at the required angle or bevel. For the at¬ 
tainment of these most necessary requisites, 
tools of guidance a?id direction of various 
kinds are used, without which it would be 
impossible even for a skilled carpenter or 
joiner to do his work, and fit the various 
pieces together with the nicety that is essen¬ 
tial in all operations of this nature. Thus, 
for setting out a long, straight line in rip¬ 
ping a slip of wood from a board, a line and 
reel is required ; and for the measurement of 
any length into parts, or to measure any re¬ 
quired length, breadth, and thickness, the 
carpenter's rule is needful. For cutting off 
the end of a board at right angles to the 
edge, or for mortising, etc., the square must 
be used, and for cutting wood at any given 
angle to the edge, the proper line of 
direction for the saw must be marked by aid 
of the bevel . For cutting notches in. wood, 
or for cutting or planing down pieces of 
wood to the same thickness, the necessary 
guide lines must be marked by a marking 
gauge , while in mortising the 7 nortise gauge 
is used. 

For joining pieces of wood at right 
angles, as in making a picture-frame, re¬ 
course must be had to the mitre box; and 
for subdividing any given space into smallei 
spaces, or marking out circles and sweeps 
of various diameters, the compasses must be 
used. In turning, to make sure of having 



THE PRACTICAL MECHANIC 


the diameter of various parts of the work in 
harmony with the pattern, these diameters 
must one and all be tried and regulated by 
the callipers as the work goes on. In bring¬ 
ing horizontal bars, shelves, etc., to a true 
level, the spirit level must be used ; and in 
fixing a post in the ground, or a piece of 
quartering to the wall, the upright level with 
cord and plumb-bob. A straight-edge is 
useful for testing the nicety and accuracy 
with which wood has been planed up, and 
for other purposes. We name these, though 
the amateur is not likely to need them all. 
There are many miscellaneous tods and ap¬ 
pliances used in carpentry and joinery 
which are not subject to classification. 
Among these we may include the screw- 
drivei, the nail-punch, the reamer or rymer, 
the scribe, the cramp, the glue-pot, and the 
oil-can. Sand-paper and emery-paper must 
also be noticed. There is another appliance 
called the bench holdfast, which is used to 
hold wood, firmly down on the carpenter’s 
bench wiien necessary. 

These tools are so simple and easily ob¬ 
tained that a description of each is not neces¬ 
sary In their selection cheapness is not to be 
considered t but accuracy and convenience. 

The Glue-Pot. 

The Glue-Pot should be in every 
house, whether the tenant turns his atten¬ 
tion to household carpentry or not. So 
many little odd jobs can be done by its aid, 
that, if nothing more than a hammer and 
screw-driver be kept, a glue-pot should be 
purchased. For example, a piece of veneer 
may come off a looking-glass frame, or any 
piece of furniture, and may be mislaid or 
lost before a carpenter happens to be at 
work in the house, putting these and sim¬ 
ilar little matters in order. Now, if the 
piece of veneer is lost it will be a costly 
business—that is to say, costly in pro¬ 
portion to the actual damage—to replace it, 
and if the missing piece is not replaced 
the appearance of the piece of furniture is 
spoiled, and its value considerably deterior¬ 
ated. But, if a glue-pot is at hand, the 
damage may be instantly repaired, and if 
the mending is carefully done, as it ought 
to be, the piece of furniture is little the 
worse for the mishap. 


191 

The glue-pot is a pot within a pot, the 
outer and larger one being of iron, and the 
smaller one of copper or iron, as the case 
may be. The glue is broken up small, and 
placed in the smaller pot, which fits into 
the larger pot, the rim of the former resting 
on the rim of the latter. Water is placed 
in the larger pot, sufficient to nearly fill it 
when the smaller pot is put in. The pot is 
placed on or close to the fire, and as soon 
as the water boils the glue begins to melt, 
until it is reduced to a semi-fluid condition. 

Recipe for Making Glue. 

The following is a good recipe for mak¬ 
ing, or, rather melting, glue. It is given by 
an authority in “Workshop Receipts:” 
“ Break the glue into small pieces, and 
soak from twelve to twenty-four hours in 
cold water; put the glue in the glue-pot, 
fill the outer vessel with water, and apply 
heat. For ordinary purposes it should run 
freely, and be of the consistency of thin 
treacle. The hotter glue is, the more force 
it will exert in keeping the two parts glued 
together; in all large and long joints the 
glue should be applied immediately after 
boiling. Glue loses much of its strength 
by being often melted; that glue, there¬ 
fore, which is newly made is preferable 
to that which has been used. When 
done with, add some of the boilii_g water 
from the outer vessel to the glue, so as to 
make it too thin for immediate use. Put it 
away till wanted again, and by the time the 
water in the outer vessel is boiled the glue 
in the inner is ready melted and of the 
proper thickness for use. Powdered chalk, 
brickdust, or sawdust, added to glue, will 
make it hold with more than ordinary firm¬ 
ness.” 

To do any kind of work in carpentry 
and joinery, with blunted tools, in a credita¬ 
ble and workman-like manner is simply im¬ 
possible. The professional carpenter and 
joiner will frequently stop in his work to 
put his plane-iron and chisel on the oil-, 
stone—for he is well aware of the import¬ 
ance of having a keen edge to all cutting 
tools of this description—and he will take 
care to keep his saws sharpened and fit for 
use. It is necessary that the amateur 
artisan should imitate the regular mechanic 





192 


THE PRACTICAL MECHANIC 


in this essential duty of keeping his tools in 
a fit condition to do the work that is re¬ 
quired of them. 

Directions for Sharpening Tools. 

Of course all cutting tools must be pro¬ 
vided with a keen edge, and this is obtained 
by grinding them to a proper bevel on the 
grindstone and afterwards rubbing them on 
the oil-stone. Among striking tools the adze 
and hatchet will require sharpening on the 
grindstone. 

For sharpening or rather for grinding 
edge tools such as plane irons and chisels, 
the grindstone is also necessary, finishing 
off on an oil-stone. It is necessary that the 
cutting edge should be made as straight and 
true as possible. 

The following directions are for grinding 
edge tools, which the amateur will do well 
to follow implicitly, as it is given by a 
practical workman of great experience. ‘ ‘ In 
grinding plane irons, chisels, and similar 
tools, the stone should turn towards the ope¬ 
rator ■, and the tool should be held very 
firmly and quite squarely upon the stone, at 
a point sufficiently near its upper part to 
allow the tool to be in a nearly horizontal 
position, while its bevel lies flat upon it. If 
it is held too low, so that its handle points 
downwards, the water from the stone will 
run down the hands and arms, which is de¬ 
cidedly disagreeable, especially in winter.” 
In addition the tool cannot be so firmly 
held nor the work so readily seen. Keep 
the edges of the stone in use by constantly 
traversing the tool across its face, and 
never try to hurry the work by grinding to 
a more obtuse bevel than that made by the 
manufacturer. This is, indeed, generally 
rather more obtuse than it ought to be, and 
carpenters reduce this angle, and then the 
second bevel, formed by the oil-stone, re¬ 
stores it correctly. In grinding planes and 
chisels, especially the first, it is as well for 


the amateur to make use of a square to test 
the correctness of the edge, otherwise the 
latter may not be truly at right angles to the 
side of the tool. 

The Carpenter’s Bench. 

One of the most indispensable essentials 
to the performance of operations in carpen¬ 
try and joinery is the carpenter’s bench. 
Nothing can be fairly done without it—ex¬ 
cept sawing, for which the stool is wanted ; 
or mortisin'g, which may also be done on a 
couple of stools or trestles, although small 
mortises may be cut on the bench. Planing 
must be done entirely on the bench, the sur¬ 
face of a board being laid flat on the top of 
the bench and butted against the bench- 
stop. In planing the edges, the board must 
be laid along the side of the bench, being 
supported on pegs (for the reception of 
which holes are made along the side itself) 
in the middle, and at one end nearest the 
operator, while it is gripped and held tightly 
against the side by the bench-jaw or vice at 
the other end. 

How to Hold and Handle Tools. 

Having provided oneself with the neces¬ 
sary tools and work bench, or such a selec¬ 
tion from the whole as may best meet his 
requirements, the next thing to be done is 
to learn how to use them. It is next to im¬ 
possible to do this from printed instructions ; 
and on the principle that a little showing is 
better than a great deal of telling, the best 
advice that can be given to the amateur on 
this head is that he should arrange with 
some skilled artisan to give him a few prac¬ 
tical lessons in the method of holding, 
using, managing, and sharpening his tools, 
and the everyday operations in carpentry 
and joinery, such as sawing, planing, scar¬ 
fing timbers, cutting rebates, mortises and 
tenons, dove-tailing, mitring, etc., etc. 


THE DIVISIONS OF THE BUILDING TRADE 


When any art or manufacture begins to 
assume importance, and there is a continu¬ 
ally increasing demand for the articles, be 
they what they may, that are made by those 


who are engaged in it, it has been invariably 
found that in due proportion to its growth 
the art or manufacture, as the case may be f 
becomes divided and even subdivided into 




THE PRACTICAL MECHANIC 


*93 


many and various branches, until it is well- 
nigh impossible to carry the subdivision of 
the trade to a greater extent. 

The building trade is an aggregation of 
various trades and their separate depart¬ 
ments, which have become affiliated, as it 
were, and grouped together for the better 
attainment of the end desired. 

Taking each a prominent and active 
part in the building trade we find the exca¬ 
vator, bricklayer, mason, pavior, slater, 
plasterer, carpenter and joiner, sawyer, 
ironmonger, smith and founder, zinc- 
worker, wire-worker, bell-hanger, gas-fitter, 
plumber, painter, decorator, gilder, paper- 
hanger and glazier—a goodly array of 
tradesmen and artisans whose aid and co¬ 
operation is absolutely necessary in building 
and finishing a house. 

Practical Knowledge of all the Trades. 

It is in doing repairs of an ordinary 
nature that the amateur will find practical 
knowledge of the arts connected with the 
building trades of use to him, in the first 
place. Secondly, he will find it of equal 
value in constructing any small building for 
use or ornament, or for both, out of doors, 
or for making any appliance within doors ; 
and thirdly, as it has been already urged, 
he will find it of even more value in en¬ 
abling him to look after men who may be at 
work on his premises, and in seeing that the 
work is done in a proper manner. 

Excavations of all kinds can easily be 
compassed by the amateur, and he will find 
no difficulty whatever in making and using 
concrete. In connection with this kind of 
work lies the making of walls and paths of 
all kinds, and no one will deny that it is of 
advantage to the amateur to know how to 
do these things. In building walls with 
brick and stone he will probably fail, and 
more particularly because it is by no means 
as easily done as other kinds of work that 
fall more naturally within his compass ; but, 
at the same time, it is desirable to know 
how to repair and ‘ ‘ point ’ * a piece of gar¬ 
den wall, as it is technically called; to fix 
a step that has become loose with cement; 
to put a piece of paving to rights and relay 
a loose paving-stone; and to repair a piece l 

13 c 


of plastering that has been displaced by 
damp or other causes. 

Work in Metals. 

Similarly he may not be able to accom¬ 
plish much in smiths’ work, but it is cer¬ 
tainly of advantage to be able to work in 
iron so far as to be able, by aid of fire, ham¬ 
mer, and anvil, to beat a piece of iron into 
any shape that may be required, to drill a 
hole, and to turn a screw, which operations 
come under the category of forging. Cast¬ 
ing, which necessitates the melting of metal 
in a furnace and running it into a mold, 
is an operation which may well be left to 
the iron-founder; but it is useful to possess 
an iron ladle, and run in lead round an iron 
bar or rail that has been loosened in the 
socket cut for it in a stone coping or step. 

Zinc-working, as far as making a simple 
shoot and covering a small flat roof are con¬ 
cerned, and wire-working in the construc¬ 
tion of a wire trellis, hanging basket, sieve 
for sifting earth or cinders, or repairing such 
articles, are far more practicable; and sol¬ 
dering and simple working in sheet metal 
are matters with which the amateur may 
readily make himself acquainted. Plumb¬ 
ing and gas-fitting, which if badly and in¬ 
efficiently done may involve serious conse¬ 
quences, are best left to professional artisans ; 
but it is as well to know how to stop a leak 
in a pipe on an emergency, how to take 
down a gasalier, clean it, and put it in its 
place again, and how to substitute new gas- 
burners for old ones with safety. 

Decorative Work. 

In the decorative portions of the build¬ 
ing trade he will find no very great difficulty. 
House-painting—that is to say, covering 
wood or metal with a uniform surface of oil 
paint—may be easily managed, and to a 
person possessed of taste and manual skill 
the work done by the decorator will present 
no very great difficulty. Paper-hanging re¬ 
quires nothing more than care and a certain 
amount of manual dexterity. Glazing is 
more easily done than most of the work that 
has been mentioned, but as it involves 
handling putty it is not, perhaps, very de¬ 
sirable work. Still, it is work that should 
be taken up and carried out by the amateur, 




194 


THE PRACTICAL MECHANIC 


as he can put in a pane of glass for about 
half the price at which a professional glazier 
will do it if the work be such as can be done 
at the shop, as the glazing of a light for a 
pit-frame, etc., and for from one-sixth to 
one-fourth the price charged if it be a 
window. 

Practical Points in Excavating. 

The following facts with regard to exca¬ 
vator’s work, may be of use: “In loose 
ground a man can throw up about io cubic 
yards per day, but in hard or gravelly soils 
5 yards will be a fair day’s work. Three 
men will remove 30 yards of earth a dis¬ 
tance of 20 yards in a day. A yard (cubic) 
of concrete requires about 3 hours’ labor to 
mix and throw in, or if in heavy masses, 
and the materials handy, about 2 hours. 
With regard to the weight of materials, 19 
cubic feet of sand, 18 ditto clay, 24 ditto 
earth, 15 y 2 ditto lime, 20 ditto gravel, will 
each weigh one ton. A cubic yard of 
earth before digging will occupy about 1 y 2 
cubic yards when dug. Sand and gravel 
does not increase more than one-third as 
much as earth in bulk when dug, but will 
decrease in height one-fourth more than 
earth. A wheelbarrow (that is to say the 
broad, shallow barrow used by navvies) 
holds T V yard cube. A cubic yard, or 27 cubic 
feet of earth, is a single load, and contains 
20 bushels ; 1 cubic yard of gravel contains 
18 bushels in the pit; when dug it will in¬ 
crease nearly one-third in bulk, but will 
subside nearly one-fourth in height, and de¬ 
crease one-fifth in bulk when formed into 
embankments. When earth is well drained 
it will stand in embankment about iy 
to 1.” 

This will prove a useful rule for the 
amateur in throwing up embankments, 
mounds, etc., in his grounds or garden. If 
revetted, to use an engineer’s term, or cov¬ 
ered with turf, the inclination may be 
greater, because the roots of the grass bind 
the surface earth together and keep it from 
being washed down by heavy rains. This 
will be evident from an inspection of the 
side of a hedge or bank covered with turf 
which may be inclined to the horizontal 
base line at angles ranging from io° 
to 20°. 


flaking Good Concrete* 

Concrete, now so much used in forming 
the foundations of buildings of every de¬ 
scription, and even the walls themselves, is 
a mixture of cement and sand, gravel, 
broken stones, brick rubbish, or similiar 
materials in the proportion of one part of 
cement to five or six parts of any of the 
other ingredients that are used in its manu¬ 
facture. Good lime is often used instead of 
cement, but the amateur, if he uses lime at 
all, is advised to use cement with it in equal 
parts. The cement, being the substance 
that binds the gravel ballast, etc., together 
into a solid mass impervious to water, is 
technically called the matrix , and the sub¬ 
stance that is added to the lime is called the 
aggregate. 

It may be said that any waste material 
of a hard nature may be used as aggregate 
in making concrete, sand and gravel of all 
kinds, including pea or fine gravel, pit 
gravel, river gravel, ashes, cinders, and 
coke, lime chippings, flints, old stones and 
bricks, especially when broken, broken 
earthenware and stoneware, and rubbish 
from the brickyard may all be used. Slag, 
too, the refuse of the iron furnaces, can be 
made available whenever it can be obtained. 
It should not be used in too large sizes. 
Pieces about the size of stones ordinarily 
used for mending roads, or such as will pass 
through a ring of 2^ inches in diameter, 
are best suited for the purpose when the 
material is broken up on purpose for mak¬ 
ing concrete. 

Any of the various cements in general 
use may be used in the manufacture of con¬ 
crete, but the amateur is recommended in 
all cases to use Portland cement. 

Quantities of Cement Used. 

When made into stucco for covering a 
wall, the following -table will show the ex¬ 
tent of surface that a bushel of cement may 
be made to cover when used pure or with 
various proportions of sand, and at certain 
thicknesses : 

1 bushel of cement will cover i}£ yards 
1 inch thick, 1 y yards y inch thick, 2% 
yards y 2 inch thick; 1 bushel of cement 
and 1 of sand, 2)^ yards 1 inch thick, 3 




THE PRACTICAL MECHANIC 


195 


yards Y inch thick, 4^ yards inch thick ; 

1 bushel of cement and 3 of sand, 3^ yards 
1 inch thick, M/ yards Y inch thick, 6^ 
yards Y? inch thick. 

As cement will not keep, especially in a 
moist atmosphere, the amateur, when he re¬ 
quires a small quantity for repairs, is re¬ 
commended to buy just so much as he 
wants and no more. 

In making concrete, it is important, in 
the first place, that the aggregate, be it 
what it may, should be deposited on a clean 
place—if on old boards, as scaffold boards, 
so much the better—so that no dirt may 
get mixed up with it. The concrete itself 
should be made on boards, nailed together 
on ledges or on three putlogs placed on the 
ground parallel to one another, forming a 
rough platform. The aggregate and the 
cement or lime used as the matrix must then 
be placed on the boards, the aggregate being 
measured out first, and the proper propor¬ 
tion of concrete to the aggregate being also 
measured out and thrown upon it. The 
heap is then wetted with water poured over 
it from a large water-pot fitted with a fine 
rose, and the whole is then mixed until the 
materials are thoroughly amalgamated. 

Bricklaying. 

Bricklaying is in itself an apparently 
simple process, inasmuch as it consists 
merely in laying or disposing regular and 
similar rectangular pieces of baked clay 
one upon another, layer upon layer, until a 
certain height is reached, spreading a com¬ 
position of lime and sand called mortar be¬ 
tween each layer, which hardens and con¬ 
nects the bricks together in a tolerably solid 
mass. There is, however, much more skill 
in bricklaying than is apparent at first 
sight, and really good bricklaying cannot 
be done without practice any more than 
other building processes. 

The tools requisite in bricklaying are a 
large, strong steel trowel, with which mor¬ 
tar may be spread and bricks chopped asun¬ 
der or reduced to any extent that may be 
required in order to produce a perfect bond. 
Mortar is carried up the ladder, and on to 
the part of the scaffolding where the brick¬ 
layer is at work, by his attendant laborer, 
in a vessel called a hod, which is shaped 


like a box, open at one end and cut across 
diagonally, and fitted at the bottom angle 
into a short pole. Then a small trowel for 
pointing, and a mortar-board to hold in the 
hand, on which the mortar or cement is 
carried. 

A brick is accounted to be 9 inches 
long, M/2 inches broad, and 2 Y inches 
thick, the breadth being half the length, 
and the thickness rather more than half the 
breadth, or one-fourth the length ; an ar¬ 
rangement which renders bricks more con¬ 
venient to use, owing to the correspondence 
and harmony of proportions in length, 
breadth, and thickness. The equivalents 
of the thicknesses of walls enumerated in 
terms of bricks will, therefore, be, when 
expressed in inches, Y* brick = 4^ in.; 1 
brick = 9 in.; iY bricks=i3^ in.; 2 
bricks = 18 in. ; 2 Y bricks = 22^ in., etc. 
There are many different kinds of bricks, 
embracing the three classes of building 
bricks, fire-bricks, and clinkers, or paving 
bricks. 

Mortar for Brickwork. 

Bricks are cemented together with mor¬ 
tar, which is a mixture of lime and sand 
brought to a pasty consistence by the addi¬ 
tion of water. When it is desired to make 
brickwork as strong and durable as possi¬ 
ble, the mortar should be made of cement, 
or a little cement should be added to the 
lime. The following are the proportions : 

Time and sand, and cement and sand, 
lose about one-third their bulk when made 
into mortar, and lime and Portland cement 
both require one-third their bulk of water 
to mix. For a rod of brickwork (contain¬ 
ing 306 cubic feet and needing 4,352 
bricks), 71 cubic feet of mortar will be 
required, and to make this quantity are re¬ 
quired \Y cubic yards of unslaked lime 
and 3 of sand; or 1 cubic yard of stone 
lime and 3^ of sand; or 36 bushels of 
cement, and the same quantity of sharp 
sand. Time or cement and sand, to make 
mortar, require as much water, as is equal 
to one-third of their bulk, or about sY 
barrels for a rod of brickwork built with 
mortar. 

The mortar used by the old builders was 
far more durable than the mortar used in 





196 


THE PRACTICAL MECHANIC 


the present day. It hardened into a mass 
which offered greater resistance to the 
weather than even the stone itself that it 
was used to cement together. 

The cost of brickwork may be easily 
calculated from the above memoranda. 

Soldering and Brazing. 

For zinc-working, plumbing, gasfitting, 
and all kinds of work in sheet metal, a 
knowledge of the processes termed solder¬ 
ing and brazing is necessary. By these 
processes the edges of pieces of sheet metal 
are joined together, and although it is bet¬ 
ter for the amateur, for safety’s sake, to 
have all zinc-working that he may require 
in the way of covering roofs, making zinc 
pipes, lining wooden cisterns, and similar 
operations, done by the professional zinc- 
worker, and to call in the plumber and gas- 
fitter to rectify any leakage in lead pipes or 
gasfittings, it is as well that he should 
know how to make a joint in metal, whether 
sheet or pipe, and possess the few appli¬ 
ances necessary for doing so. If he can do 
no more than repair tin pots, kettles, etc., 
it will be of advantage to him, for the 
itinerant tinman seldom does his work 
effectually, and seems never to be at hand 
when his services are most required. 

First, then, with regard to soldering 
and brazing. They may both be described 
as methods of uniting pieces of either the 
same or different kinds of metal with a 
strong and, if necessary, water-tight joint. 

To effect this by the first-named opera¬ 
tion, namely soldering , a compound metal 
called solder is used. This composition is 
melted, but the metals to be united do not 
require to be heated otherwise than through 
contact with the melted solder. 

In the operation of brazing the metals 
to be joined must be raised to the melting 
point of the brazing composition, which is 
soft brass. Although this makes the 
strongest joint, the necessity for exposing 
the articles to such a great heat renders this 
operation inapplicable to many purposes. 

Soldering is very useful for joining cop¬ 
per and copper, copper and brass, copper 
and iron, brass and brass, brass and iron, 
tin and tin, and tin and any other metal. 
If the joint has to stand a rather high 


degree of heat—such, for instance, as the 
seams of a small copper steam boiler—a 
hard solder must be used. By hard solder 
is meant one that only fuses at a high tem¬ 
perature ; a soft solder, on the contrary, 
fuses at a low degree of heat. 

The following are the compositions of 
some of the most useful of solders and 
alloys, with the degree of heat required to 
melt each : 

Tin. Lead. Bismuth. Mercury. 

1 part 25 parts ... ... 

2 “ 1 “ . 

2 “ 2 “ 1 part . . . 

5 “ 3 “ 3 “ ... 

5 “ 3 “ 3 “ 3 parts 

How Soldering is Done. 

The surfaces to be united must be thor¬ 
oughly cleaned and brightened. Without 
this the metal will not adhere. The solder¬ 
ing iron must be warmed sufficiently to melt 
the solder; it must not be made red-hot, 
because the solder will not “ hold to it.” 

Whilst the iron is waiming, tin the sur¬ 
faces by brushing them over with muriatic 
acid, dipping them into melted solder, and 
quickly rubbing off the adherent metal. 
This, if done well, will leave a thin coat of 
solder. When it cannot be done thus, the 
surfaces must be tinned by means of the sol¬ 
dering iron. In this case they must be 
coated or washed with the acid as before, 
but the solder must be melted on the places 
required with the hot iron. 

When tinned, the surfaces should be 
brought close together, a little acid rubbed 
along the joints, and the iron dipped in the 
acid and put against some solder, so that 
the melted solder will stick to the iron. 
The iron must now be applied to the joints, 
and drawn slowly along in such a manner 
that the metal between the joints is melted, 
and the joints filled up. A little practice 
will soon make the amateur tolerably skilful 
in doing this. The muriatic acid, or spirit 
of salt, as it is sometimes called, must be 
killed , or rendered neutral, before it is used, 
and this is done by putting one or two 
small pieces of zinc into it and allowing it 
to expend all its energy on this. Killed 
acid is much more effective than the raw or 
pure acid. Sometimes resin is used instead 
of the acid; but the neutralized acid is 


Melts at 

558° Fahr. 
340° “ 

292 0 “ 

202 ° “ 
122 ° “ 



































THE PRACTICAL MECHANIC 


197 


preferable, because it does not leave the 
work in such a mess as resin. 

Should it be desirable for the solder not 
to adhere to any portion of the article, a 
paste must be made with whiting and water, 
and put about those places ; this paste will 
harden with the heat, but can be removed 
after the soldering operation is effected. 

Indoor and Outdoor Painting. 

Nearly all that has been said with regard 
to operations in the building trades is con¬ 
nected with construction, but here we shall 
speak chiefly of decoration. It has long 
been found necessary to protect wood and 
iron from the ill effects of moisture by a hard 
exterior coating impervious to wet; and 
hitherto the best preservatives have been 
found to be paint and varnish, through 
which no wet can penetrate as long as they 
remain in a sound state. 

In doing work of this kind, it is much 
better and cheaper to buy paints and var¬ 
nishes ready mixed. One very good reason 
why' the amateur painter should do this is 
that the paint which he makes himself is 
apt to take a long time to get thoroughly 
dry and hard; and sometimes, even after 
the lapse of several weeks, it is still sticky. 

Before beginning to paint, all dirt and 
projections, such as lumps of glue, etc., 
must be cleared away with the putty-knife 
and duster. Then, if the work be new, all 
the knots in the wood must be killed with 
kiiotting , to prevent the turpentine in the 
knots from oozing out and spoiling the ap¬ 
pearance of the painting when finished. 
Knotting is a preparation of red lead, lith¬ 
arge, boiled oil, and a little turpentine ; the 
amateur is advised to buy the “patent knot¬ 
ting,” which may be obtained ready for use. 
After the knotting, which dries and hardens 
very quickly, is applied, the priming , 
or first coat, is put on. This is made of 
white lead, with some drying material, and 
a little red lead to harden it. It is made 
very thin with oil, as unpainted wood or 
plaster absorbs the paint very quickly. 

The Several Coats of Paint. 

As soon as the priming is dry, all holes 
made by punching in the heads of nails, 
cracks, etc., must be stopped with putty. 


It is useless to attempt to do this before the 
priming has been applied, because putty 
will not stick to wood unless painted. After 
this has been done the second coat may be 
applied ; and for new work the second coat 
of color should be made up chiefly of oil, 
because oil is the most efficient in stopping 
the suction of the wood ; then a third , and 
even a fourth coat , maybe applied. Inlay¬ 
ing on the color, the brush should be passed 
backwards and forwards and in every 
direction, to spread the color evenly and 
work it well into the wood, in the earlier coats. 

Finally, the brush should be drawn up 
and down, or backwards and forwards, as 
the case maybe, in the direction of the grain 
of the wood, taking care to leave no marks 
of the hairs of the brush. In painting a 
door, or any piece of work in which part is 
sunk and part raised, the mouldings or any 
bead-work should be painted first with a 
sash tool, and then the panels, styles, and 
rails with a brush. No coat should be laid 
on a previous coat until that coat shall be 
perfectly dry and hard; and before begin¬ 
ning to paint any piece of work, whatever 
may be the number of the coat, every particle 
of dust that may have settled on it should be 
carefully removed with the dusting brush. 

The composition of the paint that is ap¬ 
plied to old work, and indeed to wood gen¬ 
erally, must depend upon the style or man¬ 
ner in which the work is to be finished. The 
first coat' after the priming in new work 
should be paint in which the oil predomi¬ 
nates over the turpentine : but for the first 
coat for old work the turpentine should be 
in excess of the oil. Paint mixed with oil 
in excess will present a shining surface 
when dry, but paint mixed with turpentine 
in excess will present a flat, dead, dull ap¬ 
pearance. Therefore, when a shining sur¬ 
face is required, it is necessary that the 
under coat should be paint mixed with tur¬ 
pentine, the final coat being mixed with oil ; 
but when the finishing coat is to be “ flat¬ 
ting,” as it is technically called, it must be 
laid over an under coat or ground color 
mixed with oil. 

Removing Old Paint. 

When the surface of a coat of paint, that 
is to say, of any under coat, appears rough, 



THE PRACTICAL MECHANIC 


198 

especially in the case of patches in old work 
that have been retouched, the paint, when 
dry, should be rubbed down with fine glass 
paper until the roughness has disappeared. 
All loose paint, or paint that appears loose 
round the blister-marks, should be scraped 
away with a knife before the putty is put on. 
For cleaning old greasy smoke-stained paint 
limewash or limewater may be used. This 
kills the smoke or grease, on which no oil 
paint will ever dry and harden. Some will 
put a coating of weak size over the smoke 
and grease ; the paint will dry on this, but 
it is very likely that it will soon crack and 
peel off. 

It is not desirable to keep loading on 
coat after coat of paint on old work. It is 
better, when the incrustation caused by suc¬ 
cessive coats of paint has become very thick, 
to remove the paint entirely and begin de 
novo. There are various modes of removing 
paint. The professional painter will do it 
by the agency of heat, applying a flame to 
the surface of the paint; the heat soon 
softens the color, and it may then be scraped 
away with a knife. 

Other Modes of Removing Old Paints. 

Recipe. —To Remove Old Paint Jrom 
Woodwork. (1) Make a very strong solu¬ 
tion of common washing soda, and apply it 
to the paint with a brush until the paint can 
be scraped away. (2) Apply naphtha to the 
paint in the same manner, giving it a second 
and even third damping with this substance 
until the paint yields. When soft enough 
scrape it away with a knife. (3) Slake 
3 lbs. of stone lime in water, and then add to 
this 1 lb. of pearlash, and sufficient water to 
bring the whole to the consistency of thick 
cream. Apply the preparation with a 
brush, and leave it on the paint for from 
eighteen to twenty-four hours, when it will 
be found that the paint is softened and may 
be easily scraped off. 

The amateur will find it necessary, per¬ 
haps, to do his painting work at intervals, 
often few and far between. If he leaves 
paint in the paint pot for some length of 
time, he will discover, much to his annoy¬ 
ance, on resuming work, that the paint is 
too hard and thick to be used. The addi¬ 
tion of some oil and turpentine may save a 


little of it, but it will neither work pleas¬ 
antly, nor, indeed, be worth using. When¬ 
ever paint must be put aside, a little cold 
water must be poured on the top of the 
paint. This prevents the evaporation of 
the oil, and keeps the paint all right for 
future use by excluding the air and prevent¬ 
ing its action in drying and hardening the 
paint. 

The Care of Brushes. 

Similarly, brushes not in use should 
have the bristles or hair kept under water, 
that they may remain soft and flexible. It 
is better, however, when the amateur 
painter does not know how long it may be 
before he uses his brush again, to wash the 
color well out of it by means of a little tur¬ 
pentine, and then allow the brush to dry. 
When kept in water for some time, the con¬ 
stant soaking will rot the string and the 
bottom of the wooden handle to which the 
bristles are attached, and the amateur, on 
commencing painting, will experience the 
annoyance of his brush snapping off short 
like the end of a carrot. 

Various Coloring Substances Used in 
Painting. 

It will be useful to the amateur painter 
to mention the various pigments or color¬ 
ing substances used in painting to produce 
different simple colors, and to follow these 
with a list of colors that are produced by 
combinations of two or more of these 
colors. White lead, a substance highly 
prejudicial to the health, both of those who 
manufacture it and those who use it, is 
mixed with all colors to tone them down 
and produce different shades, hues, and 
tints. There are, however, other mineral 
whites capable of supplying the place of 
white lead, which have the advantage of 
being non-poisonous pigments. 

It will be convenient to classify each set 
of coloring substances, whether mineral or 
otherwise, under the color which it yields 
when properly mixed. 

Table of Simple Coloring Substances. 

(1) Whites . —White lead, including Ceruse and 
Flake White, Znc White (oxide of zinc), Griffith’s 
Zinc White (oxy-sulphide of zinc—non-poison- 
ous), Spanish White. 



THE PRACTICAL MECHANIC 


199 


(2) Blacks. —Lamp Black, Ivory Black, Blue 
Black, Vegetable Black, Patent Black. 

(3) Yellows. —Chrome Yellow, Turner’s or Pat¬ 
ent Yellow, Naples Yellow, Orpiment, Massicot, 
Yellow Ochre, Raw Sienna, Yellow Lake. 

(4) Reds. —Vermilion (crimson and scarlet), 
Carmine, Cochineal Lake, Madder Lake, Red 
Lead or Minium, Indian Red, Venetian Red, 
Spanish Brown, Purple Brown, Orange Lead, 
Burnt Sienna. 

(5.) Browns. —Umber (burnt and raw), burned 
Prussian Blue, Manganese Brown. 

(6) Blues. —Prussian Blue, Cobalt, Ultramarine, 
French Ultramarine, Blue Verditer. 

(7) Greens. —Verdigris, Scheele’s Green, Emer¬ 
ald Green, Green Verditer, Italian Green, Saxon 
Green, Brunswick Green. 

Recipes for Tints Produced by nixing 
Simple Colors. 

Straw Color. —Chrome yellow and white lead. 

Lemon Color. —Chrome yellow and white lead ; 
more of the first than in straw color. 

Orange. — Chrome yellow and vermilion 
(bright), yellow ochre and red lead (duller). 

Buff. —White lead and yellow ochre. 

Cream Color. —Same as for buff, but with more 
white. 

Gold Color. —Chrome yellow with a little ver¬ 
milion and white lead; or Naples yellow and 
realgar. 

Stone Color. —White lead and yellow ochre, 
with a little burnt or raw umber. 

Stone Color (grey).—White lead, and a small 
quantity of black. 

Drab. —White lead, burnt umber, and a little 
yellow ochre (warm) ; white lead, raw umber, and 
a little black (cool). 

Flesh Color. —Lake, white lead, and a little ver¬ 
milion. 

Fawti Color. —Same as for flesh color, with 
stone ochre instead of lake. 

Peach Color. —White lead, with vermilion, In¬ 
dian red, or purple brown. 

Sky Blue. —White lead, Prussian blue, and a 
little lake. 

Olive. —Black, yellow, and a little blue ; or yel¬ 
low, pink, lamp black, and a little verdigris. 

Chestnut. —Light red and black. 

Salmon Color.— Venetian red and white lead. 

Chocolate. —Black, with Spanish brown, or Ve¬ 
netian red. 

Sage Green. —Prussian blue, raw umber, and a 
little ochre, with a little white. 

Olive Green. —Raw umber and Prussian blue. 

Pea Green. —White lead and Brunswick green ; 
or white lead, Prussian blue, and some chrome 
yellow. 

Pearl Gray. —White lead, with a little black, 
and a little Prussian blue or indigo. 

Silver Gray.— Same as for pearl gray. 

Gray (common).—White lead and a little black. 

Lead Color.— White lead with black or indigo. 

Violet. —Vermilion, white lead, and indigo or 
black. 


Purple .—Violet as above, with the addition of 
a rich, dark red, or colors for French gray. 

French Gray .—White lead with Prussian blue 
and a little lake. 

Lilac .—Same as for French gray, but with less 
white. 

Oak Color .—White lead with yellow ochre and 
burnt umber. 

Mahogany Color .—A little black with purple 
brown or Venetian red. 

In all operations of painting, varnishing, 
etc., it is of the greatest importance that 
everything used, whether slab, muller, knife, 
or brushes, should be kept thoroughly clean. 

Varnishes, and Recipes for Making 
Varnishes. 

Varnishes may be bought at the oil and 
color store at reasonable rates. 

A few coats of varnish much improve 
painted or stained work by imparting to 
it a smooth and glossy surface. For some 
work, such as staining, one or two coats 
will be sufficient, but where it is desir¬ 
able that the appearance of the article 
should be as good as it can possibly be made, 
eight or ten coats will have to be laid on. 
After the first three or four coats are given 
and thoroughly dry, take some fine glass- 
paper and smooth off the brush marks or 
any gritty particles that may have stuck to 
the varnish. Then give the work another 
coat of varnish, which serve in the same 
manner, and so on for every coat until the 
last, which should be polished with a flannel 
rubber dipped in Tripoli powder and water, 
and finished off with a powder made of suet 
and flour. 

The same precautions must be observed 
with regard to the brushes used in varnish¬ 
ing as for painting. If put away wet with 
varnish, they will, after remaining unused 
for a day or two, be hard and utterly useless. 
They must, therefore, be well washed im¬ 
mediately after use, and will then be in 
proper order when again wanted. 

Gold Varnish. —Thoroughly wash and 
cleanse from color one part of gum shellac ; 
when dry pulverize it well, reducing it in a 
mortar to an impalpable powder ; mix with 
it four times its weight of spirits of wine; 
put the mixture on the fire, and let it re¬ 
main until the gum is entirely dissolved. 
Strain the liquor, and keep for use in a well- 
corked bottle. 





200 


THE PRACTICAL MECHANIC 


Black Varnish for Metal, etc.— 
Fuse and thoroughly incorporate asphal- 
tum, Y\ lb.; shellac, 2 oz. ; turpentine, 1 
quart. Fay on with a brush. 

Polishing, and Recipes for Polish. 

Polishing very greatly improves the ap¬ 
pearance of articles made of any fancy wood 
or stained work. There are many different 
sorts of polish ; but those for which recipes 
are given below will be found to answer the 
amateur’s purpose in every way : 

French Polish. —Spirits of wine, 1 
pint; gum sandarac, y oz. ; gum lac, x / 2 
oz. ; gum shellac, y 2 oz. Expose the whole 
to a gentle heat, frequently shaking the 
mixture until the gums are dissolved. 

Naphtha Polish. —Wood naphtha, y 2 
pint; orange shellac, 1 oz. ; dragons’blood, 
y oz. ; benzoin, y oz. Prepare in the 
same way as French polish. 

Shellac Polish. —Orange shellac, 1 y 2 
oz. ; spirits of wine, 1 pint. 

The method of applying these polishes 
is the same for all. A flannel rubber is 
made and dipped in the polish, and a piece 
of fine and old linen is then put over the 
rubber. When the polish oozes through 
the covering, dip the pad into or slightly 
moisten it with linseed oil. Another way is 
to strain the linen over the flannel pad, and 
then to moisten the linen with a drop or two 
of the polish and a drop or two of oil. The 
pad should be held in the right hand, and 
the linen strained tightly, so that the pad 
may present a rounded surface. Apply the 
pad to the surface of the wood in a series of 
light strokes made by a circular sweep of 
the hand until the surface is nearly dry, 
when the pad should be passed up and down 
in the direction of the grain of the wood. 
When the rubber is dry some more polish 
and oil must be put upon it in the same man¬ 
ner as before, and the rubbing continued. 

Plenty of what is generally called ‘ ‘ el¬ 
bow grease” should be given to the work, 
and not too much polish. Beginners gen¬ 
erally lay on a large quantity of polish in 
clots or thick coats, but when this is done 
the polish does not look well, neither has it 
a permanent effect. 

No more polish should be laid on than is 
absolutely necessary. The polish should be 


well rubbed in and finished off with a little 
pure naphtha or spirits of wine, whichever 
happens to be the spirit that is used in the 
polish. The naphtha or spirits of wine, as 
the case may be, should at first be laid on 
very gently and with great care, otherwise 
it will dissolve and remove the polish al¬ 
ready laid on; but if proper care is taken 
its effect will be not only to give the polish 
a better gloss, but to render it more lasting. 
Some woods absorb a great deal of polish. 
In order to prevent this absorption, a coat 
of gold size, or something of a like nature, 
is given before the application of the polish. 
When polishing mahogany or other orna¬ 
mental or colored wood, should there be 
any inequalities or faults in any conspicuous 
part of the object, fill them up with stop¬ 
ping, consisting of plaster of Paris mixed to 
the consistency of cream with water, tinted 
with staining or coloring matter correspond¬ 
ing with the color of the article that is to be 
polished. A mixture of putty, consisting of 
finely-pounded whiting and painters’ drying 
oil and some coloring matter, will do quite 
as well. For large holes a composition of 
beeswax, resin, and shellac is found very 
useful. 

Paper Hanging. 

Next to painting, the most important 
decorative work that can be done within the 
house is paper-hanging, and a knowledge 
of the mode of doing this will often prove 
of great advantage to the amateur artisan, 
especially if he be a man of slender means. 

Besides the American there are two other 
wallpapers used in paper-hanging, one being 
of English and the other of French manu¬ 
facture. The French paper-hangings are 
perhaps prettier, more artistic, and produce 
a better effect than American or English- 
made papers, but they are much more 
expensive. They may be distinguished from 
English papers by their narrow width, 
the English papers being 22 inches wide 
and the French and American papers only 
20 inches. Again, a piece of English 
paper is 12 yards long, and a piece of French 
paper about 9 y 2 yards, the former covering 
7 square yards, or 63 feet superficial, and 
the latter 4^ square yards, or 41 square 
feet. Speaking approximately, therefore, 





THE PRACTICAL MECHANIC 


201 


where two pieces of English paper are re¬ 
quired, three of French will be wanted at 
the very least, and in practice this will not 
be found to be enough. 

The American paper is in more common 
use now, and for quality and artistic effect 
equals that of foreign make. It comes in 
rolls of two pieces each, or 16 yards, a piece 
being considered 8 yards long. The width 
is 20 inches over all or 18 inches net A 
piece then will cover 36 square feet of surface. 

On looking at a piece of wall-paper it 
will be found that the pattern does not come 
quite out to the edges, so that it must be re¬ 
membered, in measuring a room for paper, 
that 18 inches is the absolute net width of 
the pattern (American) ; the actual roll of 
paper itself is wider than this. To measure 
a room, one method is to measure the cir¬ 
cumference, making allowance for doors and 
windows, and, having ascertained the num¬ 
ber of feet, multiply this by the height of 
the room and divide by the number of square 
feet in a piece of paper. For the ceiling 
multiply the length of the room by breadth, 
which will give area, and divide as before. 
If a room has offsets these may be measured 
separately. Thus, taking the room to be 18 ft. 
by 15 ft., and allowing 11 ft. for doors and 
windows, and taking the height of the room 
to be 9 ft., between skirting-board and cor¬ 
nice we have: 

18ft. -j- 18ft. + 15ft. -f- 15ft. (length of 
4 sides of room) — 1 ift. (allowance for door 
and windows) X 9ft. (height between ceil¬ 
ing and skirting) -j- 36 (No. of square feet 
in piece of paper). 

Or 66 — 11X9-^ 36, or 55 X 9 ~^ 3 6 
= 14 pieces, or 13 and a fraction, which 
requires of course 14 full pieces, or 7 rolls, 
for the sides. The ceiling would be 18 X 15 
-r- 36 == 7, or 8 pieces. 

Small Patterns Most Satisfactory. 

The most satisfactory kind of pattern is 
a small geometrical one, consisting of some 
simple form, a leaf or flower, convention¬ 
ally treated. For staircases, passages, etc., 
papers in imitation of wood or marble are 
most commonly used, and these can be pre¬ 
served from much casual injury by varnish¬ 
ing. Marble papers are usually hung in 
large blocks, the lines of demarcation, hori¬ 


zontal and vertical, being traced, with the aid 
of a straight edge, in black or brown. For 
sitting-rooms satin papers, or papers with a 
glossy surface, are generally used. Papers 
in which gold is introduced are expensive 
if they are worth anything at all. In cheap 
gilt papers, the gold, which is most likely 
Dutch metal, soon tarnishes and changes as 
time goes on from a dull copper-red to 
black. It is good taste to have the ceiling 
paper light in color and with a subdued 
figure to harmonize with the sides. 

Preliminary Work for Paper Hanging. 

If the wall be new it will require sizing 
before the paper is put on, though this is by 
no means done as a rule. If the wall has 
to be re-papered, it must be stripped of the 
old paper, or should be stripped, as new 
papers are too frequently hung upon old 
papers ; a procedure which is certainly not 
cleanly, and is in many cases prejudicial to 
health, because the dampness caused by 
putting up the new paper often detaches the 
old paper from the surface of the wall, and 
oftentimes, if the paste used in hanging the 
old paper has been bad, a fungus is gener¬ 
ated, which spreads over the wall in dark 
patches of a brown or greenish color. 

In re-papering a room after any one 
stricken down with some infectious dis¬ 
order, such as scarlet or typhus fever, on no 
account should the old paper be left on the 
walls, but it should be carefully stripped 
and the walls washed, and the ceiling coated 
with limewash, after the old coating has 
been taken off with clean water. As soon 
as this is done, the walls may be sized and 
the process of re-papering maybe proceeded 
with. 

Size is a kind of weak glue, made from 
the clippings of parchment, glove-leather, 
fish-skin, and similar substances, by boiling 
them down in water. When cold it resem¬ 
bles jelly. It is sold by all oil and color 
dealers. 

The wall being sized, it is necessary to 
determine what tools are absolutely neces¬ 
sary for the paper-hanger’s work. These 
may be summed up as a pair of boards con¬ 
nected by hinges, or, if preferred, simply 
grooved and tongued together, or even 
joined by dowels or pins. The amateur 





202 


THE PRACTICAL MECHANIC 


need not provide himself with a pair of 
boards and trestles merely for the sake of 
papering a single room ; a kitchen table, 
if long enough, or even a dining table suit¬ 
ably protected, will answer every purpose. 
The boards are portable, and, therefore, 
useful to the regular paper-hanger, who 
may not find any suitable table at the house 
to which he is going. They are also of 
greater length than most tables, which is 
obviously an advantage. Whether the ama¬ 
teur is provided with boards or not, he must 
of necessity have a pair of good-sized 
scissors; a pail to hold his paste, whether 
of wood or iron it matters not, so long as it 
is clean; and a paste brush, something 
similar to that used for whitewashing, but 
smaller. 

Paste for Paper Hanging. 

Good paste for paper-hanging is made 
of old flour, mixed to a milk-like consis¬ 
tency with water. When put in the sauce¬ 
pan to boil, a little size or glue may be 
added, which will increase its tenacity. A 
little alum may also be added to paste, in 
order to cause it to spread more freely; 
this ingredient has the property of keeping 
paste sweet and wholesome, and it is gener¬ 
ally used in the thicker kinds of paste, such 
as shoemakers’ paste, partly for this pur¬ 
pose. The paste when boiled should be of 
the thickness of ordinary gruel, and must 
be laid on the paper smoothly and equally 
with backward and forward strokes of the 
brush. Care should be taken not to load 
the brush with too much paste at one time, 
lest the paper should be rendered too damp. 
It will sometimes happen that through an 
over-abundance of paste a little is pressed 
out at the edges when the cloth is used to 
dab the paper against the wall. Any paste 
that makes its appearance should be re¬ 
moved by means of a sponge dipped in 
clean water, but the amateur must be care¬ 
ful to avoid smearing the colors of the pa¬ 
per. The colors will often be started in a 
slight degree by the influence of the damp 
paste, and if the surface be smeared the 
only thing that can be done is to paste a 
piece of fresh paper over the smear, which, 
if left as it is, will prove a continual eye¬ 
sore. 


Where to Begin to Hang Paper. 

Where to make a commencement in 
hanging a room with paper will be a bit of 
a puzzle to the amateur paper-hanger. The 
rule is that the edges of the paper when 
hung shall be towards the window ; that is 
to say, that if there be a window in the 
room the paper must be hung trom either 
side of the window round the room, the 
j unction being finally effected in some cor¬ 
ner of the room or some recess, where the 
mismatching of the pattern would not be 
so apparent. 

When it has been ascertained by actual 
measurement bow much paper is required 
for hanging on each side of the commence¬ 
ment, wherever it may be, whether on each 
side of the window or from the middle line 
over a mantel-shelf, proceed to cut the pa¬ 
per. The usual way is to unroll the paper 
for a yard or two, cut the edge on one side, 
roll up the paper just cut, lightly and 
loosely, and continue unrolling, cutting, 
and rolling up by a \ ard or two at a time 
till the other end of the roll is reached. 
Some will then cut the other edge, proceed^ 
ing in the same way until the paper is rolled 
as it was before the cutting commenced, 
having the topmost piece at the outer end. 
It is important to remember that whichever 
side is cut close to the pattern, the opposite 
side must not be cut closer than from ^ in. 
to in. of the pattern. The edge that is 
not cut close need not, in point of fact, be 
cut at all; the chief object in cutting it is 
to leave as small an extent of overlapping 
as possible where the strips are joined to¬ 
gether. The best paper-hangefs, who can 
set the paper to a line, trim close on both 
sides and do not overlap, but set to the edge. 

Cutting Paper into Lengths. 

When the edges are cut the next step is 
to cut the paper into lengths suitable to the 
height of the room, and this, whether the 
overplus at top and bottom be much or 
little, must be done in such a manner that 
when the second strip is pasted up by the 
side of the first the pattern will join neatly 
and exactly, leaving as few traces as possi¬ 
ble, if it leave any, of the line of junction. 
The “match” is shown by certain marks 



THE PRACTICAL MECHANIC 


203 


on the edge of the paper, and if it be found 
that a considerable length of paper be left 
either at top or bottom, or at both, it will be 
better and more convenient for the amateur 
in carrying out the operation of hanging 
each slip to cut off the surplus paper, leav¬ 
ing no more than an inch or two at top and 
bottom beyond the length between skirting 
and cornice. Cut the paper straight across, 
which can be easily done by aid of the pat¬ 
tern, and cut as many lengths as will suffice 
for one or two sides of the room to begin 
with, Lay the lengths thus cut face down¬ 
wards on the pasting-board, letting the edge 
of each strip as it is laid down project a 
little beyond the edge of that which is im¬ 
mediately below it, in which the uppermost 
strip is the last strip laid down. This pre¬ 
vents the paste from getting under the edges 
of the piece below when the piece above is 
being pasted. 

Attaching to the Wall. 

As many strips as may be required hav¬ 
ing been laid one on top of another on the 
board, the first strip may be pasted, but a 
little judgment must be used as to the time 
that may be allowed to elapse before the 
paper is attached to the wall. If the paper 
be cheap, and therefore thin and unsubstan¬ 
tial, it must be hung up as quickly as possi¬ 
ble after the paste is put on ; but if it be a 
stout, good paper, some two or three, min¬ 
utes may elapse between pasting and hang¬ 
ing ; and a thick paper may be left even 
twice as long, to allow the damp to pene¬ 
trate the paper and render it more easy of 
manipulation and less liable to be crushed 
or broken. For easier manipulation it is 
better to loop up the lower end of the paper, 
the paste causing the paper to adhere 
slightly where one part comes in contact 
with another. Then fold back the top, and 
putting the hands, which should be perfectly 
clean and free from paste, under this fold, 
attach the paper to the wall, bringing the 
top upwards with the hands to meet the 
cornice. Care should be taken beforehand 
to make a guide line on the wall, or to see 
that the woodwork round the window is 
perfectly upright, and this will assist the 
amateur in fixing the first strip truly per¬ 
pendicular. After attaching it lightly to 


the wall, the plumb line may be applied to 
see that all is true and vertical, and if all is 
right release the fold, and, after letting the 
paper hang straight down, lift it away from 
the wall, except for about six or eight inches 
below the cornice, and then let the strip 
fall, when it will gently float down into its 
place. 

The next step is to press the paper 
against the surface of the wall in every part, 
and for this purpose the amateur must be 
provided with some clean soft cloths. First 
of all, the paper must be pressed down the 
middle from top to bottom with firm but 
gentle pressure, avoiding all rubbing, which 
may have the effect of starting the color and 
smearing and spoiling the paper. Then 
press from the centre outwards on both 
sides in a downward direction. The paper 
in some cases will lay smooth and flat 
against the wall, but if the paper be cheap 
and thin there will in all probability be 
many wrinkles all over the surface. Do 
not attempt to press these flat. The paper 
has stretched under the influence of the 
moisture of the paste, and as it dries it will 
contract again and lay as flat as possible 
all over the wall to which it is attached. 
Lastly, draw che scissors over the paper just 
below the cornice and just above the skirt¬ 
ing-board, making a crease. Then pull the 
paper gently from the wall as far as may be 
necessary, cutting off the edges along the 
mark or crease made by the scissors, and 
restore the ends to their places, dabbing 
them lightly as before with the cloth, which 
should be so doubled up as to form a large, 
loose pad. 

The second strip may now be put up in 
the same way. Here, however, the chief 
anxiety will be to match the pattern neatly, 
for if the first strip be put up perpendicu¬ 
larly the other strips will be perpendicular 
as a matter of course. Nevertheless it will 
be as well for the amateur to test his work 
occasionally by the plumb-line, to make sure 
that it is not getting out of the perpendicular. 

It may be that the amateur will not be 
successful in his first effort, and then all 
that can be done is to sacrifice the strip of 
paper, pull it down, and try again. As in 
everything else, practice is necessary to en¬ 
able a man to do this work well and quickly. 




204 


THE PRACTICAL MECHANIC 


It will be advisable, then, for any beginner 
to try his ’prentice hand in an attic or some 
small room of no great consequence, in 
order to give him some idea of the way in 
which paper must be handled and attached 
to the wall. He will soon gain confidence 
in himself, and find no great difficulty in 
papering other rooms where it will be abso¬ 
lutely necessary that the work be neatly and 
accurately done. 

Borders should be neat in design, and 
match the paper in this respect and in color, 
or if the colors do not harmonize they should 
be in agreeable contrast. A cable pattern 


generally looks well, or the Grecian rec¬ 
tangular pattern, known as the Greek key 
pattern. The representation of a simple 
molding is often very effective, and when 
the paper is plain in character and geometri¬ 
cal in pattern a floral border is admissible. 
It must be remembered, however, that a 
border, however good it may be, tends to 
detract from the apparent height of the 
room, and therefore is not so well calculated 
for a low room as for a high room, to which 
the horizontal lines of the border impart an 
appearance of breadth and space. 


• BELLS AND TELEPHONES 


The electric bell constitutes one of the 
most simple pieces of apparatus for signal¬ 
ing by electricity, and although more than 
half a century has elapsed since it was first 
introduced, no better method of signaling 
or giving a call has yet been invented for 
land lines. It is always used for attracting 
attention in telephonic communication and 
very often also in telegraphy. 

To Wire for and to Connect Electric Bells. 

It is easy to understand that an electric 
bell equipment usually consists of one elec¬ 
tric bell, one cell of battery, one push-button, 
and wire enough to connect the outfit for a 
reasonable distance. 

The push-button is, of course, set at the 
place from which the signal is to be given, 
and, when connected, the pressing of thebut- 
'ton should ring the bell. The bell should 
continue ringing as long as the button is 
pressed. The bell should be placed where 
the persons who are expected to answer it 
[when it rings] are likely to be, so it can be 
heard by them. The battery, the motive 
power, is placed at some convenient place, 
the closer the battery is placed to the push¬ 
button, the better for some work. 

The wire is used to make the connection 
to the bell, battery, and push-button. The 
proper way to connect an electric bell outfit 
is to run one wire from the push-button to 
the battery, one wire from the push-button 
to the bell, and one wire from the bell to 
the battery. This gives two wire ends at 
each place, namely, bell, battery, and push¬ 


button. The bell, battery, and push-button 
each have two places where the wires are 
connected. To all places to which wires 
are connected the insulation covering of the 
wires must be removed, and the wire made 
clean and bright. Then connect it with the 
connecting places of the push-button, bell, 
and battery. This way of connecting an 
electric bell outfit is called a metallic cir¬ 
cuit. 

A Grounded Circuit. 

On long distances wire can be saved by 
using a grounded circuit, which is done as 
follows : Drive a piece of iron into the earth, 
from four to five feet down, connect a wire 
to the iron driven into the ground by wrap¬ 
ping the bare wire tightly around the iron. 
This ground wire is then run to the battery 
and connected to the zinc side. A second 
wire is run from the carbon side of the bat¬ 
tery to one side of the push-button ; a second 
wire runs from the push-button to wherever 
the bell is placed; a wire is run from the 
bell to a second ground iron, and attached 
or connected to the ground iron, the same 
as the first ground connection was made. 
Where long distances are to be connected, 
namely, from house to stable, factory or any 
other building, this way of doing electric 
bell work is frequently done. All wires 
that are outside of buildings should be fas¬ 
tened on to porcelain or glass insulators, 
and never be nailed against brick or stone 
walls, or any frame buildings; always use 
insulators, and have wires clear of all places. 




THE MOVING FOOTWAY 

Operated at Paris Exposition 1900, for a distance of 2J4 miles, and capable of carrying 40,000 passengers at a time. Erected on tall trestles, it consists of three floors; 
the first is fixed and the other two move at rate of 2J4 and 5 miles per hour respectively. The motive power is supplied by shafts turning racks and piniop§. 

Passengers can step from one platform tp the other. At intervals there are seats. The electric railway is seen near the walk- 





mm 












































■ 


. 





THb FORWARD DECK OF A MODERN WAR VESSEL 

Showing what awful engines of death and destruction are qsed in modern navnl w^rf^re. 







































THE PRACTICAL MECHANIC 


205 


It is recommended for electric bell work 
that no lighter wire than what is known in 
the trade as No. 16 be used, and that the 
wire have a good insulation or covering. 

Making Connections. 

In all ordinary electric bell work, if 
reasonable care is taken, no connections or 
splices are necessary in the wire. Should it 
be necessary to make a connection of two 
ends of wire, make a good one and solder 
it; do not neglect doing this (soldering con¬ 
nections) in case you cannot solder the con¬ 
nections, wrap them with tin foil, or some 
tissue paper, and on top of this use some 
insulating tape, making a good covering 
over the wire again. Do not, however, use 
insulating tape right on a wire connection, 
as the place gets corroded, and is an injury 
to good work. 

When it is desired electric bell work can 
be so arranged so one, two or more bells can 
be rung from one or as many more places as 
desired. This is all simple work, and can 
be easily understood by making electric bell 
circuit diagrams, to show similar points on 
same line. 

The wire for push-buttons must be al¬ 
ways connected in multiple, with the wire 
attached to the first push-button. This is 
easily done by making half connections. The 
push-button end of wires must always be 
so connected in open circuit bell work. 

The bells when so connected that two or 
more ring simultaneously, should be also 
connected in multiple. 

The Working of the Bell. 

The electric bell consists essentially of 
an electro-magnet and a vibrating armature 
piece which oscillates in front of it. If a 
current enters the terminal A it is conducted 
through the coils D D of the electro-mag¬ 
net, which has iron cores, and passes out 
through the metal of the armature, the con¬ 
tact screw, g, and the terminal B. Such a 
current will, of course, cause the electro¬ 
magnet to draw the armature down on to 
its terminals, the armature itself being at¬ 
tached by a flexible steel spring to the 
framework, so as to make this movement 
possible. In the act, however, of drawing 
down the armature, the contact of the screw 


g y and a prolongation of the armature 
spring, is broken, and as this contact forms 
part of the electric circuit, the current 
ceases to magnetize the electro magnet; the 
armature is, therefore, no longer attracted 
and springs back by virtue of the steel 
spring, and contact between it and the screw, 
gy is restored, which causes the same opera¬ 
tion to be repeated. This motion takes 
place very rapidly to 
and fro, and is com¬ 
municated to a light 
hammer, dy which 
strikes the bell, by and 
produces a continu¬ 
ous and loud ringing 
sound. The whole 
apparatus forms a sim¬ 
ple method of draw¬ 
ing attention from 
a distance, and can 
always be relied upon 
to work properly. 

The only draw¬ 
back to the bell is that 

if the screw, gy is set 
.-Electric Bell. g0 ag tQ make it as 

sensitive as possible, a vibration of the sup¬ 
port to which the whole apparatus is fixed, 
due to a passing train or vehicle, might be 
sufficient to cause the hammer to strike 
the gong. In railway signal-boxes, where 
electric bells are much used, it is absolutely 
necessary that this should not happen, as it 
might lead to a serious catastrophe. The 
bells in this case are, therefore, so arranged 
that on closing the electric circuit the bell- 
hammer only strikes the gong once, and 
only when the circuit is broken again out¬ 
side the bell does it spring back so as to be 
ready for a second signal. 

Alternating Currents. 

Such vibrating electric bells will work 
with both direct and alternating currents, 
but not nearly so well with the latter. As, 
however, it is very often found desirable to 
use alternating currents, a special polarized 
bell has been devised for use with them, in 
which the armature, the amplitude of whose 
movement is regulated by screws, vibrates 
in a vertical plane between two poles of an 
electro-magnet, bent round at right angles. 












































206 


THE PRACTICAL MECHANIC 


The first practical telephone was invented 
by Graham Bell, and patented by him in 
1877; it was also invented independently 
about the same time by Elisha Gray. The 
principle of this telephone is based on the 
laws of electro-magnetic induction. 

A complete apparatus for telephonic com¬ 
munication consists: at the transmitting 
station, of a microphone, battery, and 
induction coil, and a bell-push which rings 




receiver 


No make-and-break mechanism is nec¬ 
essary as in ordinary bells, because the al¬ 
ternating current is continuously reversing 
the sign of the poles of the electro-magnet, 
causing the armature and bell-hammer to 
vibrate, by alternate attraction and repul¬ 
sion. It is usual in these bells to intensify 
the sound by using two domes, making use 
of the return stroke of the hammer. 

The current is produced by a small mag¬ 
neto dynamo worked by hand. 

This method of dispensing with 
primary batteries is due to Sie¬ 
mens, and has the advantage 
that a high E-M.F. (Electric 
Motive Force) can be gener¬ 
ated at no expense, the power 
being supplied by the operator 
himself. 

Cautions to be Observed. 

To sum up, then, let us say 
that in putting up electric bells, 
telephones, etc., there are sev¬ 
eral points which must be carefully attended 
to, if satisfactory working is desired; the con¬ 
ducting wires must be as well insulated as 
possible. Mere touching contacts should be 
avoided unless absolutely necessary. If pos¬ 
sible contacts or joints should be soldered so 
as to make a good metallic connection. If 
any connections are made by terminals or 
binding screws, they must be carefully 
cleaned and seen to from time to time ; this 
remark applies especially to the battery 
terminals, which are more likely to become 
corroded by the electrolyte. The general ar¬ 
rangement of the wires should be first map¬ 
ped out on paper, and this plan carefully 
adhered to in putting them up, otherwise 
confusion and trouble will arise. 

Putting up Telephones. 

There are two very distinct methods of 
transmitting the voice possible in telephonic 
systems : electro magnetic transmitters for 
use without batteries, and transmitters on 
the microphone principle requiring some 
external source of current. The instru¬ 
ments for receiving the voice are called 
receivers , and are always based on the prin¬ 
ciple of the electro-magnetic transmitter. 


Apparatus for the Transmission of Sound by Electricity. 

a bell at the receiving station to draw 
attention ; at the receiving end, of Bell tele¬ 
phone receiver and the call-bell. 

Line Wires. 

In towns, each person having a telephone 
is connected to an exchange, and by which 
he can be connected at will to any other per¬ 
son also connected to the exchange. 

The line wires, connecting the trans¬ 
mitting and receiving stations, consist of 
two copper conductors of high conductivity 
and great tensile strength. It is found that 
alloys of copper and silicon, or copper and 
aluminium, are best for this purpose. The 
wires have a resistance of about 80 ohms per 
mile, and their breaking tension is about 150 
lbs. With wire weighing about 19 lbs. per 
mile, spans of 100 to 150 yards are possible. 
The wires, if overhead, are supported on 
porcelain insulators, which are attached at a 
convenient height from the ground to posts 
or houses ; in the country trees often come in 
handy for the purpose. In cities the best 
method is to lay them underground, where 
they are safe from the effects of fire or 
weather; this, however, is rarely done, as 
overhead wires are so very much cheaper. 


















THE PRACTICAL MECHANIC 


207 


If a telephone line does not run any¬ 
where near any other telephone, telegraph, 
or electric circuit, the return wire may be re¬ 
placed with economy by the earth. In this 
case very careful connection must be made 
with the earth at each end. A good plan is 
to solder the connecting wire to a water 
pipe, but if this is not available, it must be 
connected to a large metallic plate of copper 
buried deeply in damp earth, which it is as 
well to water from time to time. It is best 
to avoid this earth return for telephones if 
possible, as it is very seldom satisfactory. 

In fixing up the telephone apparatus it 
should never be attached to thin partitions 
which are capable of vibration, but should 
be screwed to a solid wall, and even then it 
is as well to place a couple of layers of felt 
between the instrument and the wall. 

Number of Bells Required. 

A couple of cells of almost any make 
such as Daniells or Ee Clanche are quite 
enough for working a short telephone line, 
and for longer distances three or four at the 
outside are sufficient, for, an excess of electro¬ 
motor force produces a crackling sound in the 
receivers, which may be loud enough to seri¬ 
ously inconvenience conversation. For elec¬ 
tric bells the number of cells required de¬ 
pends upon the length of the line and the 
resistance of the bells used, and the right 
number is usually found by experiment. 

If a telephonic line is to be established 
near a telegraph line, it becomes necessary 
to use a metallic wire for the return, because 
the effects of induction, due to the making 
and breaking of the telegraph current, when 
an earth return is used by both circuits, be¬ 
comes sometimes great enough to spoil all 
telephonic communication. 

As a matter of fact it is very seldom that 
an earth return can be used for telephone 
lines, for the circuit is then always liable to 
external disturbances, such as leaks from 
electric light and power circuits, telegraph 
currents, earth currents, etc. Even with twin 
wires the greatest attention must be paid to 
good insulation of the line, otherwise the 
above-mentioned disturbanc.es may make 
their influence felt When all such stray 
currents have been eliminated from the sys¬ 
tem, the length of a telephone line may be 


greatly increased; conversation has been 
carried on quite distinctly at distances of 
800 and 900 miles. 

Operating a Telephone. 

The manipulation of a telephone instru¬ 
ment is quite simple. In nearly every type 
of instrument the receivers are hung on a 
hook which is pivoted on an axis. This 
movable hook has a spring attached to it so 
that, when the receiver is hung on it, the 
hook falls and distends the spring. If the 
receiver is unhooked the spring is released 
and the hook is drawn up. It is really a 
switch, and the up and-down movement 
causes the proper connections of line and 
bell, and line and telephone to be made. 
To enter into communication with another 
person through the exchange, the handle of 
the magneto-generator is turned, or a button 
is pressed. The exchange answer the sig¬ 
nal by ringing the subscriber’s bell. The 
receiver is then unhooked and placed to the 
ear, and the mouth is placed opposite the 
microphone. The attendant at the exchange 
asks what number is required, which being 
given the proper connection is made there, 
and the two persons are now in direct com¬ 
munication. When the conversation is fin¬ 
ished, the bell is again rung to signify the 
fact, and the attendant at the exchange dis¬ 
connects them. 

Batteries. 

Batteries are connected by attaching the 
carbon side of one cell to the zinc side of the 
next; follow this for any number and there 
will always remain one carbon pole and one 
zinc pole to which line wires may be con¬ 
nected. Batteries should be examined occa¬ 
sionally and cleaned. Do not use more 
salamoniac than will readily dissolve and 
have a small amount in bottom of cell. 
Place the batteries so they may not be ex¬ 
posed to draughts or heat. Use soft rain¬ 
water in the solution. Six ounces of sala¬ 
moniac to a jar is enough. When the bat¬ 
teries appear to be doing too much work or 
become weak, examine all connections; 
look for leaks where wires cross or touch. 
Test each battery separately by connecting 
it with the two poles of a bell used for that 
purpose. 




208 


THE PRACTICAL MECHANIC 


The practical mechanic—the amateur 
workman—the busy man of affairs—the 
housekeeper—the farmer, have occasions for 
useful information about the common mater¬ 
ials used in building and repairing and for 
the tables and measurements used in the 
different trades and business pursuits, which 
are seldom found outside of books treating 

FACTS AND FIGURES 

Shingles. 

The best shingles are of white cedar. 
When of good quality, they will last 40 to 
50 years in our Northern States. Cypress 
and white pine are much used for shingles, 
but will not last half as long as white cedar. 

Shingles are packed 250 to the bundle, 
or 4 bundles to 1,000. 

1 Bundle 16-inch shingles will cover 30 
• square feet. 

1 Bundle 18-inch shingles will cover 33 
square feet. 

When laid 5 }4 inches to the weather, 5 lbs. 
4° or 3 H lbs. 3 0 nails will lay 1,000 shingles. 

Clap-Boards. 

1 Bundle laid 3^ inches to the weather 
will cover 26 square feet. 

Painting. 

For outside wood-work , paint made from 
white lead ground in linseed oil is most 
used. If the oil is raw , or unboiled, dryer 
is added ; if boiled , no dryer is necessary. 
Not less than four coats should be applied— 
five are better. 

Paint, ready mixed, put up in cans or 
kegs, may be procured from manufacturers 
or dealers. These paints have to be thinned 
by adding 1 pint of oil to about 2>4 lbs. of 
paint. When thinned, 1 lb. will cover 
about 2 square yards of first-coat, 3 yards 
of second, and 4 yards of each subsequent 
coat; or lbs. to the square yard will be 
required for 4 coats, and lbs. for 5 coats. 

For inside work , either white lead or 
oxide of zinc is used, and for good work 4 
coats are necessary. 

For iron exposed to the weather , metallic 
oaints, such as yellow and red iron ochres 
or brown hematite ore, finely pulverized 
and mixed with oil or dryer, are best. 


of special trades. These facts and figures 
also enable one to deal intelligently with the 
mechanic and tradesman. They are time- 
savers , and hence are money-makers. Such 
information is only secured after long and 
diligent search and comparison of authori¬ 
ties. We give many of the important 
ones. 

FOR EVERY DAY USE 

For iron subject to the action of water , red 
lead is best. 

Plastered walls should stand a year 
before painting. 

Painting is measured by the square yard, 
girding every part of the work that is 
covered by paint and allowing an addition 
to the actual surface for the difficulty of 
covering deep quirk of moldings and for 
“ cutting in ’ ’ as in sash and shelving, or. 
where there is a change of color, on same 
work. 

Painter's Putty. 

Spanish whiting, Made into a stiff paste, 
pulverized, 80.6 I If not intended for im- 
Boiled oil, 20.4 f mediate use, raw oil 
J should be used. 

One pound of putty for stopping every 
20 yards. 

Glazier’s Putty. 

Whiting, 70 lbs.; boiled oil, 30 lbs. ; 
water, 2 galls. Mix. If too thin, add 
more whiting ; if too thick, add more oil. 

To Soften Putty. 

To remove old putty from broken win¬ 
dows, dip a small brush in nitro-muriatic 
acid or caustic soda (concentrated lye), and 
with it anoint or paint over the dry putty 
that adheres to the broken glass and frames 
of your windows; after an hour’s interval 
the putty will have become so soft as to be 
easily removable. 

White and Other Washes. 

For outside wood-work. In a tight 
bushel, slake half a bushel of fresh lime 
by pouring over it boiling water sufficient 
to cover it 4 or 5 inches deep, stir until 
slaked : add 2 lbs. of sulphate of zinc dis¬ 
solved in water, add water enough to bring 
all to the consistency of thick whitewash. 





THE PRACTICAL MECHANIC 


20Q 


For inside work. Add 2 quarts of thin 
size to a pailful of wash just before using. 
The common practice of mixing salt with 
whitewash should not be permitted. 

For brick or stone-work. Slake ^ bushel 
of lime, as before, in a barrel; then fill the 
barrel 2 /z full of water and add a bushel of 
hydraulic cement; add 3 lbs. sulphate of 
zinc dissolved in water. These washes 
may be colored by adding powdered ochre, 
umber, etc. 

Stone-Work. 

A perch of stone work is 1 rod long, 
1% feet thick and 1 foot high, and con¬ 
tains 24^ cubic feet. 

A cord of stone, like a cord of wood, 
contains 128 cubic feet, and will make a 
100 cubic feet of wall. Three bushels of 
lime and a cubic yard of sand are usually 
estimated for a cord of stone. 

Stone walls are measured by the perch 
(24^ cubic feet). Openings less than 3 feet 
wide are counted solid; over 3 feet deduc¬ 
ted, but 18 inches are added to the running 
measure for each jamb built. Arches are 
counted solid from their spring. Corners 
of buildings are measured twice. Pillars 
less than 3 feet are counted on 3 sides as 
lineal, multiplied by fourth side and 
depth. 

It is customary to measure all founda¬ 
tion and dimension stone by the cubic foot. 
Water tables and base courses by lineal feet. 
All sills and lintels or ashlar, by superficial 
feet, and no wall less than 18 inches thick. 
The greatest safe load per super, foot on 


Granite Piers.40 tons. 

Lime stone Piers.25 “ 

Sand stone Piers.15 “ 

Brickwork in Cement. 3 “ 

Rubble Masonry. 2 “ 

Lime Concrete Foundations . . 2^“ 


The height of brick or stone piers should not 
exceed 12 times their least thickness at base. 

Concrete Walls. 

Concrete walls for houses are built of 1 
of cement to 6 or 7 of broken stone, shingle, 
gravel, or slag. The substance mixed with 
the cement must be free from loam, fine 
sand, clay, or dirt of any kind. 

To prevent the cement from adhering 
to the planks of the mould, apply freely to 
14 C 


them, with a brush, soap boiled to the con¬ 
stancy of paint. 

Plastering. 


Estimate of material for 100 square yards. 


Materials 

Two coats 

slipped 
coat finish 

Three coats 

with 

hard finish 

Quicklime 

‘ ‘ for fine stuff. 

Plaster of Paris .... 

Z l A casks 

4 casks 

H “ 

H “ 

Laths. 

2,000 

2,000 

Hair. 

3 bushels 

4 bushels 

Common Sand .... 
White Sand. 

6 loads 

7 loads 

2]/ z bushels 

Nails . 

13 lbs. 

13 lbs. 

Mason’s labor. 

V/z days 

2 “ 

4 days 

3 “ 

Laborer. 


Plastering laths are usually of white or yellow 
pine, 1 y z inches wide, X inch thick, and 3 or 4 
feet long. They are nailed up horizontally, about 
]/ z inch apart. The upright stud of partitions are 
spaced at such distances apart, (usually about 15 
inches centre to centre), that the ends of the 
laths may be nailed to them. Laths are sold in 
bundles of 1,000 each. A square foot of surface re¬ 
quires i l A four-feet laths, or 1,000 such laths will 
cover 666 square feet. A carpenter can nail up the 
laths for from 40 to 60 square yards of plastering in 
a day of ten hours, depending on the number of 
angles in the room, etc. 

Plastering is always measured by the square 
yard for plain work, by the superficial foot for 
cornices of plain members, and by lineal foot for 
enriched or carved mouldings in cornices. 

Brick-Work. 


Brick-work is generally measured by 
1,000 bricks laid in the wall. In conse¬ 
quence of variations in size of bricks, no 
rule for volume of laid brick can be exact. 
The following scale is given as a fair aver¬ 
age for general use. 


Bricks to a super, foot 4 // Wall= 40 lbs. 


14 

< < 

“ 

<< 

9 " 

“ = 94 

<< 

21 

it 

<( 

a 

13 

“ =121 

(1 

28 

a 

<( 

a 

18" 

“ =168 

ii 

35 

a 

«< 

a 

22 /7 

“ =210 

ii 


Corners are not measured twice as in stone¬ 
work. Openings over 2 feet square are deducted. 
Arches are counted from the spring. Fancy work 
counted \]/ z bricks for 1. Pillars are measured on 
their face only. 

A cubic yard of mortar requires 1 cubic yard of 
sand and 9 bushels of lime, and will fill 30 hods. 

One thousand bricks, closely stacked, occupy 
about 56 cubic feet. 

One thousand old bricks, cleaned and loosely 
stacked, occupy about 72 cubic feet. 

One superficial foot of gauged arches requires 
10 bricks. 
























210 


THE PRACTICAL MECHANIC 


Stock bricks commonly measure 8 % inches by 
4 % inches by 2^ inches, and weigh from 5 to 6 
lbs. each. 

Paving-bricks should measure 9 inches by 4^ 
inches by 1^ inches, and weigh about 4 y 2 lbs. 
each. 

One yard of paving requires 36 stock bricks, 
of above dimensions, laid flat, or 52 on edge ; and 
35 paving bricks laid flat, or 82 on edge. 

Slating. 

A square of slate or slating is 100 super¬ 
ficial feet. 

In measuring, the width of the eaves is 
allowed at the widest part. Hips, valleys, 
and cutting are to be measured lineal, and 
6 inches width extra is allowed. 

The thickness of slates ranges from 3-16 
to 5-16 of a inch, and their weight varies 
from 2.6 to 4.5 lbs. per square foot. 

The lap of slates varies from 2 to 4 
inches. The standard is assumed to be 3 
inches. 

To compute the number of slates of a given 
size required per squares. 

Subtract 3 inches from the length of the 
slate, multiply the remainder by the width 
and divide by 2. Divide 14.400 by the 
number so found, and the result will be the 
number of slates required. 

The pitch of a slate roof should not be 
less than 1 in. height to 4 in. length. 

Dimensions of slates and numbers re¬ 
quired to a square. 12x6 requires 533 to 
the square; 14x9 requires 291; 18x9 re¬ 
quires 213; 24x13 requires 105. 

Rules for Obtaining Approximate 
Weight of Iron. 

For Round Bars. 

Rule : Multiply the square of the diameter in 
inches by the length in feet, and that product by 
2.6. The product will be the weight in pounds, 
nearly. 

For Square and Flat Bars. 

Rule : Multiply the area of the end of the bar 
in inches by the length in feet, and that by 3.32. 
The product will be the weight in pounds, nearly. 

Wrought Iron, usually assumed : 

A cubic foot =480 lbs. 

A square foot, 1 inch thick =40 “ 

A bar 1 in. square, 1 foot long = 3^“ 

A “ “ “ 1 yard long = 10 “ 

To find the weight of Cast-Iron Balls when 
the diameter is given. 

Rule: Multiply the cube of the diameter by 
• 1377 - 


To find the diameter of Cast-Iron Balls when 
the weight is given. 

Rule: Multiply the cube root of the weight 
by 1.936. 

To find the weight of a Spherical Shell. 

From the weight of a ball of the outer di¬ 
ameter subtract the weight of the inner diameters. 

To Test Quality of Iron. 

If fracture gives long silky fibres of 
leaden-gray hue, fibres cohering and twist¬ 
ing together before breaking, may be con¬ 
sidered a tough, soft iron. A medium even 
grain mixed with fibres, a good sign. A 
short, blackish fibre indicates badly-refined 
iron. A very fine grain denotes a hard , 
steely iron , apt to be cold, short, hard to 
work with the file. Coarse grain with 
brilliant crystallized fracture, yellow or 
brown spots, denotes a brittle iron , cold, 
short, working easily when heated; welds 
easily. Cracks on the edge of bars, sign of 
hot, short iron. Good iron is readily 
heated, soft under the hammer, and throws 
out but few sparks. 

All iron contains more or less carbon— 
the hardest the most. 

The breaking strain on various metals 
is shown in the following table, the size of 
the rod tested being in each case one inch 
square, and the number of pounds the actual 


breaking strain : 




Pounds. 

Hard steel, . . . 



Soft steel, . . . 



Best Swedish iron, 



Ordinary bar iron, 



Silver,. 



Copper, .... 


. . 35,000 

Gold,. 



Tin,. 


• • 5 , 5 oo 

Zinc, . 



head, . 


. . 860 

Average Weight of Animals. 

Cart-horse, 14 cwt. 

Riding-horse, 11 cwt, 

Ox, 7 to 8 “ 

Tig, 

1 to 1V2 “ 

Cow, 6^2 to 8 “ 

Sheep, 

1 “ 

Average weight of a man, 

140 lbs. 


A dense crowd of people, 85 lbs. per 
square foot. 













THE PRACTICAL MECHANIC 


21 r 


Average Number of Cubic Feet Per Ton of 
Various Substances for Estimating 
Work or Stowage. 


Iron. 4.7 

Dead. 3.2 

Brick.22 

Clay*.22 

Sand.24 

Earth, loose.28 

Granite.16 

° ak • • 39-5 


Ash. 

Cedar. 

Mahogany, sp. 

Deal. 

Pine, red. 

“ yellow. 

Water, fresh. 

‘ ‘ salt. 

Coke. 

Coal (stowed). 

Wood (equivalent) requires . 


45 

72 

45 

50 

55 

77 

36 

35 

90 

48 

288 


WORKSHOP RECIPES 


A Home-Made Lubricator. —Tallow and 
plumbago thoroughly mixed make the best lubri¬ 
cator for surfaces when one is wood or when both 
are wood. Oil is not so good as tallow to mix with 
plumbago for the lubrication of wooden surfaces, 
because oil penetrates and saturates the wood to a 
greater degree than tallow, causing it to swell more. 

To Protect Metal Surfaces From Rusting. 
—Melt 1 oz. of resin in a gill of linseed oil, and 
while hot mix with it two quarts of kerosene oil. 
This can be kept ready to apply at any time with a 
brush or rag to any tools or implements required 
to lay by for a time, preventing any rust, and sav¬ 
ing much vexation when the tool is to be used 
again. 

Glue to Resist Moisture. —1 lb. of glue 
melted in 2 quarts skim-milk. 

Marine Glue. —1 part of India-rubber, 12 parts 
of mineral naphtha or coal-tar. Heat gently, mix, 
and add 20 parts of powdered shellac. Pour out on 
a slab to cool. When used, to be heated to about 
250°. 

Glue Cement to Resist Moisture. —1 part 
glue, 1 part black rosin, ^ part red ochre. Mixed 
with least possible quantity of water. Or 4 parts of 
glue, or 1 part oxide of iron, 1 part of boiled oil 
(by weight). 

To Remove Rust From Steel. —Steel which 
has been rusted can be cleaned by brushing with a 
paste compound of )/?. oz. cyanide potassium, ]/ 2 oz. 
castile soap, 1 oz. whiting, and water sufficient to 
form a paste. The steel should be washed with a 
solution of oz. cyanide potassium in 2 oz. water. 

To Preserve Steel From Rust. —1 part 
caoutchouc, 16 parts turpentine. Dissolve with a 
gentle heat, then add 8 parts boiled oil. Mix by 
bringing them to the heat of boiling water ; apply 
to the steel with a brush, in the way of varnish. It 
may be removed with turpentine. 

" To Clean Brass. —1 part Roche alum and 16 
parts water. Mix. The articles to be cleaned must 
be made warm, then rubbed with the above mix¬ 
ture, and finished with fine tripoli. 

Blue Print Solution for Photographer.—1 
pint citrate of iron ammonia, 2 pints red prussiate 
of potash, 1 pint gum arabic, 3 pints water. 

Do. —oz. red prussiate of potash in 11 oz. 
water, ij£ oz. citrate of ammonia in 5 oz. water. 
Mix together and keep in dark place. Corrections 
can be made with a pen dipped in a solution of 


caustic soda. Also by bi-carbonate of soda. Also 
by a solution of lime. 

Tinning Acid for Zinc or Brass. —Zinc, 3 
oz.; muriatic acid, 1 pt. Dissolve, and add 1 pt. 
water and 1 oz. sal-ammoniac. 

To Solder Brass Easily.— Cut out a piece of 
tinfoil the size of the surface to be soldered. Then 
apply to the surface a solution of sal-ammoniac for 
a flux. Place the tinfoil between the pieces, and 
apply a hot soldering-iron until the tinfoil is melted. 

To Solder Without Heat.— Steel filings, 2 
oz.; brass filings, 2 oz.; fluoric acid, oz. Dis¬ 
solve the fillings in the acid, and apply to the parts 
to be soldered, having first thoroughly cleaned the 
parts to be connected. Keep the fluoric acid in 
earthen or lead vessels only. 

To Tin Brass and Copper.— Make a mixture 
of 3 lbs. cream of tartar, 4 lbs. tin shavings, and 2 
gallons water, and boil. After the mixture has 
boiled sufficiently, put in the articles to be tinned, 
and continue the boiling. The tin will be precipi¬ 
tated on the articles. 

To Use in Case of Burns. —A free application 
of soft soap to a fresh burn almost instantly removes 
the fire from the flesh. If the injury is very severe, 
as soon as the pain ceases apply linseed oil, and 
then dust over with fine flour. When this covering 
dries hard, repeat the oil and flour dressing until a 
good coating is obtained. When the latter dries, 
allow it to stand until it cracks and falls off, as it 
will in a day or two, and a new skin will be found 
to have formed where the skin was burned. 

How to Mix Inks or Paints for Tints. —A 
larger quantity of the first-named color must 
always be used. Dark green and purple make 
bottle green. White and medium yellow make 
buff tint. Red, black, and blue make dark brown. 
Bronze blue, lemon yellow, and black make dark 
green. White, medium yellow, and black make 
drab tint. White, lake, and lemon yellow make 
flesh tint. Demon yellow and bronze blue make 
grass green. White and black make gray tint. 
White and purple make lavender tint. Red, black, 
and medium yellow make maroon. Rake and 
purple make magenta. Medium yellow and purple 
make olive green. Medium yellow and red make 
orange. White, ultramarine blue, and black make 
pearl tint. White and lake make pink. Ultra- 
marine blue and lake make purple. Orange, lake, 
and purple make russet. Medium yellow, red, and 
























212 


THE PRACTICAL MECHANIC 


white make sienna. White and ultramarine blue 
make sky blue. Ultramarine blue, black, and 
white make slate. Vermillion and black make 
Turkey red. White, yellow, red, and black make 
umber. 

Time=Savers. —We give the following figures 
as worth remembering. They will save calculation 
and give approximately accurate results with least 
amount of labor: 

Four loads, (cubic yds.) of stone, three bushels 
of lime and a cubic yard of sand, will lay one 
hundred cubic feet of wall. 

Five courses of brick will lay a foot in height 
on a chimney. 

Niue bricks in a course will make a flue eight 
inches wide and twenty inches long, and eight 
bricks in a course will make a flue eight inches 
wide and sixteen inches long. 

Eight bushels of good lime, sixteen bushels of 
sand and one bushel of hair, will make enough 
mortar to plaster one hundred square yards. 

One-fifth more siding and flooring is needed 
than the number of square feet of surface to be 
covered, because of the lap in the siding and match¬ 
ing of the floor. 

One thousand laths will cover seventy yards 
of surface, and eleven pounds of lath nails will 
nail them on. 

One thousand shingles laid four inches to the 
weather, will cover one hundred square feet of sur¬ 
face, and five pounds of shingle nails will fasten 
them on. 

A Polish for Wood. —The wooden parts of 
tools, such as the stocks of planes and handles of 
chisels, are often made to have a nice appearance 
by French, polishing; but this adds nothing to 
their durability. A much better plan is to let them 
soak in linseed oil for a week, and rub with a new 
cloth for a few minutes every day for a week or 
two. This produces a beautiful surface, and has a 
solidifying effect on the wood. 

To Calculate the Number of Shingles for a 
Roof. —To calculate number of shingles for a roof, 
ascertain number of square feet, and multiply by 
four, if two inches to weather, 8 for 4)4 inches; 
and 7 1-5 if 5 inches are exposed. The length of a 
rafter of one-third pitch is equal to three-fifths of 
width of building adding projection. 

A Chimney that Will Draw.—To build a 
chimney that will draw forever, and not fill up with 
soot, you must build it large enough, sixteen inches 
square ; use good brick, and clay instead of lime 
up to the comb ; plaster it inside with clay mixed 
with salt; for chimney tops use the very best of 
brick, wet them and lay them in cement mortar. 
The chimney should not be built tight to beams 
and rafters; there is where the cracks in your 
chimney comes, and where most of the fires origi¬ 
nate, as the chimney sometimes get red hot. A 
chimney built from the cellar up is better and less 
dangerous than one hung on the wall. 

Keeping Tools. —Keep your tools handy and 
in good condition. This applies everywhere and 
in every place, from the smallest shop to the great¬ 


est mechanical establishment in the world. Every 
tool should have its exact place, and should always 
be kept there when not in use. 

Keeping tools in good order, and ready to use, 
is as necessary as keeping them in the proper 
place. To take up a dull saw, or a dull chisel, and 
try to do any kind of work with it, is worse than 
pulling a boat with a broom, and it all comes from 
just the same source as throwing down tools care¬ 
lessly—habit, nothing more or less. To say you 
have no time to sharpen is worse than outright 
lying, for, if you have time to use a dull tool, you 
have time to put it in good order. 

Three Thermometer Scales. —There are 
three standard thermometers in use, each a recog¬ 
nized standard iu one or another part of the world. 
The scale of Reaumur (R.) prevails in Germany. 
As is well knowui, he divides the space between the 
freezing and boiling points into 8o°. France uses 
that of Celsius (C.), who graduated his scale on the 
decimal system. The most peculiar scale of all 
however, ic that of Fahrenheit (F.), a renowned 
German physicist, who in 1714 or 1715 composed 
his scale, having ascertained that water can be 
cooled under the freezing point without congealing. 
He did not take the congealing point of water, 
which is uncertain, but composed a mixture of equal 
parts of snow and Sal Ammoniac, about—14 0 
R. This scale is preferable to both those of Reau¬ 
mur and Celsius, or, as it is called, Centigrade, be¬ 
cause: 1. The regular temperatures of the moderate 
zone move within its two zeros, and can therefore 
be written without -f- or —. 2. The scale is divided 
so finely that it is not necessary to use fractions, 
when careful observations are to be made. These 
advantages, although drawn into question by some, 
have been considered so weighty, that both Great 
Britain and America h ive retained the scales, while 
the nations of the Continent use the other two. The 
conversion of any one of these scales into another 
is very simple. 1. To change a temperature given 
by Fahrenheit’s scale into the same given by the 
Centigrade scale, subtract 32 0 from Fahrenheit’s 
degrees and multiply the remainder by 5-9. The 
product will be the temperature in Centigrade 
degrees. To change from Fahrenheit’s to Reaumur’s 
scale, subtract 32 0 from Fahrenheit’s degrees, and 
multiply the remainder by 4-9. The product will 
be the temperature iu Reaumur’s degrees. 3. To 
change a temperature given by the Centigrade 
scale into the same given by Fahrenheit, multiply 
the Centigrade degrees by 9-5, and add 32 0 to the 
product. The sum will be the temperature by 
Fahrenheit’s scale. 4. To change from Reaumur's 
to Fahrenheit’s scale, multiply the degrees on 
Reaumur’s scale by 9-4, and add 32 0 to the product. 
The sum will be the temperature by Fahrenheit’s 
scale. 

Weighing Liquids.—One gallon of pure 

water weighs nearly 8)4 lbs. avoirdupois. “A 
pint is a pound ” is an old saying, and very nearly 
true. The gallon containing 231 cubic inches, is 
the standard unit of wine measure. The British 
gallon, called the Imperial gallon, contains 277.274 
cubic inches. 




THE PRACTICAL MECHANIC 


213 


ENGINES AND BOILERS 


Steam Boilers. —For all boilers three differ¬ 
ent parts, viz., fire-surface, water-space and steam- 
room, must be considered. Each part or division 
has a distinct and separate duty to perform. The 
fire-surface includes the furnace and combustion 
chamber, flues and tubes ; the water-space is that 
part occupied by the water ; and the steam-room 
is the reservoir which holds and supplies the steam 
necessary to run the engine. 

For convenience, we may state that all steam- 
boilers are either internally or externally fired. 
When the fuel is burned in an iron furnace sur¬ 
rounded with a water-jacket or water-log, as in the 
case of the locomotive, marine and portable boilers, 
they are internally fired. Cylinder-flue, double¬ 
deck, tubulous and sectional boilers are said to be 
externally fired, because the fuel is burned in a 
brick furnace lined with fire-brick. 

A perfect steam-boiler should be made of the 
best material sanctioned by use, and should be 
simple in construction. It should have a constant 
and thorough circulation of water throughout the 
boiler, so as to maintain all parts at one tempera¬ 
ture. 

There should be a combustion chamber so ar¬ 
ranged that the combustion of the gases com¬ 
menced in the furnace may be completed before 
the escape to the chimney. 

Have all parts readily accessible for cleaning 
and repairs. 

In every boiler there should be ample water- 
surface for the disengagement of the steam from 
the water in order to prevent foaming. There 
should also be a large excess of strength over any 
legitimate strain, and proportioned for the work 
to be done. 

Only the very best gauges, safety-valves, fusible 
plugs, and other fixtures should be used. 

In a water-tube boiler there should be from 
10 to 12 square feet of heating surface for one 
horse-power ; in a tubular boiler 14 to 18 square 
feet of heating surface for one horse-power ; in a 
flue boiler 8 to 12 square feet of heating surface for 
one horse-power ; a plain cylinder boiler should 
have from 6 to 10 square feet of heating surface for 
one horse-power ; a locomotive boiler should have 
12 to 16 square feet of heating surface for one horse¬ 
power ; a vertical boiler should have from 15 to 20 
square feet of heating surface for one horse-power. 

When considering the heating surface of a 
boiler, a vertical or upright surface has only one- 
half the evaporative value of a horizontal surface 
above the flamet; that is, the sides of a locomotive 
fire-box are only half as effective per square foot as 
the flat top of the box. In flues and tubes, the effet- 
ive surface, measured on the circumference, is i# 
times the diameter. 

Useful Rules for Calculations. 

To find the fire-grate surface of flue boilers. 
—Square the nominal horse-power, and divide it 
by the heating surface in square yards ; the quo¬ 
tient will be the fire-grate surface in square feet— 


or, one square foot of fire-grate surface per nominal 
horse-power. 

lo find the heating surface of a flue boiler. 
—Square the nominal horse-power as indicated by 
the manufacturer’s receipt or bill of sale, and divide 
that by the fire-grate surface in square feet; the 
quotient will be the heating surface in square 
yards. 

Capacity of boiler flue. —One cubic yard of 
boiler capacity for each nominal horse-power. 
Steam-room should be about eight times the con¬ 
tents of the cylinder of the engine supplied with 
steam by the boiler. 

Tubular or marine boilers. —Each nominal 
horse-power requires the evaporation of one cubic 
foot of water per hour ; 12 square feet of heating 
surface, only three-fourths of the whole tube sur¬ 
face being taken as effective ; and 30 square inches 
of fire-grate per nominal horse-power. The sec¬ 
tional area of the tubes to be about one-sixth of 
the fire-grate. 

General rule for all classes of boilers .— 
Twelve square feet of heating surface and three- 
fourths square foot of fire-grate per nominal horse¬ 
power, are very good proportions. 

temperature; indicated by the coeor of 
THE FIRE. 

To determine the temperature of a furnace fire 
from the color of the flame : 


Faint red.960° F. 

Bright red.1,300° F. 

Cherry red.i,6oo° F. 

Dull orange.2,000° F. 

Bright orange.2,100° F. 

White heat.2,400° F. 

Brilliant white heat.2,700° F. 


How to Care for Boilers. 

Every one who owns a steam-boiler, as well as 
the engineer who is responsible for the same, 
should at all times exercise the greatest care. A 
fifteen-story building may be fire-proof and ever 
so strong, yet a defective boiler in the basement or 
carelessness in its management, may cause an 
explosion which will wreck the whole structure. 
The following suggestions are important: 

1. Great care should be exercised to see 
that safety-valves are ample in size and in working 
order. Overloading or neglect frequently leads to 
the most disastrous results. Safety-valves should 
be tried at least once a day to see if they will act 
properly. 

2. The first duty of an engineer before start¬ 
ing is to see that the water is at the proper height. 
Do not rely on glass gauges, floats or water alarms, 
but try the gauge-cocks. 

3. The steam-gauge should stand at zero 
when the pressure is off, and it should show same 
pressure as the safety-valve when the latter is blow¬ 
ing off. If not, then one is wrong, and the gauge 
should be tested by one known to be correct. 











214 


THE PRACTICAL MECHANIC 


4. Both gauge-cocks and water-gauges must 
be kept clean. Water-gauges should be blown out 
frequently, and the glasses and passages to gauge 
kept clean. 

5. Feed-pumps or injectors should be kept 
in perfect order, and of ample size. No make of 
pump can be expected to be continuously reliable 
without regular and careful attention. It is always 
safe to have two means of feeding the boiler. Check- 
valves and selfacting feed-valves should be fre¬ 
quently examined and cleaned. Satisfy yourself 
that the valve is acting when the feed-pump is at 
work. 

6. Cold water should never be fed into a 
boiler if it can be avoided, but, w T hen necessary, it 
should be caused to mix with the heated water 
before coming in contact with any portion of the 
boiler. 

7. In case of low water immediately cover the 
fire with ashes (wet if possible) or any earth that 
may be at hand. If nothing else is handy use 
fresh coal. Draw fires as soon as it can be done 
without increasing the heat. Neither turn on the 
feed, start or stop engine, or lift safety-valve until 
fires are out and the boiler cooled down. 

8. Fusible plugs, when used, must be exam¬ 
ined when the boiler is cleaned, and carefully 
scraped clean on both water and fire sides, or they 
are liable not to act. 

9. Moderately thick fires are most economical, 
but thin firing must be used -when draught is poor. 
Take care to keep the grates evenly covered, and 
allow no air-holes in the fire. Be especially careful 
to lay the coal along the sides and in the corners. 
All lumps should be broken into the size of a man’s 
fist. With bituminous coal, firing in front, and 
then shoving the coal back, when it is coked, gives 
the best result. Do not “ clean ” fires oftener than 
necessary. The cleaning of the fire is best done, in 
ordinary working, by a “rake,” or other tool, 
working on the under side of the grate, and not by 
a “slice-bar,” driven into the mass of fuel above 
the grates. 

10. Clean all heating surfaces outside and in, 
or there will be serious w T aste of fuel. As a rule, 
never allow over one-sixteenth scales or soot to 
collect on surfaces between cleanings. Hand-holes 
should be frequently removed, and surfaces exam¬ 
ined, particularly in case of a new boiler, until 
proper intervals between cleanings have been estab¬ 
lished by experience. Examine mud-drums and 
remove sediment therefrom. 

11. When foaming occurs in a boiler, check¬ 
ing the outflow of the steam will usually stop it. If 
caused by dirty water, blowing down and pump¬ 
ing up will generally cure it. In cases of violent 
foaming, check the draught and cover the fires*. 

12. Never empty the boiler while the brick¬ 
work is hot. 

13. Don’t indulge in rapid firing. Steam 
should be raised slowly from a cold boiler. 

14. If a boiler is not required for some time, 
empty and dry it thoroughly. If this is imprac¬ 
tical, fill it quite full of water, and put in a quan¬ 
tity of common washing soda. 


15. All things about the boiler-room should 
be kept clean and in good order. Negligence 
tends to waste and decay. 

For the Engineer and Firemen 

Always start your engine slowly, so that the 
air and water condensation can be expelled from 
your cold cylinder ; then you will gradually bring 
it to its regular speed. 

Keep open the drip cock, both in the front and 
back ends of the cylinder, when the engine is 
standing still, and never close them until all the 
water has dripped out. 

Never let in any oil or tallow to your cyliuder 
until it is made hot by the steam. 

Be careful not to put in too much oil at any 
time, knowing, as you do, that it will be sent to the 
feed-water causing your boiler to prime and foam. 

Always oil up before starting your engine. 

Generally, when you pack the piston packing, 
both cylinder and packing are cold, aud if they are 
screwed or wedged in very tight while in this con¬ 
dition that the expansion, when exposed to the 
heat of the steam, will induce great rigidity. 

Then the oil or lubricating substance cannot 
enter between the surfaces in contact, and that 
great friction, heating and cutting will be the 
result. 

When packing loses its elasticity it is no good, 
and should be removed. 

Piston or valve-rod packing, should never be 
screwed up more than sufficient to prevent it from 
leaking, and that the softer the packing the longer 
it will last and the better your engine will run. 

For Steam = Heating of Houses. —To esti¬ 
mate for the steam-heating of dwellings it is safe 
to allow one square foot of boiler surface for each 
ten square feet of radiatiug surface. Small boilers 
should be larger proportionately than large boilers. 

Each horse-power of boiler w'ili supply from 
250 to 350 feet of 1-inch conducting pipes, which 
equals about 80 to 120 square feet of radiating sur¬ 
face. 

It is safe to estimate that under ordinary cir¬ 
cumstances, one horse-power of boiler capacity will 
heat about as follows : 

15,000 to 20,000 cubic feet in brick buildings in 
blocks. 

10,000 to 15,000 cubic feet in brick stores in 
blocks. 

10,000 to 15,000 cubic feet in brick dwellings, 
exposed all sides. 

7,000 to 10,000 cubic feet in brick mills, shops, 

etc. 

7,000 to 10,000 cubic feet in w'ooden buildings, 
exposed. 

6,000 to 10,000 cubic feet in foundries and 
wooden shops. 

All the joints should be made steam and water 
tight, as the slightest leak in a steam-heating sys¬ 
tem is apt to damage furniture, curtains, carpets, 
etc., if the steam is intended to heat a dwelling. 
Red or white lead is all right as material to make 
up joints, but graphite is much better. For gas¬ 
kets there is nothing better than asbestos. 




THE PRACTICAL MECHANIC 


215 


How to Thaw Out a Frozen Steam=Pipe.— 

A good way to thaw out a frozen-up steam-pipe, is 
to take some old cloth, discarded clothes, waste, old 
carpet, or anything of that kind, and lay on the 
pipe to be thawed ; then get some boiling hot water 
and pour it on. The cloth will hold the heat on 
the pipe, and thaw it out in five minutes. This 
holds good in any kind of a freeze, water-wheel, 
or anything else. 

Steam as a Cleansing Agent. —For cleaning 
greasy machinery nothing can be found that is 
more useful than steam. A steam hose attached 
to the boiler can be made to do better w r ork in a 
few minutes than any one is able to do in hours of 
close application. The principal advantages of 
steam are, that it will penetrate where an instru¬ 
ment will not enter, and where anything else would 
be ineffectual to accomplish the desired result. 
Journal boxes with oil cellars will get filthy in 
time, and are difficult to clean in the ordinary 
way ; but, if they can be removed, or are in a 
favorable place, so that steam can be used, it is a 
veritable play-work to rid them of any adhering 
substance. What is especially satisfactory in the 
use of steam, is that it does not add to the filth. 
Water and oil spread the foul matter, and thus 
make an additional amount of work. 

Suggestion for Hot=Water Heating Sys= 
terns. —Let your “ risers” not be less than iX // , 
for smaller pipes soon become coated, if the water | 


used contains lime or other matters in solution or 
suspension. 

Galvanized pipe is best; it does not become 
rusty and discolor the water. 

In ordinary pipe be sure to get “galvanized 
steam,” and not “ galvanized gas.” 

Let your draw-off services be for bath i // t to 
lavatories 1", for hot water y 2 ". Do not make 
the “draw-offs” too small; it takes too long to 
drain a pipe of cold water. 

The larger the pipes the freer the circulation, 
and, if you have hard water, they will remain in 
good order longer. 

Be sure that all joints are secure and free from 
leaks, and always look through a pipe before fit¬ 
ting it in place, to see that there is no dirt or im¬ 
pediment to the flow of the water through it. 

Avoid the use of elbows in circulating pipes, 
use only bends; if you cannot avoid using an elbow, 
see that it is a round one. 

A Cheap Filter. —A cheap filter which any 
tinner can make is 12 x 6 inches in size, and 8 inches 
high. The water flows in near the top, and on the 
top is a door through which to get into it to clean 
it. The outlet pipe at the bottom projects 2 
inches up on the inside to hold the dirt back. A 
large sponge is placed inside, which forms the 
filtering medium, which, of course, can be cleaned 
as often as desired. The place of the sponge may be 
taken by powdered charcoal placed in a cotton bag. 


TABLES OF MEASURE AND WEIGHT 


Linear Measure. 


12 inches = 1 foot. 

3 feet = 1 yard. 

x 5 6$?e a e r t dS }= 1 ^ 
32° rods 1 j mjle _ 
5,280 feet f 

4 \ = 1 chain. 

100 links J 


Square Measure. 

144 square inches = 1 square foot. 
9 square feet = 1 square yard. 
30X square yards 1 = x square ro d. 

272X square feet J 
160 square rods \ __ x acre> 

10 square chains J 

Cubic Measure. 

1,728 cubic inches = 1 cubic foot. 

27 cubic feet = 1 cubic yard. 

128 cubic feet = 1 cord. 

24X cubic feet = 1 perch of stone. 

Dry Measure. 

2 pints — 1 quart. 

8 quarts = 1 peck. 

4 pecks \ — 1 bushel. 

2150.4 cubic inches J 

Liquid Measure. 

4 gills = 1 pint. 

2 pints = 1 quart. 


231 cubTc inches } = 1 

Avoirdupois Weight. 

16 ounces j = , d . 
7,000 grains J r 

2,000 pounds = i ton. 

2,240 pounds = 1 long ton. 


Iroy weight * 

24 grains = i pennyweight. 

21 pennyweights =: i ounce. 

12 ounces j = d> 

5,760 grains j * 


Apothecaries' Weight. 

20 grains = i scruple. 

3 scruples = i fluid dram. 

8 fluid drams = i ounce. 

12 fluid ounces = i pound. 


Apothecaries' Measure. 

60 minims = i fluid dram. 
8 fluid drams = i ounce. 

10 fluid ounces — i pint. 


Time Measure. 

60 seconds = i minute. 
60 minutes = i hour. 

24 hours = 1 day. 

7 days = 1 week. 

365 days = 1 year. 

366 days —- 1 leap year. 





THE PRACTICAL MECHANIC 


216 


Circular Measure. 

60 seconds = 1 minute. 

60 minutes = 1 degree. 

360 degrees == 1 circle. 

English Money. 

4 farthings = 1 penny. 

12 pennies = 1 shilling. 

20 shillings = 1 pound. 

21 shillings = 1 guinea. 

Surveyors' Linear Measure. 

7.92 inches = 1 link. 

25 links = 1 rod. 

100 links or four rods = 1 chain. 

80 chains = 1 mile. 

Paper Measure. 

24 sheets = 1 quire. 

20 quires = 1 ream. 

2 reams = 1 bundle. 

5 bundles = 1 bale. 

NOTES. —The chain (ch.), used by surveyors is 
called Gunter’s chain ( and consists of 100 links (/.). 
Its length is 792 inches, equal to 66 feet, or 4 rods. 
Its divisions are decimal, so that chains and links 
may be written as one number in the same manner 
as dollars and cents, 

Thus, since 35 links equal .35 of a chain, 35 
links is written 25.J5 chains. 

Any year the number of which is exactly 
divisible by 4, but not by 100, is a leap year. When 
the number is divisible exactly by 400 it is also a 
leap year. 

The solar or tropical year has a length of 
365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 49.7 seconds. 

The Metric System. 

1. The Metric System of weights and meas¬ 
ures has been legalized in the United States. Its 
fundamental unit is the meter, from which all the 
other units of the system are derived. The meter 
is equal to 30.37 -f- inches. 

2. The meter is defined as the ten-millionth 
part of the distance from the Equator to the North 
Pole, measured on the meridian passing through 
Paris. Eater measurements have shown that the 
meter does not exactly correspond with the length 
required by the definition. 

3. The principal point of superiority of the 
metric measures is in their decimal scale. As in 
the case of United States money, several denomi¬ 
nations may be written together as one number. 
Thus, 9 Mm. 7 Km. 5 Hm. 3 Dm. 8 m. 4 dm. 6 cm. 
5 mm. may be written as one denomination : 
97538465 mm., or 9753846.5 cm., or 97538.465 m., 
or 9 7538465 Mm., etc. Reduction ascending and 
reduction descending thus become a mere matter 
of moving the decimal point. 

Metric fleasures. 

10 millimeters (mm.) = 1 centimeter, . . . cm. 

10 centimeters = 1 decimeter, . , , dm, 

ic decimeters = 1 meter,. m, 


10 meters 
10 dekameters 
10 hektometers 
10 kilometers 


= 1 dekameter, . . . Dm. 
= 1 hektometer, . . Hm 

— 1 kilometerp . . . Km. 

— 1 myriameter, . . Mm 


Metric Square Measure. 

00 sq. millemeters 
00 sq. centimeters 
00 sq. decimeters 
00 sq. meters 
00 sq. dekameters 
00 sq. hektometers 


— 1 sq. centimeter, 

= 1 sq. decimeter, 

= 1 sq. meter, 

= 1 sq. dekameter, 

= 1 sq. hektometer, 

__ -r 1^/1 1 r il A+nt* 


Metric Land Measure. 


100 centares (ca.) = 1 are,. a. 

100 ares = 1 hectare,. Ha. 


NOTE.—The are , equal to a square dekameter, 
or 100 square meters, is 119.6 square yards, very 
nearly. The hektare is equal to 2.471 acres. 

Metric Cubic Measure. 

1000 cubic millimeters = 1 cubic centimeter, 

1000 cubic centimeters = 1 cubic decimeter, 

1000 cubic decimeters = 1 cubic meter. 

Note. —The cubic meter is equal to 35.3166 
cubic feet. When used to measure wood or stone , 
it is called a stere (pronounced stair). Ten steres , 
called a dekastere , are equal to 2.759 cords. 


fletric Capacity Measure. 


1 centiliter, (cl.) 

1 deciliter, (dl.) 

1 liter, (/.) 

1 dekaliter, (Dl.) 

1 hektoliter, (HI.) 
1 kiloliter, (Kl.) 


10 milliliters (ml.) = 

10 centiliters = 

10 deciliters = 

10 liters = 

10 dekaliters = 

10 hektol iters = 

The liter , (/.), equal to a cubic decimeter, is 
61.028 cubic inches, 2.1135 pints, or 33.816 fluid 
ounces. The unit of measure for small quantities 
of liquids, as in mixing medicines and in philo¬ 
sophical experiments, is the milliliter, equal to 
16.23 minims. 

A gallon is equal to 5.785 /., and 2.8375 bush, 
make a HI. 

fletric Weight. 


centigram, (eg.) 
decigram, (dg.) 
gram, (g.) 
dekagram, (Dg.) 
hektjgram, (Hg.) 
kilogram or kilo, Kg. 
tonne, ( 7 ".) 


10 milligrams (mg.) = 1 

10 centigrams = 1 

10 decigrams = 1 

10 grams = 1 

10 dekagrams — 1 

10 liektograms = 1 

1000 kilos = 1 

Note i.—T he gram is equal to 15.4323 grains, 
the kilo to 2.2046 lb. avoirdupois, and the tonne to 
2204.6 lb. avoirdupois. Tonne is rarely used, the 
number of kilos being preferable. 

The weight of one cubic centimeter of pure 
water at its greatest density (39.2 0 Fahrenheit) is a 
gram ; the weight of a cubic decimeter , or a liter . 
of water at the same temperature is a kilogram , or 
a kilo, and the weight of a cubic meter of water is 
a tonne. 








THE PRACTICAL MECHANIC 


217 


The original 5-cent nickel weighs 5 grams, and 
is 2 centimeters in diameter. 


Metre 
Kilometre 
Square metre 
Cubic metre 
Litre 


Kilogram = 


Hektare 

Stere 


Equivalents. 

39.37 inches (3% ft. nearly). 

.62138 mile (% nearly). 

1.196 square yards (1 1-5 nearly). 
1.308 cubic yards (1 1-3 nearly). 

1 cu. dm. 

1.0567 liquid quarts (1 nearly). 

.908 dry quart (.9 nearly). 

The weight of 1 cu. dm. of water 
at 29.2 Fah. 

2.2046 pounds av. (2 1-5 nearly). 
10,000 sq. m. 

2.471 acres (2 A nearly). 

1 cu. m. 

.2759 cord (3-11 nearly). 


Miscellaneous Tables. 

Linear Measures. 

3 barley-corns, or sizes = 1 inch. 


4 inches 

21.888 inches 
6 feet 


3 feet 

1.152% common miles = 1 geog. mi. - 


Used by shoe¬ 
makers. 

Used to measure 
the height of 
horses at the 
shoulder. 

= 1 sacred cubit. 

{ Used to meas¬ 
ure depths 
at sea. 

= 1 pace. 

fUsed to 


f 

= 1 hand. ■{ 

{ 


3 geographic miles = 1 league. 

Book Measure. 


m easure 
distances 
at sea. 


A sheet 
folded into 
2 leaves 
4 


The book is 


a folio, 

“ a quarto or 4to, 

8 “ an octavo or 8vo, 

12 “ a duodecimo or i2mo, 

16 “ a i6mo, 

18 “ an i8mo, 

The weight of a bushel of certain articles is as 
follows: 


A sheet of 
paper makes 
4 pp. (pages) 
8 “ 

16 “ 

24 “ 

32 “ 

36 “ 


Barley, . . . 
Beans, . . . 
Buckwheat, 
Bran, . . . 
Corn, . . . 
Corn meal, . 
Corn in ear, 
Clover seed, 
Flax seed, . 


48 lb. 
60 “ 
42 “ 
20 “ 
56 “ 
50 '* 
68 “ 
60 ". 
56 “ 


Hemp seed, ... 44 lb. 

Oats,.32 “ 

Onions, . . . . . 60 “ 

Peas,.60 “ 

Potatoes, .... 60 

Rye,.56 

Salt,.56 

Timothy seed, . 45 
Wheat, .60 


Miscellaneous Weights and Measures. 


100 lb. of grain or flour 
.100 “ dry fish 


= 1 cental. 
= 1 quintal. 


100 lb. of nails = 1 keg. 

196 “ flour • = 1 barrel. 

200 “ beef or pork = 1 barrel. 

240 “ lime = 1 cask. 

280 ** salt at N. Y. Salt Works = 1 barrel. 

Keg powder, = 25 pounds. 

Stone of lead or iron = 14 pounds. 

Pig “ “ =21% stone. 

Anthracite coal, broken, cubic foot averages 
54 lbs. 

A ton, loose, occupies 40 to 43 cubic feet. 
Bituminous coal, broken, cub. ft. averages 49 


lbs. 


A ton, loose, occupies 40 to 43 ft. 

Cement (Hy.) Rosendale, Bush. = 70 lbs. 


Louisville, “ =62 

“ “ Portland, “ =96 

Gypsum, ground, “ =70 

Lime, loose, - “ =70 

“ well shaken, “ =80 

Sand at 98 lbs. per cu. ft. “ =122% 

18.29 bush. = ton 1.181 ton = cu. yd. 

A cable’s length = 240 yards. 

20 articles = 1 score. 

12 dozen = 1 gross. 

12 gross = 1 great gross. 

A cord of wood =128 cubic feet. 

1 hand = 4 inches. 

1 span = 9 inches. 

Shoemaker’s Measure. 

No. 1, of small size is 4% inches long. 

No. 1, of large size is 8 11-24 inches long. 

Each succeeding number of either size is % of 
an inch additional length. 

60 pairs of shoes = 1 case. 

An American Car Load 

Of 20,000 lbs. would contain the following articles : 

70 bbl. salt. 70 of lime. 90 of flour. 70 of 
whiskey. 200 sacks of flour. 6 cords of soft wood. 
15 to 20 head of cattle. 50 to 60 head of hogs. 80 
to 100 head of sheep. 6000 feet of solid boards. 
340 bush, of wheat. 400 of corn. 680 of oats. 400 
of barley. 360 of flaxseed. 360 of apples. 430 of 
Irish potatoes. 300 of sweet potatoes. 100 of bran. 
130 to 190 barrels of eggs. 15,000 to 26,000 lbs. of 
butter. 200 kegs of nails. 

On roads, with track in best condition, a car 
load is from 24,000 to 60,000 lbs. 

fliscellaneous Equivalents. 

231 cu. in. = 1 gal. liquid measure. 

268 4-5 “ = 1 gal. dry measure. 

277.274 “ = 1 imperial gal. of Great Britain. 

2150.42 “ = 1 bushel of U. S. 

2216.192 “ =1 “ “ Great Britain. 

2747.7 “ = 1 heaped bushel 

1000 oz. or 62% lb. = 1 cu. ft. of pure water. 

8 1-3 lb. pure water = 1 gallon. 

5760 grains = 1 lb. Troy or apothecaries’, 

yooo “ = I “ avoirdupois. 

24.75 cu. ft. = 1 perch of masonry. 

36 to 45 cu. ft. = X ton anthracite coal. 























218 


THE PRACTICAL MECHANIC 


Bible Weights and Pleasures. 


A day’s journey 
A Sabbath-day’s journey 
Ezekiel's reed 
Cubit—Hebrew 
“ Greek 
A finger’s breadth 
A shekel of silver 
A “ gold 
A talent of silver 
“ gold 
A piece of silver 
A farthing 
A gerah 
A mite 

A homer (as dry measure) 

A “ ( “ liquid “ ) 

An ephah or bath 
A bin 
A firkin 
An omer 
A cab 
A log 

Capacity of Cylindrical Cisterns. 

The following table shows the capacity in gal¬ 
lons for one foot in depth of cylindrical cisterns of 
any dimensions. Find the diameter of any given 
cistern and multiply the number of gallons for one 
foot by the depth of the cistern, and you will have 
its volume in gallons : 


33 1-5 U. S. miles. 

1 “ mile 

11 feet nearly. 

22 inches, nearly. 

18 “ about. 

1 inch, “ 

62 X cents. 

$8.09. 

$1,518.32. 

$23,309- 

13 cents. 

3 “ 

2 X “ 

1 A mills. 

11 1-9 bushels. 

70 gallons and 5 pints. 

7 “ “ 4 “ 

1 gallon “ 2 

7 
6 

3 

% 


Diameter. 

Gallons. 

Diameter. 

Gallons. 

2 feet 

19 

6 X feet 

206 

2X feet 

30 

7 

feet 

239 

3 feet 

44 

8 

feet 

313 

4 feet 

78 

9 

feet 

396 

4 Yz feet 

99 

10 

feet 

489 

5 feet 

122 

11 

feet 

59 2 

6 feet 

176 

12 

feet 

705 


Mensuration ; or, Useful Rules for Computing 
Measurements. 

Area of a triangle = base X Yz altitude. 

Area of a parallelogram, multiply base by altitude. 
Area of a trape-_. f altitude X X the sum of par- 
zoid \ allel sides. 

Area of a trape- f divide into two triangles and 
zium \ find area of the triangles. 

Circumference f .. , w , 

of circle = { diameter X 3.1416. 

Diameter of cir- f . . . . 

cle = j cicumference X -3183. 

square of the diameter mul¬ 
tiplied by .7854. 
diameters of the two circles 
X difference of diameter and 
that product by .7854. 


Area of circle 


= { 


Area of circular_ 

ring 

Side of square 

that shall _ 

equal area 
of circle 
Diameter of cir¬ 
cle that shall 
contain area = 
of a given 
square 


diameter X -8812 
ference X .2821. 


or circum- 


side of square X 1.1284. 


Surface of cylin¬ 
der or prism 
Contents of cyl 
inder or 


= { 


area of both ends + length 
X circumference. 


= -< area of end X length. 


prism 
Surface of 
sphere 
Contents of sphere = 

Contents of py-_ f 

ram id or cone \ 
Surface of frus¬ 
tum of cone 
or pyramid 

Contents of frus- \ 

trum of cone= \ 
or pyramid 

Contents of a f 

wedge f 


= | diameter X circumference. 

= diameter 3 X *5236. 

area of base X Yz altitude. 

sum of circumference at both 
ends X slant height -f- area 
of both ends. 

multiply areas of two ends 
together and extract square 
root. Add to this root the 
two areas and X Yz altitude. 

area of base X X altitude. 


Lumber and its Measurement. 

A board foot is 1 foot long, 1 foot wide, and 1 
inch thick, and is used as the unit of measurement. 

What is called scantling lumber is 3 or 4 
inches wide, and from 2 to 4 inches thick. Joist 
is usually narrow and deep. When lumber is 
heavier than joist or scantling it is called timber. 
Thick boards are called planks. The usual out¬ 
side covering of wooden houses is siding. 

If lumber is less than 1 inch in thickness it is 
considered as inch in computing the measure¬ 
ment. But a fraction greater than a half-inch is 
called an inch, and if less than a half it is rejected. 
A board 45-6 inches wide would be considered as 
5 inches. 

A board 16 feet long, 12 inches wide, and 1 
inch thick would contain (16 X 12 X l)-:-i2, or 
16 feet. A board 12 feet long, 14 inches wide, and 
3 inches thick, would contain (12 X x 4 X 3) 12, 

or 42 feet, board measure. 

To find the number of board feet in any pile of 
lumber : Multiply the length in feet by breadth in 
feet and by thickness in inches, and the result, by 
number of boards. 


To Compute Volume of Square Timber. 

When all the dimensions are in feet: 

Rule. Multiply the breadth by the depth and 
that product by the length, aud the product will 
give the volume in cubic feet. 

When either of the dimensions are in inches : 

Rule. Multiply the length, breadth and depth 
and divide by 12. 

When any two of the dimensions are in inches: 

Rule. Multiply the length, breadth and depth 
and divide by 144. 

To Measure Round Timber take the girth in 

inches at both the large and small ends, add them, 
divide by two, which gives the mean girth; then 
multiply the length in feet by the square of one- 
. fourth of the mean girth, and the quotient will be 
the contents in cubic feet. This rule is commonly 
adopted, and gives four-fifths of the true contents, 
one-fifth being allowed to the purchaser for waste 
in sawing. 






BOOK IV. 

FARM AND STOCK BOOK 

CARING FOR STOCK — THE SELECTION AND BREEDING OF CATTLE, 
HORSES, SHEEP, HOGS AND POULTRY — DISEASES OF STOCK AND 
THEIR BEST REMEDIES — PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS FOR MANAGEMENT 
OF FARM, CARE OF CROPS AND MARKETING OF SAME. 

A HAND-BOOK OF PRACTICAL FARMING 

By HENRY H. ALBERTSON, 

Investigator and Student at Agricultural School of Cornell University, and Associate Editor of 
“ The Farm Journal,” Philadelphia, Pa. 


219 



Farm and Stock Book 

THE CARE OF STOCK—VARIOUS BREEDS OF CATTLE—THEIR 
DISEASES AND TREATMENT—HORSES AND THEIR TREAT¬ 
MENT-CONVENIENT REMEDIES—SHEEP, HOGS AND 
POULTRY—FARM MANAGEMENT—SOILS AND 
FERTILIZERS—CROPS OF ALL KINDS— 

CONVENIENT TABLES AND FORMULAS 


STOCK ON 

When white men came to the double 
continent of America they found no cattle 
in all that vast area. The nearest approach 
to the ox family was the bison,—commonly 
called the buffalo,—which roamed over the 
whole of the present United States east 
of the Rocky Mountains. But no attempt 
had been made by the aborigines to domesti¬ 
cate it; it was hunted in the wild state 
as a food animal, and the whites left it 
in that condition, the importation of Euro¬ 
pean cattle supplying a much superior animal 
for domestic purposes. 

Sources of American Cattle. 

Cattle were brought to America from a 
dozen sources. Spanish cattle were early 
introduced, and increased with greatrapidity 
in the rich pasturages of Mexico, California, 
Texas and other sections of the West. A 
hundred years later cattle bred in the West 
Indies were brought to Virginia, Dutch 
cattle were imported into New York, 
Swedish cattle into Delaware, and Danish 
cattle into New Hampshire. Still earlier 
the French had introduced their special 
breeds of cattle into Canada, and at a later 
date many English, Scotch, and Irish 
cattle were brought to the Atlantic colonies. 

The result of all this was an indiscrimin- 


THE FARM 

ate mingling yielding almost endless varieties 
of form and character. Yet, despite all these 
sources of American cattle, it may be said 
that, if we leave out the Texan cattle,—a 
race by themselves, of Spanish origin,—the 
great bulk of the cattle of the United States 
and Canada are of British stock. We know 
little or nothing of the kind of cattle origi¬ 
nally brought to this country, but at present 
the most valuable of the British breeds, 
along with the chief milking breeds of 
Europe in general, are well represented in 
American pastures. It must be said that 
the majority of American cattle are still ot 
an inferior character, and the rough, coarse 
condition which the Texan cattle inherited 
from their Spanish ancestors is largely 
retained. But great improvement has been 
gained in American stock during the past 
century, and the importation and breeding 
of the best stock from abroad is rapidly 
raising the character of our herds. 

Chief Impjrted Breeds. 

This being the case, it is important here 
to give a brief description of the chief im¬ 
ported breeds, those brought from the British 
Isles. There are twelve native breeds of 
cattle in the United Kingdom, six of them 
belonging to England. These are the Short- 


221 




222 


FARM AND STOCK BOOK 


horn, Hereford, Devon, Sussex, Longhorn, 
and the Norfolk and Suffolk Red Pollard 
breeds. Wales has several varieties, but 
only one distinct breed, and the same may 
be said of Ireland, with its hardy little 
Kerry cattle. There are four breeds in 
Scotland, the Galloway, Ayrshire, West 
Highland, and Polled Aberdeen-Angus 
breeds. To those native races must be added 
the famous cattle of the Channel Islands, 
named after their respective islands, the 
Guernseys, Jerseys and Alderneys. These 
are thought to have originated in near-by 
France, as a cross-breed between the Nor¬ 
mandy bull and the Brittany cow. 

The Durhams. —Of these various breeds 
we may particularly mention the famous 
Shorthorn, often known as the Durham, 
from its supposed origin in the county of 
that name. It is now wide-spread in Eng¬ 
lish counties, and is the leading breed in 
American fields. The Shorthorn has no 
superior in precocity, meat production, and 
general utility, it adapts itself easily to a 
great variety of soil, climate, and treatment, 
and is admirably suited to crossing with and 
improving inferior cattle. As a result, it has 
been exported to many parts of the earth. 
While it has been widely bred for meat¬ 
giving qualities, the Shorthorns which have 
been specially developed for the dairy form 
splendid milk-producers, good cows giving 
from 700 to 1000 gallons of milk annually. 

Thk Alderneys. —Of other British 
breeds the Hereford, Devon, and Red Polled 
Norfolk and Suffolk, and the Scotch Gallo¬ 
way, Ayrshire, and Polled Aberdeen-Angus 
are largely represented in American fields. 
Of these the Ayrshires are notable milk-pro¬ 
ducers. There are also many examples of the 
famous milk-yielding Holsteins from North 
Holland, and the favorite Channel Island 
milkers. The latter are often indiscrimin¬ 
ately called Alderneys, but comprise two dis¬ 
tinct breeds, the Guernseys and Jerseys, both 
distinguished for their abundant yield of 
rich, highly-col ored milk. The Jersey is the 
smaller of the two, and is docile, delicate, 
and of a graceful, deer-like form. It is of 
1 ittle value in meat production. The Guern¬ 
sey is a larger and hardier animal, and is 
more generally useful. 


Notable Milk-Producers. 

Guernseys and Jerseys. —In their 
native islands herds of Jersey cows give an 
average yield of 9^ pounds of butter weekly 
for each cow, an occasional cow giving as 
much as 16 pounds. The annual yield of 
good cows is from 500 to 700 gallons of 
milk and from 300 to 350 pounds of butter. 
Guernsey cows have given more than 800 
gallons of milk in a year, and the noted cow 
Select, when six years old, gave 22pounds 
of butter in seven days, obtained from 19 
quarts of milk per day. The celebrated cow 
B retonne gave 539 pounds of butter in a 
year, and there are records of nearly one hun¬ 
dred cows each of which gave 14 pounds or 
more of butter in a week. These island 
records are said to have been exceeded in 
American dairies. The one aim of the in¬ 
habitants of Guernsey was to produce a cow 
that should excel all others in its yield of 
batter. In this they succeeded, no other 
breed equaling the Guernsey in production 
of butter of fine golden color with small 
outlay for food. 

Up to 1840 the Guernseys brought to 
America were kept for family use, but in 
that year they were introduced into dairies 
around Philadelphia, and since then they 
have ranked first among American milch 
cows. 

A little later the Massachusetts Society 
for the Promotion of Agriculture, foreseeing 
the future of this breed, imported some, and 
distributed them in a public sale to different 
dairy men in the State. Later on, they 
were adopted by Connecticut farmers, and 
in 1877 the American Guernsey Cattle Club 
was organized in New York State. There 
were only at that time about 150 pure bred 
Guernseys in the United States whose pedi¬ 
grees could be traced to the island. To-day 
there are more than 14,000 animals regis¬ 
tered as of native breed. 

The Guernsey differs from the Jersey in 
many particulars. They have not the deer¬ 
like appearance of the Jersey; they are 
coarser in bone, heavier in carcass, and, 
being larger every way, are less precocious. 
They are first allowed to calve at about two 
and a half years old, which gives them more 
size. It is a well-known fact that the size 



THE FARM AND STOCK BOOK 


223 


of the calves and the aptitude of the cattle 
to make beef and turn off well when their 
usefulness in the dairy is from any cause at 
an end, are matters of no small importance 
to the so called “common” farmers; that 
is, those who are obliged to study closely 
the economy of farming. 

JKRSKYS. —Though the Guernseys have 
long been a favorite among certain con¬ 
servative fancy breeders and to the farmers 
who want a general-purpose cow, the Jer- 


Ever since then great improvement has 
been made till the Jerseys are second to none 
as producers of milk of fine quality and in 
large quantities. The Jersey color is a gray, 
fawn or brown, sometimes broken with white, 
and often with black extremities. The typi¬ 
cal conformation is wedge-shaped, with light 
front and heavier hind quarters. They are 
angular, with bones prominent. The skin 
is usually yellow, the udder large and well 
formed, and the milk rich in fat and with 



A MODEL COW STABLE 

Arranged especially for drainage and cleanliness, with sufficient light and air for ventilation and with ample r 
proper management of cattle, and for their comfort. In this way only the bestresults are obtained. 


room for the 


seys have improved very markedly in the 
last quarter of a century, and are now supe¬ 
rior to the Guernseys in this country as pro¬ 
ducers of large quantities of rich milk and 
butter. The first importation of Jerseys 
took place about 1850. They were at first 
brought over on account of their beauty and 
to ornament country places. Very little 
attention was given to their capacity for 
producing milk till a cow named Alpaca 
showed marked dairy ability about 1870. 


large globules. The teats are apt to be 
small, and the fore part of the udder defi¬ 
cient. They are said to lack constitutional 
vigor as a breed, but any such tendency is 
owing to the fact that they were first kept 
only as fancy stock, and little attention was 
paid to selection. Then when the Jersey 
craze came all available animals, both poor 
and good, were snatched up and sold for 
good prices without much attention being 
paid as to their constitution. But with the 


















































224 


FARM AND STOCK BOOK 


care which, careful breeders are exercising 
any weakness that was present has been 
overcome, and cannot be said to be a char¬ 
acteristic of the breed. 

Holsteins. —The Holstein cattle, or 
Holstein-Frisians, as they are more properly 
called, are the greatest milk producers of 
any cattle we have. They originated in 
North Holland, which has been noted for 
centuries for its good cattle. They are said 
to date back to two hundred years or more 
before Christ, when two herds, one white 
and the other black, came together and 
formed the breeds of black and white cattle 
of that region of which the Holstein is an 
offshoot. The first importations of Hol¬ 
steins to this country were made about 

5 The Holstein is a large-framed, heavy¬ 
boned animal, usually rough and angular. 
It is long and straight, having a long body 
and limbs. It is always black and white in 
this country, though these colors may be 
arranged in a variety of ways and propor¬ 
tions. The Holstein is primarily a dairy 
breed, though it can be successfully fattened 
for beef. It was developed in a country 
where quantity of milk was a more impor¬ 
tant consideration than quality, and it is 
now especially useful where a large amount 
of milk with a low fat per cent, is required. 
Yet the total amount of milk given is so 
great that the actual amount of butter pro¬ 
duced compares favorably with records made 
by Jerseys. Yet it is to be remembered that 
such large animals consume more food than 
smaller ones. The udder is large, and ex¬ 
tends well behind and forward, and the teats 
are large and perpendicular. The calves 
are of good size when dropped, and grow 
rapidly, and are hence valuable for veal. 
Holsteins will make use of large quantities 
of coarse fodder if fed with concentrated 
food, but they are not suited to take much 
exercise to get food, and for that reason do 
not do well on rough, hilly pastures where 
Ayreshires would make good returns. The 
Holstein makes a good cross with the Short¬ 
horn cattle. 

Herefords, Devons, and Sussex.— 
These three breeds originated in Southwest¬ 
ern England./ The Herefords are large and 
the most highly developed. They are equal 


to the Short-horns in size, and are entirely a 
beef breed, though they have enough milk¬ 
ing qualities to suckle their calves. The 
Hereford has shorter legs than the Short¬ 
horn and better developed ribs, which are 
well sprung and support flesh deeply and 
smoothly laid. They have as straight a top 
and bottom line as the Short-horns, but are 
marred by a bulging of the hind quarter, 
which is not a desirable place to put on 
flesh. The Hereford usually carries its 
flesh smoothly, but when too highly fed it 
gets patchy at the root of tail and brisket. 
It has a tendency to be “ peaked-rumped,” 
that is, the width of the body tends to nar¬ 
row from the hip backward. Herefords are 
active and good for grazing, being better 
adapted to this than the Short-horns, which 
are most successful in stall feeding. The 
cows weigh 1200 to 1400 pounds, and are 
red except the face, belly, and part of the 
back. 

The Devon is probably the oldest Eng¬ 
lish breed, not so well known in this country. 
It has a well-shaped, close, rotund frame¬ 
work, and is not large. It is equally good 
for milk or meat, giving a fair amount of 
medium rich milk. It is not early maturing, 
but it is well covered with flesh evenly laid 
on. It is clothed with a thick, curly, dark- 
red coat. The Sussex is similar to the 
Devon, but is not curly haired, is a little 
more angular, and has shorter horns. 

Selection and Breeding. 

It is much harder to tell the capacity for 
milk production from the outward form. 
First look at the cow as she stands and ob¬ 
serve her general characteristics. She 
should have the dairy wedge-shape; that 
is, be broader, across and up and down, be¬ 
hind, than she is in front. The udder 
should be rather large, though not filled 
with fat or tissue. It should hang well in 
front and reach well up behind, and have a 
flat bottom with the teats evenly placed. 
Feel the vein running to the udder along the 
abdomen. It should be large and elastic, 
and crookedness is said to be a good sign. 
A soft silk coat denotes fine breeding and 
good dairy qualities. She should have a 
chest both deep and broad at the base. The 
nostrils must be wide, the neck free from 



FARM AND STOCK BOOK 


225 


fat, the face should be dished, and eyes of a 
gentle yet alert expression. 

For the production of milk, butter, or 
beef it is not necessary to have a thorough¬ 
bred herd. Just as good a product can be 
attained from grades of common cows bred 
to a pure-blood bull. 

Crossing of Varieties. 

So strong are the race characteristics 
that even in half-breeds the best qualities of 
full-bloods are remarkably displayed. All 
these characters are admirable. The horn 
is fine and full, the hoofs are most fre¬ 
quently like tortoise-shell, the skin is soft 
and yellowish in tint. The prevailing color 
of the animal itself is a delicate shade of 
fawn, with white markings, and with a 
cream-colored n ose. The most notable feat¬ 
ure is the golden color around the eye, on 
the bag, at the base of the horns, and at the 
end of the tail-bone. The disposition of 
these cattle is remarkably affectionate and 
quiet, and the cow is pre-eminently the one 
for dairy use. The rich golden color of the 
cream and butter cannot be excelled. The 
animal has the ability of fattening rapidly 
when dried off. The cows are of good size 
and hardy. The cream is very thick and 
yellow; the milk is rich and yields a very 
large percentage of cream. 

The Guernseys have a strong constitu¬ 
tion and well-developed udders. The bulls 
most commonly used in the island are one 
and two years old. They are very docile in 
disposition and pay no attention to visitors. 
The influence which pure bred bulls exert 
is readily acknowledged. They intensify 
the good qualities of the breed, and produce 
animals of great physical strength and size 
without sacrificing the richness of the milk 
production. 

While the Channel Island cattle are 
specially valuable as milk producers, there 
are other breeds with fine qualities as meat 
yielders. The Shorthorn and Red-polled 
breeds combine both qualities in a high 
degree, while the Hereford and Devon and 
the Scottish polled cattle are splendid fat¬ 
tened and yield meat of the choicest quality. 
The farmer, of course, will select the breed 
best adapted to his special locality and to 
I5C 


the purpose he has in view, and this can 
only be decided upon by experience—his 
own or that of others. 

Care of Animals. 

Nothing pays better on grazing farms 
than humane treatment and proper care of 
animals. Very often the rough, shaggy, 
staring coat, the prominent ribs, drooping 
head, woe-begone countenance and appeal¬ 
ing eye, tell a tale as plainly as if it were in 
print. It tells of hard work, poor feed, ex¬ 
posure to storm and tempest and keenly- 
biting winds. And yet there may be a tight, 
snug barn, and stacks of fodder still remain¬ 
ing in the field, while, from very thoughtless¬ 
ness, the poor old faithful servant, who has 
plowed his master’s fields year by year, is 
permitted to remain in an airy yard or in a 
barren pasture, with half-filled belly, and 
sniff with impatient appetite at the fodder 
just beyond his reach across the fence. 
Animals exposed to the cold until they are 
chilled are stunted in their growth, and 
gather the seeds of future disease. Warmth 
saves feed. Cold wastes feed. Stock well 
housed keep in better condition, on less 
food, than those left out-doors in rail-pens, 
damp yards or exposed pastures. In the cold 
season no stock should be kept out at night 
or on stormy days, for the abrupt change 
from warm, sunny days, to cold storms of 
rain and sleet, is too great a shock. A 
careful farmer, therefore, will take heed 
to keep his stock well housed. Farmers 
who consult the comfort of their stock and 
their own profit, will see to it that their 
stables and sheds are put in good order, 
loose boards nailed on, doors and roofs made 
tight, good dry straw furnished for bedding, 
and that their cattle are comfortably shel¬ 
tered before the cold winds begin to blow 
and the first snow of the season falls. 

Care during Northern Winters. 

During our northern winters cows should 
be kept in warm buildings and sunny yards. 
If this is neglected they will suffer from 
cold, and if they are uncomfortable they 
will not thrive. They cannot gain flesh, 
look nicely, or give large quantities of milk. 
Their food ought to go to repair the waste 
ot the body, make flesh, and produce milk; 



226 


FARM AND STOCK BOOK 


but if they are kept cold and in suffering, it 
will be turnedfrom these things and be used 
in the effort to keep the animal warm. 

It is very probable that $100,000,000 
represents scarcely more than the annual 
losses of farm animals from disease and 
neglect, of which half could undoubtedly 
be saved by efficient means of cure and pre¬ 
vention. There is abundant evidence of the 
fact that disease has frequently been engen¬ 
dered or fostered by the imperfect nutrition 
of animals, turned out, to face the storms of 
winter, without shelter, and with such scanty 
supplies of food as they were able to pick 
up in the field, forest, or public highway. 

Cattle, whether intended for fattening 
or dairying, as a rule, are kept at pasture 
during the summer, and only in case of a 
scarcity of grass, or when it is desired to 
force the growth for any purpose, is extra 
food given to those in the fields. In such 
cases oil-cake, cotton-cake, and bruised 
grain are the principal auxiliary foods. 

On carefully conducted grazing farms 
the cattle are put into comfortable shelters 
at night when the cool evenings of autumn 
set in, and during the winter are kept almost 
entirely in their houses. For winter food 
turnips and hay predominate, but within 
recent years it has become common to feed 
less with roots and more with concentrated 
foods, such as cake and grain. Silage is 
fast becoming an important article of food 
for cattle. In this way the fattening is has¬ 
tened, eighteen to thirty months sufficing, 
instead of from three to five years, as was 
the case half a century ago. It is the ob¬ 
ject of the feeder at present to produce the 
largest quantity of first-class meat in the 
shortest time and at the lowest cost, and in 
the effort to do this there has been great 
acceleration of the maturing and fattening 
of cattle. The young beef is more tender 
and palatable than the substantial rounds of 
the slow-growing five-year-old beeves of 
past times, but it is a question if it is as 
wholesome or as strength-giving. 

Diseases of Cattle and their Remedies. 

The coat of the animal is an indication 
of the state of health, a “staring-coat” 
being a symptom of low condition. The 
peculiar positions of standing, lying down, 


getting up or of moving about are signifi¬ 
cant. The muzzle of the healthy cow or ox 
is moist, but in disease becomes either hot 
or cold, and sometimes changes color. 
Ventilation and proper sanitation will pre¬ 
vent cattle from having disease, if they have 
also an abundance of pure water, proper food 
and frequent change of diet. Many animals 
are lost through the ignorance of quacks, 
while judgment and common sense are all 
that is necessary to keep them in healthy 
condition. 

A few of the most common diseases and 
their preventives will be given. 

Abortion. —Abortion, or the dropping 
•of calves, is a source of great loss to farmers 
and dairymen, and is liable to occur in almost 
any month of gestation, particularly from 
the sixth to the ninth. As a rule, a cow 
which has once lost a calf will never be a safe 
breeder; and sometimes it happens that 
abortion, like a contagious disease, will 
spread through an entire herd. 

Principal Causes of Abortion. —A 
fright, injury or violent exertion may cause 
this ; therefore, pregnant cows should be 
treated as gently and quietly as possible. 
Want of food sometimes causes abortion. 
Rye, bran and potatoes in large quantities 
or musty hay and fermented meal, as well 
as the ergotized grains, should never be fed 
to pregnant animals. 

Symptoms of Abortion. —The first 
symptom is usually a loss of appetite, the 
animal seeming dull and listless, the milk 
diminishing in quantity. After a time the 
cow grows restless, and there will be a 
watery discharge from the vagina, followed 
a little later by the discharge of the fetus ; 
more or less discharge of a bloody mucus 
will follow for several days after the loss of 
the fetus. The after-birth usually becomes 
decomposed and comes away in fragments, 
being very offensive in odor. 

Treatment. —As soon as the symptoms 
are discovered, the animal should be sepa¬ 
rated from the rest and put into a comfort¬ 
able shed. If the fetus has motion it is not 
dead. If the discharge be fetid it is a sure 
indication the fetus is dead, and the sooner 
it is gotten rid of the better. If the water 
sack inclosing the fetus has not been previ¬ 
ously broken, this should be done, using 



FARM AND STOCK BOOK 


227 


the greatest care in order not to puncture 
the womb, which would cause death to the 
animal. The after-birth should be removed 
in the most careful manner; then syringe 
out the parts with warm water, and follow 
with an injection of carbolic lotion, as fol¬ 
lows : 

One ounce of carbolic acid to the gallon of 
water, inject into the womb half a pint two or 
three times a day for a week or ten days. 

Too much importance cannot be placed 
upon the necessity of removing all traces of 
the fetus and placenta or after-birth by bury¬ 
ing them at a distance from the places 
frequented by the herd, and cleansing 
the stable before it is occupied by other 
animals. 

Albuminuria. —This disease is similar 
to Bright’s disease, and is supposed to be 
caused by an impoverished condition of the 
blood or a too long continued sameness of 
food. The most common symptom is the 
stretching of the body at full length, and 
getting the fore and hind feet as far apart as 
possible. Other symptoms are, constipa¬ 
tion, unnatural gait with the hind feet far 
apart, stiffness and reluctance to move, 
urine of a mucilaginous character and dark 
in color. Discontinue all green food except 
grass and ensilage, and give plenty of grain 
with milk and eggs. Give one dose of the 
following: 

Epsom salts 12 oz., ginger 1 oz., gentian 1 oz., 
syrup 4 oz., water sufficient to make two quarts. 
If this does not effect a cure, give the following : 

Two drams sulphuric acid, 1% oz. tincture 
cardamoms, mixed thoroughly with a pint of 
-water. 

Anthrax or Black Leg. —This is a 
common disease, and greatly to be feared 
from its contagious character. It appears 
externally and internally, and turns the af¬ 
fected parts black. It does not last long, and 
the animal usually -sinks in a few hours. 
Chloride of potassium in one to three dram 
doses dissolved in water is a good medicine. 
Whisky or quinine may also be useful, but 
prevention is better than cure. 

Bronchitis. —This is an inflammation 
of the mucous membrane of the bronchial 
tubes. The symptoms are rapid, painful 
breathing, a severe cough with fever and 
a rapid pulse. The animal should be kept 
in a warm, comfortable stable, and fed with 


warm, soft food. Epsom salts in from eight 
to ten doses is a good remedy; also put a 
mustard paste on the lower part of the 
throat and sides of the chest. Give the ani¬ 
mal all the water wished for. 

Diarrhea. —This is caused by sudden 
change of diet, or by improper food. A 
mild purgative should first be given, then a 
laxative as follows: 

One half pound of Epsom salts, y oz. ginger, 
2 dr. >f gentian mixed with one pint of gruel. 
This should be followed in a day or so by an astrin¬ 
gent such as this : 

Two ounces of prepared chalk, 1 oz. of powdered 
oak bark, 2 dr. of ginger, 2 dr. powdered catechu, 
y 2 dr. powdered opium, 1 oz. of peppermint water; 
mix and give in a quart of warm gruel. In the 
case of calves begin with a laxative, as : 

Two ounces of castor oil with a tablespoonful of 
powdered ginger. 

Chapped Teats. —Bathe in warm water 
and wipe dry, then apply fresh, melted lard 
or sweet cream which has been simmered 
in oil, also use witch-hazel for bathing. 

Colic.— This is caused from constipa¬ 
tion, or drinking too much cold water when 
heated. The symptoms are restlessness and 
groaning, the animal frequently gets up and 
down and the body becomes bloated. The 
following remedy is advisable : 

To 1 qt. of warm water add 1 pt. of molasses, 8 
oz. of linseed oil, y 2 oz. of powdered ginger; mix 
well and give in one dose. Inject the following : 

To 2 qt. of blood-warm water add 6 oz. of 
olive oil. 

Garget. —This is an inflammation of 
the udder. The milk hardens, the animal is 
feverish, and has chills followed by fever, 
with disordered bowels. When in the case 
of young cows about to calve, it is well to 
draw a little milk each day before parturi¬ 
tion. A poultice may be applied to the 
udder with holes for the teats and fastened 
over the back of the animal with a strap. 
If there should be suppuration and the 
matter does not escape of itself the spot 
should be lanced. 

Hernia. —This is a rupture, and denotes 
a protrusion of the bowels through an open¬ 
ing of the abdomen. The displaced parts 
should be pushed back and retained in their 
place by a strap along the back and under 
the belly, with one around the neck. 

Hoven. —This is an unnatural disten¬ 
tion of the digestive organs, and is produced 



228 


FARM AND STOCK BOOK 


by the fermenting of food in the stomach. 
Four drams of chloride of lime in a little 
water will give relief if given in the first 
stages. If the gas cannot be removed in 
any other way an opening is made into the 
stomach, but it is a dangerous remedy. A 
purgative should follow consisting of 12 oz. 
Epsom salts, ginger 1 oz., molasses 4 oz., 
mix with 2 qts. of water ; the food should 
be light, and changed from hay to grass or 
from grass to hay gradually. 

Lice).—C attle should never be permitted 
to have this pest. A sharp lookout must 
be kept. Lard may be applied warm and 
well rubbed in along the spine, neck, shoul¬ 
ders and sides of the body. Kerosene is 
also destructive. 

Pleuro-Pneumonia. —This is a disease 
of the lungs causing great weakness and 
prostration of the whole system. The best 
remedy is to kill the animal, and remove all 
danger from the rest of the herd. 

Pneumonia. —This is common among 
cattle and has three stages,—Inflammation, 
the lung becoming solid, and suppuration. 
Keep the animal in a warm, well-ventilated 
stable, and if feverish cover the body with 
blankets wrung out in hot water to induce 
perspiration, using the same treatment as in 
bronchitis. 

Puerperal Fever. —This is usually 
caused by difficult parturition, exposure to 
cold soon after calving or retention of the 
placenta. The symptoms are a high fever, 
hot, dry muzzle, hot or cold horns, loss of 
appetite, staring eyes, restlessness, scanty 
urine and constipation. If the udder is much 
swollen and hot, treat it with the water-bag, 
which is made of rubber large enough to 
inclose the udder, and comes up to the body 
flaring at the top and is laid over the back 
with a strap. This is filled with warm soft 
water, 65 degrees. Give a purgative and 
keep the animal in a warm, clean stable. 

Rinderpest or Cattle Plague. —This 
is hopeless of cure. The best thing to do 
is to kill the animal, and bury it where it 
will not contaminate anything. 

Tuberculosis. —This is really consump¬ 
tion, and is to be most carefully looked for 
in every animal. They should be tested 
frequently, and, if found diseased, should 
be killed. 


Horses. 

We must say the same of the horse as 
of the ox; it is not a native of America, 
but w r as brought from Europe. Geologists 
tell us of an American horse, which once 
existed in great numbers and has left its 
fossil bones from Alaska to Patagonia, but 
this animal died out long ages ago, probably 
before the human period, and when Colum¬ 
bus discovered America this useful animal 
was not known on its vast plains. The 
Spaniards brought the horse with them to 
America. It was used by the warriors who 
conquered Mexico and Peru, and by De 
Soto and his men in the region of the South¬ 
ern United States, and was imported to South 
America in 1535 and later. Some of these 
animals escaped into the broad grassy pampas 
of that continent, and their descendants exist 
to-day in mighty herds which spread over 
the extensive Argentine plains. These 
horses resemble their Spanish ancestors. 

The horses brought to Mexico in like man¬ 
ner peopled the country to the north, extend 
ing to California and Texas. They are known 
now as Mustangs , and are small but spirited 
horses of good speed and endurance. Further 
north, in the prairie region, is found the 
small, but hardy animal known as the 
“ Indian Pony.” It is not known whence 
it came, but it may be a descendant of the 
mustang, perhaps with some northern blood. 

Three Principal Varieties. 

The horses of the American colonies 
and of Canada were brought by the settlers 
from various sections of Europe, at first, 
doubtless, mainly with reference to their 
use on the farm, though English thorough¬ 
bred racers began to be brought over as early 
as 1730. The horses of modern Europe are 
thought to be descended from three stocks: 
the Arabian horse, famous for beauty and 
speed, known in Barbary as the Barb; the 
Tartar horse, a small shaggy animal, with 
large head and great endurance; and the 
Flanders horse, a great, heavy, coarse¬ 
legged, slow-moving animal, the basis of 
the modern draught-horse. 

The Barb, introduced from Africa into 
Spain, seems to have met the Tartar horse 
there and in Italy, this having spread 




FINE CATTLE-STANDARD BREEDS 

(g) Ayrshire (a) Polled Angus (3) Hereford (4) Jersey 






THE NOBLE DRAUGHT HORSE AND THE PONY 


The Clyde stock is the standard breed for draught horses. The Shetland pony is one of the smallest of the horse 

kind, and is a favorite pet with ladies and children. 



A THOROUGHBRED RACER 















FARM AND STOCK BOOK 


229 


westward through Hungary. It also met 
the Flanders horse, which had spread 
southward. From the crosses of these 
breeds, and perhaps of others, the modern 
horses of Europe came, from the clean¬ 
limbed racers to the huge and powerful 
draught-horses. 

The American Trotter. 

Of the special American stocks, the 
American trotter stands first. The origin 
of this animal seems varied. We cannot 
trace it to the English thoroughbred racer, 
for it seems distinctly of home make. Good 
trotters have come alike from the thorough¬ 
bred, the Morgan, the Canadian and the 
Indian pony. Morgan, a Vermont horse, 
did not come from fast ancestry, yet has 
left numerous fast-trotting descendants ; 
and Dutchman, one of our best trotters, was 
taken out of a clay-yard, and put on the 
turf from a Pennsylvania wagon-team. 
Thus the trotting-horse seems to have been 
made in America. 

Draught=Horses 

Nearly all the valuable varieties of 
the European draught-horses have been 
introduced into this country, and some of 
them much improved. The native English 
cart-horse is a huge clumsily-built animal, 
standing 17 hands or more in height. This 
formed the basis of the older draught-horse 
of this country. Other powerful animals are 
the Clydesdale horse of Scotland and the 
Norman draught-horse, an animal of much 
strength and endurance. A valuable variety 
of this stock is the Percheron, smaller and 
a quicker stepper than the original Norman. 
This is the basis of the large iron-gray animal 
for drawing express wagons of our cities. 

The only peculiar American breed of 
draught-horses is the Conestoga, of Penn¬ 
sylvania. This is a large, muscular animal, 
17 hands and more in height, resembling 
the heaviest German and Flemish cart¬ 
horses, and closely approaching the Lon¬ 
don dray-horse, but not so laden with 
flesh. It may have come from horses 
brought over by the early German settlers. 
These animals are used chiefly for wagons. 
They are slow in motion, but quicker than 
their weight promises. 


The farm and road horses of America 
are descendants of the several stocks that 
have been introduced, selected for good 
service in the varied uses to which they are 
to be devoted. 

The Mule. 

There were few mules in the United 
States up to 1773. In 1783 Washington, 
on his return to his plantation, was not 
pleased with the horses then in use in the 
South, and advocated the introduction of 
the mule, as longer lived, needing less food, 
and less liable to disease. When his views 
on this subject became known in Europe, 
the King of Spain sent him as a present a 
jack and two jennies from the royal stud 
at Madrid. The jack, called the “Royal 
Gift,” was a heavy, sluggish animal, 16 
hands high. At the same time Lafayette 
sent him a jack and jennies from Malta. 
This jack, called the “ Knight of Malta,” 
was a splendid animal, stag like in form and 
as fierce as a tiger. By crossing the breeds 
of these animals, Washington obtained a 
jack, called “Compound,” which com¬ 
bined the qualities of the “ Gift” and the 
“Knight.” The estate of Mount Vernon 
in a few years became stocked with mules 
of superior character, and the imported 
animals mentioned formed the basis of the 
finer grades of mules now so widely used on 
the farms of the South. 

Treatment of the Horse. 

It is the duty as well as the interest of 
every man who owns a horse to see that he 
is properly stabled, fed, groomed, and shod. 
The stable should be well ventilated and 
the drainage good. The pit for the recep¬ 
tion of the manure and foul litter, which 
needs to be constantly removed, should be 
at some distance from the stable. Bad 
lighting, bad ventilation, and bad flooring 
of stables give rise to many of the diseases 
of horses. Farm stables especially are often 
dark, dingy, and unwholesome, and in no 
way fit to be the abode of an animal so 
finely organized as the horse. 

Light. —A sufficient amount of light is 
necessary ; a horse cannot thrive in a dark 
stable any more than a man can in a dark 
room. The stables of farms frequently 



230 


FARM AND STOCK BOOK 


have only a shutter, which is raised in warm 
weather and closed when it is cold. There 
should be at least one window with glass 
panes for the admission of light, or at least 
an opening above the door eight or ten 
inches deep. A horse kept in a dark stable 
is apt to shy and to become a “ starter, ” for 
his eyes are dazzled by the sudden changes 
of light. Dark stables were once thought 
conducive to good feeding and to making a 
horse lie down, but this idea has been found 
to be erroneous. Sunlight is necessary for 
the health of the horse. 

Ventilation. —Proper ventilation is as 
important as light. The window that is 
used for ventilation should be on the same 
side as the door, so as to prevent draughts 
of cold air from blowing against any of the 
horses. One window to four stalls or two 
windows to six stalls is about the proper 
proportion, openings being made both near 
the top and near the bottom of the stable, so 
that the hot and vitiated air may go out at 
the top and the cold air come in at the 
bottom. A window five feet high and three 
feet wide, opening at top and bottom, forms 
a good ventilator, but in addition it is well 
to have permanent openings for ventilation. 
There are various systems of ventilating 
stables by means of shafts, some of which 
cost but little, and are excellent means to 
ensure pure air. 

The • temperature of the stable is so im¬ 
portant that every stable should be provided 
with a thermometer. In summer the tem¬ 
perature should be kept below 70° Fahr., if 
possible. If the stable is artificially heated 
in winter-time, care should be taken not to 
overheat it, sudden transitions from heat to 
cold being very dangerous. The tempera¬ 
ture in winter should not be more than ten 
to twenty degrees warmer than the open 
air. About 50° Fahr. is a good average 
temperature. 

Flooring. —The floor of the stalls 
should slope slightly from the manger end 
to the other end, so that any liquid may 
flow out of the stall; but otherwise the 
flatter the floor is the better it is for the 
horse’s legs and feet. A fall of 2}4 inches 
is sufficient for the purpose of draining. 
There should be a channel or gutter along 
the backs of all the stalls, with gratings at 


intervals into a drain. A ball or stench 
trap needs to be placed beneath these grat¬ 
ings, to keep the foul odors of the drain 
from the horse’s nostrils. 

Stalls should be not less than 6 feet 
wide; a few inches more will be a gain; 
the partitions need to be long and high 
enough to prevent the animals from kicking 
or biting each other. 

Clothing. —The best shape for a horse 
covering is the ordinary sheet, cut out at 
the neck and buckled across the chest. It 
should be long enough to reach the root of 
the tail and wide enough to easily buckle 
over the chest. Hoods are needed only 
when horses are being exercised in bad 
weather or traveling in cars. 

Stable Work. —This should begin 
early, as soon after the time of sunrise 
as possible. The first thing to do is to make 
a careful examination, to see if the animal 
has been injured in any way during the night. 
The horses must be then fed and watered, the 
litter turned up—that used during the night 
not being left in the stable during the day— 
and the stable put in order. The litter 
should be changed partly every morning 
and the stall thoroughly cleaned. Feeding 
takes place again at noon and in the evening, 
or, when convenient, at 12,4, and 8 o’chock. 

Feeding. —The usual food for horses are 
oats or corn and hay or oat-straw; extra 
quantities of the former being added for 
hard-worked animals. Bran, chopped feed 
of cut straw and bran middlings, linseed, 
and carrots are added for special purposes, 
or to replace the regular food. A handful or 
two of chaff is a useful addition to each 
meal, as it compels the horse to masticate 
its food. It is well to sprinkle the hay with 
water containing a little salt, a teaspoonful 
in a bucket of water being enough. The 
animal likes the taste of this, and it helps 
digestion. Hay should always be bright 
and clean. 

Hacks and horses in light work will do 
well on a daily allowance of from eight to 
ten pounds of oats and ten or twelve pounds 
of hay. Corn, which contains a large per 
cent, of nutriment, is heating, and should be 
soaked in water eight or twelve hours before 
feeding. The oats are best divided into 
four feeds, and corn .when used should be 



FARM AND STOCK BOOK 


231 


given at the midday and last feeds. Oats 
may also be softened in water, but, as they 
soon turn sour, it will be best to soak every 
morning only as much as will suffice for the 
day’s consumption. Bran is indigestible, 
but it is a laxative, and is generally given 
in the form of a mash once or twice per week. 

For a work horse fourteen pounds a day is 
a full allowance of oats. Indian corn in simi¬ 
lar quantity may take its place. In some 
localities the corn is crushed and divided into 
three feeds,—in the morning, noon, and 
evening,—the morning feed being given at 
least an hour before the horse goes to work. 
After the oats are eaten a little hay or straw 
should be placed before them, the horses 
being then cleaned, the stable cleared of 
manure, and the litter taken out as above 
directed. 

It is desirable to vary the food and for 
this purpose it is recommended to occasion¬ 
ally chop fine a goodly quantity of good oat 
or wheat-straw, thoroughly moisten the 
same and mix it with ground corn or mid- 
dings or some grain in flour form, care 
should be taken not to make this too rich. 
Boiled linseed meal poured on crushed oats 
or beans, with cut hay, keeps horses in 
admirable condition for their work. Hay 
should always be chopped ; it is a saving of 
at least one-third of the provender. 

Barley is often used in the Western 
States, and horses appear to thrive on it. 
The amount of barley should not exceed a 
peck a day, and it had better be crushed. 

Youatt on Horse Feeding. 

William Youatt, the eminent English 
authority, says : “The system of manger¬ 
feeding is becoming general among farmers. 
There are few horses that do not habitually 
waste a portion of their hay, and by some 
the greater part is pulled down and trampled 
under foot, in order, first, to cull the sweetest 
and best locks, which could not be done 
when the hay was enclosed in the rack. A 
good feeder will afterward pick up much 
that was thrown down ; but some of it must 
be soiled and rendered disgusting, and in 
many cases one-third of this division of 
their food is wasted. Some of the oats 
are imperfectly chewed by all horses, and 
scarcely at all by hungry and greedy ones. 


The observation of this induced the adop¬ 
tion of manger-feeding, or of mixing a 
portion of chaff with the oats. By this 
means the animal is compelled to chew his 
food ; he cannot, to any degree, waste the 
straw or hay : the chaff is too hard and too 
sharp to be swallowed without considerable 
mastication, and while he is forced to grind 
that down the oats are ground with it, and 
yield more nourishment; the stomach is 
more slowly filled, and therefore acts better 
on its contents, and is not so likely to be 
overloaded ; and the increased quantity of 
saliva thrown out in the lengthened macera¬ 
tion of food softens it and makes it more fit 
for digestion.” 

Watering. —It has been growing in 
favor of late years to let horses have access 
to water at all hours of the day and night. 
Horses allowed freedom in this matter do 
not drink as much water as under the old 
system, the horse drinking but little at a 
time. If this arrangement is not convenient, 
horses should be watered four times a day, 
if possible. Horses are liable to be made 
ill by impurities in the water, and are dainty 
in their choice of water. Watering a horse 
at public troughs is always dangerous, for 
contagious diseases may be contracted in 
this way, unless pure water is kept con¬ 
stantly flowing into the trough. 

Grooming. —The horse should be led 
out of his stall in his morning grooming, 
and his head, neck, and shoulders brushed 
with the body-brush, the currycomb being 
used as often as required, then his body, hind 
quarters and legs should receive the same 
attention. Wipe him all over with a damp 
wisp made of haybands, and then with a 
linen rubber or wash-leather. Then sponge 
the eyes, nose, and anus, comb and brush 
the mane and tail, first with a dry, and then 
with a damp brush ; pick out and wash the 
feet; the legs should be well brushed, and if 
dirty or stained, wash and rub them dry. 
The horse is then ready for use. 

In the spring and fall, when the horse is 
shedding his coat, the body-brush must be 
laid aside, and only the wisp and rubber used. 
After work some grooming is again neces¬ 
sary. 

Shoeing. —The horse should be shod 
according to his size and the work he 



232 


FARM AND STOCK BOOK 


has to perform, the shoes being left on 
for at least three weeks, but not more 
than a month. Care must be taken that the 
horn is never cut away when shod ; it being 
usually sufficient to have the rough, ragged 
parts removed and the foot rasped round the 
toe. Smiths, if not watched, will often cut 
away more horn than will grow belore the 
horse has again to be shod, there being little 
left to hold the nails and bear the weight of 
the horse. 

Exercise. —Horses may suffer alike 
from overwork or idleness. These extremes 
are both causes of disease or injury, and 
should be carefully avoided. If the horse 
is only occasionally worked, exercise is 
necessary for its health. A fair average 
day’s work for an ordinary horse is nine or 
ten miles, and a horse that covers this space 
daily needs no further exercise. On the 
road the horse should have a small quantity 
of food about every two hours. This is far 
better than long fasts and full feeds, which 
often have their result in staggers , megrims, 
or apoplexy. 

When a horse comes off a journey, the 
first thing is to walk him about till cool, if 
he is brought in hot, because this prevents 
his taking cold. 

The next thing is to groom him quite 
dry ; first with a wisp of straw and then 
with a brush. 

If he is tired and wearied, let his legs be 
well rubbed by the hand, because nothing 
so soon removes a strain. 

If a horse remains in the stable, his feet 
must be ‘ ‘stopped, ’ ’ or filled because heat and 
dryness cause cracked hoofs and lameness. 
The feet should not be stopped oftener than 
twice in a week, because it will make the 
hoofs soft and bring on corns—farm horses 
never require it; carriage horses (always 
kept in a town or on hard roads) need it 
regularly. 

Every night look and see if there is any 
stone between the hoof and the shoe, be¬ 
cause from standing on it all night the horse 
will be lame next morning. 

Balking or Jibbing. —This is one of 
the most provoking vices of the horse, and 
it can be successfully combatted only by a 
man of the most imperturbable temper. The 
slightest sign of vexation only increases the 


evil, and makes the animal more and more 
troublesome each time that he refuses his 
work. Many a thick-headed, quick-tem¬ 
pered driver flies into a passion and beats or 
otherwise abuses his horse on the least 
symptom of balking, until the animal be¬ 
comes utterly worthless from a confirmation 
of the habit. 

As a rule, it may be stated that horses 
balk from nervousness or unsteadiness of 
disposition; if not, indeed, from an over¬ 
anxiety to perform their work. Nervous 
well-bred horses are more susceptible to the 
influences which induce balking, than are 
colder-blooded, more indolent ones. A 
high-mettled horse, when carelessly driven, 
will start suddenly against his collar, tail to 
start his load, draw back from the pain 
which the concussion causes, rush at it 
again, and again draw back, until it be¬ 
comes impossible for his driver to steady 
him in his collar for a dead pull. If to all 
this be added a smart cut with the whip, 
and a fiercely-spoken word—with, perhaps, 
a blow over the nose, or a stone in the ear— 
every fear or vicious feeling of the horse 
will be summoned into action, and the ani¬ 
mal will become entirely unmanageable, 
requiring to be left for an hour or two in 
his position, before he gets sufficiently calm 
to be induced to move. There may occa¬ 
sionally be a horse which cannot be made 
to draw steadily by the most careful treat¬ 
ment, but the cases are exceedingly rare in 
which gentle treatment andfirmness, a patient 
persistence in mild, authoritative command, 
and judicious coaxing, would not either 
prevent the formation of the habit, or cure 
it when formed. 

To cure the habit of balking is not an 
easy matter, and it is possible only by the 
kindest treatment. If the horse show fear 
by his excited manner, or, by looking about 
him wildly, that he is expecting a blow, you 
may be sure that he has received hard usage 
under similar circumstances, and that he 
must be convinced by caresses and kind 
words that you will treat him gently. You 
must recollect that the horse cannot under¬ 
stand your language, and that while he is 
confused he will misinterpret every sign 
which you may make to him. He must 
feel confidence in your kind intentions , 



FARM AND STOCK BOOK 


2 33 


whether it takes an hour or all day to con¬ 
vey it to him, before you can do anything 
to cure him of his trick. If you have him 
harnessed to a light wagon on a smooth 
road, where it will afford but little resist¬ 
ance, you may, by repeated trials, convince 
him that it is a simple, easy matter to draw 
it ; and you should continue to exercise 
him from day to day with the same light 
load, and afterward increase it gradually, 
until you have trained him to a quiet man¬ 
ner of starting, or of going up a hill, or 
elsewhere, where he has been accustomed 
to balk. 

Judging the Horse. 

It matters little where we begin, but as 
the head is the feature which gives expres¬ 
sion to the animal, we may start there. 
Took the horse in the face, and read its 
character as you would a man’s who wanted 
to borrow a thousand dollars from you. 
The nostrils should be wide and formed of 
thin cartilage ; the lips firm and not loosely 
hung. The head above the nostrils should 
be thin and all the face below the eyes small 
except for large nostrils. A Roman nose is 
preferable to one much dished, which is an 
indication of treachery. The eyes should 
be wide apart and prominent. Black eyes 
are not as strong as brown or hazel. The 
poll at the top of the head, should be rounded 
but not too wide, or the ears will lap. A 
very narrow poll shows visciousness. The 
ideal ear should taper to a rather sharp tip, 
and be very thin and quick to play back and 
forth, and never allowed to flap at the sides 
at every step. 

The neck differs with the breed. The 
trotter has a long thin neck with no crest, 
the coach horse or saddler wants a high 
crest, while the draught horse needs a short 
neck heavy at the shoulders. His breast is 
wide, while that of a trotter is narrow. A 
horse’s legs should be clean cut like a piece 
of steel, and flat, tapering to a razor edge at 
the back, with the skin tied to the bone. 
Select a foot suitable to the use of the horse. 
If the pastern joint is straight, the horse 
will pound; if too oblique, there will be 
weakness. The faster a horse is to travel, 
the more it should be set up in the flank like 
a greyhound. It is always an advantage to 


have the hip thrown well ahead, and is an 
important condition for strength in any 
animal. The muscles want to be placed on 
the inside of the back legs when viewed from 
the rear. The distance from the knee to fet¬ 
lock and from hock to fetlock should be 
short. From pounding hard city pave¬ 
ments, more horses are made worthless by 
trouble in their legs and feet than from any 
other cause. It is a common saying, “no 
foot, no horse,” and this is very true, and 
should be borne in mind by everyone when 
buying a horse. It is a sign of weakness 
when a horse stands with a front leg 
stretched out in front to lessen the weight 
on it. See that the horse picks his feet up 
quickly when moving forward, and does not 
drag them when made to back. Always 
bear in mind your purpose and your pocket- 
book when buying a horse, Don’t take 
anything you don’t want or that is crippled 
because it is cheap, and don’t be afraid to 
pay a good price for a sound animal that 
meets your purpose. A good horse will al¬ 
ways be valuable, but a poor one is dear at 
any price. 

Educating the Colt. 

The colt should never know what it is 
to be master. The sooner he is disciplined 
the less danger will there be to himself and 
owner. He should be taught to be halter- 
led as soon as he can walk steadily. The 
practice some have of letting a colt grow up 
without any lessons and then trying to 
teach everything at once is harsh and cruel 
and often results in failure. It is much 
more humane and sensible to start when the 
colt is young, keep teaching one lesson at a 
time, and never let the little fellow forget 
that you are his master. Viciousness re¬ 
sults from vicious training. It is much 
better to direct calmly, but decidedly, the 
horse’s actions, than to abuse him, arouse 
his temper, and then ‘ ‘ break ’ ’ his will by 
harsh means. Don’t get angry with your 
horse; be patient, kind, and gentlemanly, 
but be a decided master. 

Don’t attempt to drive the colt in har¬ 
ness the first lesson. Take one step a* a 
time. Put the harness on and off sever 
times till he doesn’t mind it. Before he 
pulls in the collar himself, it is better to 






234 


FARM AND STOCK BOOK 


fasten him to his mother when she is hitched 
up, and so drive them together. As the 
colt gets older, he can be fastened by braces 
to a light bar across the shafts, and allowed 
to feel the collar and get used to the rattle 
of the road gear. Do not drive far at first, 
or let the colt get heated, or he may get 
restless and try to get down and roll or rest. 
Never fluster rapidly around a colt. This 
makes him nervous, and he is apt to lose 
his head and be more susceptible to fright. 
Let him early become used to umbrellas, 
sleigh bells, high loads, covered wagons, 
steam rollers, threshing machines, carriage 
robes, locomotives, trolley cars, and auto¬ 
mobiles. 

The colt should never be tied with any¬ 
thing, or to anything, that he can possibly 
break. A halter neck-strap, tied short, is 
the best fastening device. If he breaks 
loose he will try it another time, and if he 
once runs away he can hardly be depended 
on again. In the same way, some horses 
have broken loose by pulling back when a 
man going to untie them appears suddenly, 
or hits them in the head for nibbling his 
fingers, or they are otherwise frightened, 
and the habit thus commenced is very hard 
to cure. Shying is made worse by harsh¬ 
ness, and especially by whipping. The 
horse thinks it is the object of his fear that 
is beating him, and his behavior on meeting 
it again will be still worse. If the colt 
shies, stop him and allow him to examine 
the object he fears. The mere accomplish¬ 
ment of getting him past it . by beating, 
jerking or otherwise, is nothing compared to 
teaching him the harmlessness of the cause 
of the fright. The strap of prevention is 
worth a whole harness of cure. Do not 
hitch up the colt with a chance to kick. 
Make him wear an anti-kicking strap that 
will allay any inclination to become too ac¬ 
tive behind. It should be strapped to the 
crupper and kept at the root of the tail. 
As the colt grows into horsehood, there are 
a hundred bad habits, such as starting while 
some one is stepping into a carriage, to be 
guarded against, and many details of disci¬ 
pline which, if the horse masters them thor¬ 
oughly, will add many dollars to its value. 
One of these is the habit of standing with¬ 
out hitching. Many farm-horses will do 


this willingly enough, and sometimes with 
too much ease and too little ceremony, but 
high-class roadsters can also be taught this 
valuable adjunct to perfect training. 

Horse Diseases and Treatment. 

Glanders. —This disease is not only 
very contagious, but there is no known cure 
for it. It is usually the result of overwork, 
damp stabling, and high feeding, with stim¬ 
ulating food, applied to the young horse. 
Its first indication is a staring coat, bad 
appetite, and quick pulse. There follows a 
slight discharge from one nostril, and a 
lymphatic gland on that side becomes in¬ 
flamed, enlarged, and hardened. The dis¬ 
charge, at first clear, begins to show traces 
of mucus, and is finally succeeded by a 
flow of unwholesome pus, which may be 
distinguished from gleet by its peculiar 
smell. When this stage is reached the dis¬ 
ease is hastening to its termination. Ulcer¬ 
ation grows deeper, the discharge more 
copious, the breathing is impeded, and the 
animal finally dies of suffocation. 

This disease is not only incurable and 
contagious, but maybe easily communicated 
to man. There is no safety except in kill¬ 
ing the affected animal, and this should be 
done at once, before the disorder has an op¬ 
portunity to affect others. It is cruel to 
work horses or mules afflicted with this 
terrible disease. 

Poll Evil and ‘ ‘ Fistula of the 
Withers.” —This disorder should not be 
treated by pouring boiling liquids into the 
sores, but be properly opened by a person 
having a knowledge of the anatomy of 
the parts; and do not allow the wound to 
heal too quickly afterwards. 

Lampas. —This is an imaginary disease 
of the horse’s mouth. As soon as the horse 
is off his feed, the groom looks into the 
mouth, and discovers what he calls “ lam¬ 
pas. ’ ’ But do not allow the farrier or black¬ 
smith to burn them out with a red-hot iron, 
as it is very cruel. All that is needed (if 
the palate is swollen) is some cooling food 
and a mild astringent wash to the parts. 

Scald Mouth. —We have here a trouble 
apt to be caused by stablemen giving strong 
medicines or whisky and red pepper to 
horses with colic, without mixing the same 



FARM AND STOCK BOOK 


235 


with water. It is very cruel, as it leaves 
the mouth raw for some days. Do not give 
stronger medicines than you could bear in 
your own mouth. 

Foot Wounds. —Spirits of salts, so com¬ 
monly used on wounds in the horse’s feet 
(after he has picked up a nail) is a very 
cruel practice, as the remedy does much 
more harm than the nail. Put the foot in 
warm water, then apply a poultice, and 
rest the horse until he shows no lameness. 
Try the spirits of salts in a wound under 
your own finger nail, if you doubt it. 

Bidding, Purging, and Blistering 
are generally unnecessary in the treatment 
of diseases of the horse. Such cruelty is 
very extravagant indulgence for the owner’s 
pockets, and worse for the horse. Turpen¬ 
tine should not be used on the horse, its 
effect being to cause undue irritation of the 
skin. 

Broken Wind. —This is a trouble of 
slow' development, which may be caused by 
any abuse, and often comes from careless¬ 
ness in feeding and exercise. Prevention 
for it is easy, but cure is impossible; the 
most- that can be done is to relieve the dis¬ 
tress. A horse thus afflicted should never 
be pushed hard or called upon for very 
severe exertion ; such treatment may bring 
speedy death. Water should never be given 
immediately before work, and the amount 
should be restricted to four half-pails per 
day at stated periods. It is well to add to 
every drink half an ounce of dilute phos¬ 
phoric acid or half a drachm of dilute sul¬ 
phuric acid. There should be five feeds a 
day of crushed oats and beans, with only 
five pounds of hay—two in the morning and 
three at night. Put a lump of rock salt at 
one end of the manger, a block of chalk at 
the other. This treatment is for alleviation 
only, not for cure. 

Colic. —Spasmodic colic, fret, gripes are 
names for the same illness. Spasmodic colic 
is caused by fast driving, change of water, 
change of food, getting wet, fatiguing jour¬ 
neys, aloes, or often no cause can be traced. 

Treatment. 

Gum myrrh 1 ounce, gum camphor 1 ounce, 
powdered gum guaiac 1 ounce, cayenne 1 ounce, 
sassafras bark,p owdered, 1 ounce, spirits tur¬ 
pentine 1 ounce, oil origanum % ounce, oil 


hemlock A ounce, pulverized opium y 2 ounce, 
strongest alcohol 2 quarts ; mix all together and 
shake often for eight or ten days and filter or strain 
through flannel. Dose from 1 to 3 tablespoonfuls, 
according to the severity of the case; give in a 
pint of milk. 

Flatulent or Windy Colic. —This 
may come from gorging on green food, but 
its more common cause is impaired diges¬ 
tion consequent upon severe labor and old 
age. It is indicated by uneasiness after 
feeding, hanging of the head, laborious 
breathing ; the belly begins to swell, and 
the animal paws, but more slowly and in¬ 
ertly than in spasmodic colic ; the eye is 
sleepy, and wind passes frequently from the 
body. When such a case occurs a veteri¬ 
nary surgeon should be sent for at once. 
While waiting, administer a ball compound 
of two drachms of sulphuret of ammonia, 
with a sufficiency of extract of gentian and 
powdered quassia. Repeat this for two con¬ 
secutive half hours if the surgeon does not 
appear. 

Cough. —To cure a chronic cough care 
must be taken, in the first place, that the 
stable air is pure. If the ventilation is 
good, the drainage clear, and the bedding 
clean, the interior of the stable will be odor¬ 
less. The oats should be scalded and 
crushed, the hay damped, and thin gruel or 
linseed tea given for drink. The horse 
should be clothed warmly. Try the follow¬ 
ing : 

Take of alcohol, y pint, balsam of fir, 2 ounces; 
mix well and add all the tar it will cut. Shake 
well before using. Dose from one to two teaspoon¬ 
fuls two or three times a day. 

Or give the following mixture in a tumbler of 
cold water three times daily : 

Extract of belladonna (rnbbed down in 


a pint of cold water).1 drachm. 

Tincture of squills.. 10 ounces. 

Tincture of ipecacuanha.8 ounces. 


DiarrhcEA. —This disease is indicated 
by the frequent passage of watery stools. It 
is caused by acrid matter in the intestines, 
oversucculent food, too much water, 
change of dry to succulent food, working 
in the hot sun, an overdraught of water 
while heated, etc. 

As the bowel movements are very active 
during waking hours, and still more so dur¬ 
ing exertion, while their movements are 
least during rest, and especially during 







236 


FARM AND STOCK BOOK 


sleep, care should be taken to keep the 
horse quiet and in as drowsy a state as pos¬ 
sible. All coarse succulent food, such as 
the green food of summer, should be 
avoided, and small quantities of good, sound 
hay, well-made gruel, small malt mashes 
mixed with a handful of oats only, should 
be fed to the horse. The following is an 


excellent remedy: 

Raw linseed oil.16 ounces. 

Oil of turpentine.2 ounces. 

Tincture of opium (laudanum).1 ounce. 


Shake well together and give as a draught. 

Parasites. —There are various diseases 
caused by parasitic insects. The eggs of 
the gadfly, deposited on the hair of a horse, 
are licked off and swallowed, the larvae 
sticking to the coat of the stomach. These 
are known as bots . They are in the end 
ejected naturally, but while they remain 
they may cause impaired digestion, loss of 
flesh, and occasional diarrhoea. There is 
no remedy besides that provided by nature. 

Other flies lay their eggs in the horse’s 
hair, and the larvae, after hatching, burrow 
into the skin. An abscess is the result. 
This needs to be opened with a lancet and 
the larvae squeezed out, when the abscess 
will rapidly disappear. Lice, fleas and 
ticks need treatment with a lotion of one 
part of carbolic acid to twenty of w r ater. 
Everything that comes in contact with the 
skin — as clothing, harness, brushes, etc.— 
should be washed with a vermicide. Do 
not have hen-roosts or pigeon-houses too 
near the stable, as these are often prolific 
sources of lice. 

Mange. —This is another disease due to 
small insects, which burrow beneath the 
scurf skin. It is very contagious. When 
present, scurf appears about the hairs of the 
mane, the hair falls off in patches, sores and 
crusts appear, the horse rubs his body 
against posts, etc. In treatment, the scurf 
skin, or as much of it as possible, should 
be removed, and a dressing applied which 
will kill the insects. The horse, if the 
weather permits, should be placed in the 
sun for an hour, or in some warm place, if 
the weather is cold. Its coat should then 
be thoroughly whisked to remove scurf and 
incrustations. The following ointment 
should be rubbed all over the skin : 


Animal glycerin.4 parts. 

Creasote.^ part. 

Oil of turpentine.1 part. 

Oil of juniper. )Vz part. 


Mix all together, and shake well before 
using, employing about a pint and a half 
for each application. It can be left on two 
days before repeating. Anything which 
has been in contact with a mangy horse 
must be cleansed. Oven-heat at 150° F. 
will kill the parasites. Where this cannot 
be applied, wash with carbolic soap, and 
leave in the air for a week. 

Rheumatism. —Exposure to cold and 
damp are causes of the acute form of rheu¬ 
matism, though it may. follow more serious 
disorders. The chronic form may be the 
sequel of the acute, but more often it is a 
separate constitutional affection, very com¬ 
mon in old age. When attacked by the 
acute form the animal moves very reluct¬ 
antly, the joints swell and cause painful 
lameness, fever is present, and the animal’s 
skin becomes bathed in perspiration. Often 
the disease moves about from joint to joint. 

Give two ounces of tincture of opium (lauda¬ 
num) in water ; then give a drachm of salicylate of 
soda every two hours, carefully watching the tem¬ 
perature, which will run down rapidly. Should 
the temperature fall decidedly, the remedy must 
be omitted, but the moment the temperature rises 
again the remedy must be resumed as before. 
Warm woolen rags and bandages must be kept on, 
loosely applied, and all cold air carefully avoided, 
so as to encourage the perspiration. Without re¬ 
moving the rags, sponge over with a little hot 
water every six hours. A liniment of four to eight 
ounces of mustard in warm water will often relieve 
the pain in the joints. The diet should be of a 
fluid, laxative kind, such as bran mashes, gruel 
and hay tea, squeezing a little lemon juice into 
each drink. 

Staggers. —Mad staggers and sleepy 
staggers represent different symptoms or 
stages of the same disease. Overfeeding 
is the sole cause—giving the horse consid¬ 
erably more at any meal than his usual 
allowance, especially after much fatigue or 
a prolonged fast. Eating certain foods, 
such as ripe or fast-ripening rye-grass, is 
liable to bring on the staggers. 

In sleepy staggers a dull and sleepy state 
is the symptom, with cold skin and staring 
coat. The mad state comes on with a sud¬ 
den brightening of the eye, and rapid, pant¬ 
ing breath, the evidences of approaching 











CHOICE GRADES OF SHEEP AND HOGS 

(i) Leicestershire Sheep (2) Southdown Sheep ( 3 ) Chesterwhite Hogs (4) Poland China Hog*, 






















Mm* 




n 

Safe 


A MODEL CHICKEN HOUSE 

Arranged for light and ventilation and to be easily kept clean : also provided with nesting places easy ot access 



A MODEL UPLAND SHEEP PASTURE 

Tats includes good grass and running water with woods sufficient for shade and protection 







































FARM AND STOCK BOOK 


2 37 


frenzy being well marked. If this stage 
becomes developed, no remedies will be of 
any use. 

In treatment give no water, but use instead a 
quart of any oil. Six hours afterward, should no 
improvement be noticed, give another quart of oil, 
with twenty drops of croton oil in it, and if neces¬ 
sary repeat the dose in another six hours, with 
thirty drops of croton oil. After a further six hours 
repeat the first dose, and continue at the intervals 
stated until the altered aspect of the horse indicates 
that the distension has been relieved. Upon the 
slightest mitigation of the symptoms stop all medi¬ 
cine at once. 

There are various disorders affecting the 
legs and feet of horses, and needing careful 
treatment, which is often suggested by the 
character of the disorder. Horses are also 
subject to the attack of intestinal worms of 
four different kinds. Of these, tape worm 
may be treated with turpentine, varying in 
quantity from half ounce for a three months’ 
old, to four ounces for four years old and 
upwards. With this is mingled an infusion 
of quassia and one scruple of powdered 
camphor. This may kill the worms, but 
further treatment is necessary to destroy 
their numerous eggs, especially nourishing 
food, as gruel or scalded oats, with little or 
no hay. 

The strongglS infest the large intestine, 
and are difficult to remove, as they inhabit 
so extended a space. The ascarides locate 
themselves within the rectum, and may be 
treated with injections of train oil. Tobacco 
smoke enemas may be useful, and an oint¬ 
ment of glycerin and spermaceti to allay the 
itchii g, three drachms each of camphor 
and mercurial ointment being added. 

To Administer Medicine. —Medicine is gen¬ 
erally given to a horse either in the form of a ball 
or as a drench ; that is, giving it in liquid form. 
In this case a drenching-horn is used. 

Giving a Bali. —Turn the animal so as to bring 
his head to the light. Stand on a stool on the oif 
side ; gently put your hand in the horse’s mouth 
and draw the tongue a little out; place the fingers 
of the left hand over the tongue, and keep it firmly 
in this position by pressure against the jaw. Do not 
hold the tongue by itself, for a restless horse, by 
suddenly drawing back or sideways while his tongue 
is tightly held, may seriously injure himself. The 
ball should be oiled, that it may slip down the 
throat easily. Take it between the tips of the 
fingers of the right hand, and, making the hand as 
small as possible, pass the ball up the mouth by the 
roof to avoid injury of the teeth. When it is landed 
well upon the root of the tongue, withdraw the 


right hand, and as soon as it is out of the mouth re¬ 
lease the tongue, which will help the ball down. 
Have a warm drink ready to give just after the ball 
is taken. 

Giving a Drench. —The drenching-horn is 
best made of a cow’s horn, the larger end of which 
is stopped up. A glass bottle should never be used. 
Pour in the liquid at the narrow end of the horn, 
the ciicular mouth of which should be an inch in 
diameter. An assistant is needed, who must raise 
the horse’s head till his mouth is above the level of 
his forehead, and keep it steadily in that position. 
The operator, standing on the off side and taking 
the wide end of the horn in his right hand, holds 
the upper jaw with his left, and, leaving the tongue 
at liberty, discharges the drench below the root of 
the tongue. The drenching-horn should always be 
cleaned after use. 

The horse’s pulse may easily be found by 
placing the two fore fingers under the middle of 
the horse’s jowl or cheek-bone. A horse’s pulse 
when in good condition beats from about thirty- 
two to thirty-eight pulsations per minute. The 
smaller the horse the faster is his pulse. 

Sheep. 

Sheep differ more as to form, color, size 
and general appearance than almost any 
other domestic animal. They are large and 
small, hair coarse and fine, black or white, 
blue or gray. They originated in a cold 
climate and are able to maintain themselves 
in snow of some depth by pawing it away, 
though their early domestication by man 
was in semi-tropical regions. Their milk 
differs little from cows’, though the butter 
made from it turns rancid soon after it is 
churned. They were used in ancient times, 
largely as beasts of burden in the Bast. 

Merinos.— Sheep were abundant in 
Spain before the Christian Bra, and were 
divided into provincial breeds. Many of 
these sheep traveled four hundred miles 
every year to the south of France, where 
they pastured during the winter. Those 
which were weak died on the way, and the 
race became strong in constitution and fleet 
of foot. Such was the founding of the 
Spanish Merino, the best sheep in the world 
for fineness of wool, shape and constitution. 
There has been no intermixture of coarse- 
wool blood. Descended from certain strains 
of these traveling Spanish sheep are the 
American Merinos, which are tough, hardy, 
and can go in flocks of a thousand. The 
following are the two most important va¬ 
rieties : 



238 


FARM AND STOCK BOOK 


The Paulars are hardy and have a 
heavy, thick neck. Most, though not all, of 
the rams have horns. These are the hardiest 
of all the varieties. The Infantado is 
prized in America above all the others. It is 
not quite so hardy as the Paular, but its 
wool is finer and superior. The best of our 
Merinos have come from this variety. 

The Merino in this country has been 
bred with shorter legs and a more compact 
body, and until recently with the body cov¬ 
ered with large folds or wrinkles. These 
are found to be detrimental to the wool and 
an effort is being made to breed them out. 
The Merino is the best sheep in the world for 
wool of fine quality and serrations, and is 
besides a fair mutton sheep. 

English Breeds of Sheep. 

Leicester. —This is a long-wooled mut¬ 
ton sheep, which has been used to improve 
almost all other sheep in England. It tends 
to put on fat in greater proportion than lean, 
and is deficient in the hind quarter. Its 
wool is too open to be of the best and its 
constitution is not very strong. 

Cotswold. — This is a larger long- 
wooled mutton sheep than the Leicester, 
and is also distinguished from it by a large 
curly fore-top. It averages from 200 to 250 
pounds in weight, and proves to be one of 
the best of the English breeds in Canada. 

Cheviots. —A middle-wooled sheep of 
Scotch origin. It is long legged, with 
bare, thin, narrow head, and a tendency to 
be weak behind the shoulders. 

Dorsets. — These are horned, long- 
wooled sheep, popular for mutton on ac¬ 
count of their frequency of breeding, good 
milking qualities, and foraging abilities. 
They are especially adapted to early lamb 
raising. 

Southdowns . — Short - wooled sheep, 
which, like all the Downs, ai e natives of the 
sand hills of southern England. They pro¬ 
duce very fine mutton which brings the 
highest prices. They have gray faces, are 
of moderate size, smooth, rotund and active. 

Hampshire Downs. —Are larger and 
coarser than the Southdowns. They have 
big Roman noses, large heads, long legs, 
and are rather too coarse. 


Shropshire Downs. —These are horn¬ 
less, dark-face dsheep, related to the South- 
downs, but with longer wool. They are 
hardy, thrive well on moderate keep, and 
have meat of excellent quality. 

General Management. —The selec¬ 
tion of a breed depends entirely upon the 
section of country and the market possibili¬ 
ties, and the amount of attention and skill 
to be devoted to them. Let the farmer 
study the characteristics of each breed and 
observe which ones succeed best in his 
neighborhood. A ram is at his best between 
the ages of three and six. He should be 
strong and healthy, and as perfect a type of 
his breed as is possible. The foundation for 
any kind of stock lies in the male, and this is 
as true of sheep as of any other branch of 
stock-raising. Old ewes which have out¬ 
lived their usefulness should be thinned out 
without hesitation and killed for mutton. 
Always select your best ewe lambs for breed¬ 
ing purposes. No ewe should bring forth 
her first lamb younger than two years old, 
and some prefer three years, claiming that 
the lamb will be a great deal more vigorous. 
The ewes should have a liberal supply of 
food while they are pregnant and after 
lambing, as this will greatly increase the 
size of the young, and without it they 
could not reach their maximum of profitable 
development. 

Like chickens, sheep need constant indi¬ 
vidual attention. Success depends as much 
upon the shepherd as the sheep, and he 
should learn thoroughly the character and 
needs of his animals, which can only be 
attained by close, constant and intimate con¬ 
tact with them. The crossness of rams is 
proverbial, and no doubt is to some extent 
a manifestation of their natural disposition ; 
but the buck is so often the object of kicks 
and cuffs that there is little wonder that he 
has not much love for the man whom he re¬ 
members most distinctly as having inflicted 
pain. It is a common practice to pen up 
rams in winter time and keep them isolated. 
But they should not be kept alone, and 
should have company in their winter quar¬ 
ters. 

Sometimes the farmer goes out to the 
barn on a cold morning and finds a lamb 
chilled and stiff and looking as though it 




FARM AND STOCK BOOK 


239 


were dead. At such times great care and 
pains are required to restore the little fellow, 
but it can generally be accomplished success¬ 
fully. Take him into the kitchen and im¬ 
merse all but his head in water as hot as you 
can bear your hand in, rubbing his body 
and legs the while to start the circulation. 
When he begins to show signs of life, take 
him out, rub dry, and wrap in a warm 
blanket and put him comfortably near the 
stove. Soon he will be frisking around as 
lively as ever, when he should be returned 
to his mother, taking care that no draughts 
strike him on the way. 

Early Eambs. —This is a special branch 
of sheep-raising, and can only be success¬ 
fully practiced by those of experience and 
skill. It is necessary to breed the ewes early, 
that the lambs may come in time to catch the 
high prices. In large flocks several rams 
are used, so that all the ewes may be bred to 
come in within a few weeks of each other. 
The quarters in which ihe sheep are kept 
must be warm, for all the food should go to 
fattening the lambs rather than keeping 
them warm. It is better to divide the ewes 
into pens of six or eight each, and have 
small individual pens at the sides for the 
better nursing of sickly lambs by their 
mothers. The place should be darkened and 
the lambs rather closely confined, or they 
will play too much and run off their flesh. 
The usual inclement weather at the time 
winter lambs come does not generally allow 
having the ewe out of doors, but she would 
be much better for a little light exercise be¬ 
fore lambing if the stable has a covered barn¬ 
yard or is otherwise arranged so that it can 
be done. The profitable production of winter 
lambs depends more upon the skill of the 
farmer than on any specific directions that 
can be given. 

In Pasture. —It takes about eight mut¬ 
ton sheep or nine or ten fine-wooled sheep 
to the same amount of pasture that would 
be allowed for one cow. In pasture is the 
natural condition for sheep, but after being 
confined in the winter they should not be 
turned out too soon on a wet pasture. On 
wet days it is well to bring them up to the 
barn for a feed of dry hay and perhaps grain. 
When the grass is wet, what they eat is 
about ninety-five per cent, water, and, 


though they fill themselves full, they cannot 
get enough nourishment to properly sustain 
them. Sheep can get along without water 
to drink if the dew on the grass is heavy, 
but they should never go long without an 
opportunity to satisfy their thirst. If the 
sheep are put gradually on the new grass 
in the spring, spending only a short time 
each day and being returned to their yards 
at night, they take the change with less 
danger of the purging which results from 
the abrupt change from dry feed to entire 
green feed. This latter method is always 
very dangerous with weak sheep, especially 
if they are yearlings or frequent ewes. Bur¬ 
docks and prickly weeds of any kind are 
very injurious to wool, and should all be 
cut off before the sheep are turned into the 
pasture in the spring, for if they are not, the 
loss in value of the wool so damaged will 
far exceed the worth of the time to cut 
down such weeds. The eagerness with 
which sheep seek shade from the glare of 
the summer sun proves the usefulness of 
trees. Clumps of trees should grow in the 
pasture, and when not present it would pay 
the flock-master to plant them. 

Winter Management. —Some kind of 
winter shelter should be provided for the 
most profitable management of sheep in 
all parts of this country. The Merino can 
stand greater exposure than the other im¬ 
proved breeds, but they will do better with 
such care. The old way of huddling the 
sheep under sheds is giving way to the 
accommodations provided in our modern 
barns. Especially if fed roots, sheep can 
subsist in winter without water if they have 
a constant supply of clean snow, but as this 
supply can never be relied on, water becomes 
practically a necessity for shed protected 
sheep and an absolute necessity for those 
kept in barns. Water should be conveyed 
into the sheep barn, by underground pipes 
from a spring, dam, or tank sufficiently high 
to force it into tubs. 

It has been estimated that sheep win¬ 
tered exclusively on hay will require a 
pound of good hay per day for every thirty 
pounds of live weight. But it is usually 
not economical to winter sheep exclusively 
on hay. Many other foods can be profit¬ 
ably fed, such as grains, bean-straw, roots, 



2 qo 


FARM AND STOCK BOOK 


etc., and a variety of foods will give better 
results. Judgment should be used in select¬ 
ing a combination of foods that will give 
sufficient nourishment without overloading 
the stomach with excessive bulk. Regu¬ 
larity in time of feeding should be adhered 
to, and just enough food given to last them 
until the next feeding. Salt should be kept 
haudy for the sheep in winter as well as in 
summer. 

Lambs. —The proper time for lambing 
in the Northern States is from the 1st of 
April to the middle of May, unless for 
‘‘ hot-house ’ ’ lambs. Lambs yeaned before 
May in the North must be dropped in the 
stable, which is in all events the safest place 
even in pleasant weather, and diminishes 
rather than increases the care of the shep¬ 
herd. The flock is thus kept together, and 
no time is spent in traversing pastures or in 
driving the flock in before storms, and the 
yeaning season may thus be passed before 
the farmer commences his summer work. 
The stable should be provided with windows 
capable of being tightly closed on a cold 
night, or affording ventilation when the air 
is impure and hot. Excessive care is not 
needed with hardy sheep in lambing. It is 
well to look into the sheep-house the last 
thing at night to see that all is well, but no 
further attention is necessary till morning, 
unless it is a breed accustomed to bring 
forth twins, when one may be missed by the 
mother. 

If a lamb can help itself from the first, 
it is better not to assist it. But if the lamb 
is weak and makes no effort to suck, it 
should be aided to suck. Persevere long to 
bring about the natural method of feeding 
before resorting to the bottle, which post¬ 
pones the lamb’s ability to help itself, and 
frequently causes constipation. 

Diseases of Sheep. 

Sheep are not subject to nearly as many 
diseases as most of the other kinds of live 
stock. If sheep are well kept summer and 
winter, are not overcrowded in the pasture 
and kept in dry winter quarters, there 
should be no necessity for remedies of any 
kind. 

The following are some of the more 
prevalent disorders; 


Catarrh. —An inflammation of the mu¬ 
cous membrane lining the nasal passages. 
This is a common trouble after sudden 
changes in weather, especially with the 
English mutton sheep. The first symptoms 
are running at the nose, and, if bad, some 
fever and a cough may follow. The malady 
is not serious enough to need any special 
remedies, and hardly ever proves fatal. It 
should be prevented as far as possible by 
comfortable quarters and suitable food. 

Colic. —The most frequent cause is feed¬ 
ing on green food, wet with rain or dew, in 
excessive amounts. Musty food is another 
cause. Symptoms are a swelling of the 
belly on the left side, which appears shortly 
after the animal has fed. The breathing 
becomes laborious, the bowels constipated, 
eyes wflld and anxious, with the animal 
showing every symptom of pain. As soon 
as possible cut the wool from the centre of 
the swelling, and insert a clean sharp- 
pointed knife to allow escape of gas. Hold 
the opening open by inserting a goose-quill 
or other hollow tube. If the case is not so 
severe as to warrant this treatment, give the 
following stimulant: 


Ground mustard.1 drachm. 

Whisky.1 ounce. 


Mix and give in a little water. Repeat if needed. 

Constipation. —Pregnant ewes confined 
long to dry feed are subject to constipation, 
as, indeed, are all sheep, though to a less 
extent. The remedy is to give a portion of 
green food. Lambs fed artifically on cow’s 
milk or milk of other ewes are liable to 
constipation. The animal droops and lies 
down a good part of the time, its belly be¬ 
comes distended, and if not soon relieved Jit 
dies. The most speedy and reliable treat¬ 
ment is to give the lamb an injection of 
milk at about the temperature of the body, 
colored light brown by molasses stirred in. 
Two or three ounces of this should be ad¬ 
ministered with a syringe. To do this, hold 
the lamb in a perpendicular position by the 
hind legs during and for an instant after the 
injection. If hardened dung is not soon 
discharged the treatment should be repeated. 
If the lamb continues inactive and dull after 
the operation, give the following medicine : 


Golden sulphur of antimony . . . ]/ 2 drachm. 

Common salt. s , . . . 1 drachm. 






FARM AND STOCK BOOK 


Diarrhoea. —When this manifests itself 
in sheep, as when whole herds are attacked 
on first feeding on green grass, it is usually 
of no danger and merely requires a tempo¬ 
rary return to dry food as a part of the ration; 
but in sucking calves diarrhoea is often a 
fatal disease, and requires vigilant attention. 
The causes are usually exposure to cold, 
sudden temperature changes, or improper 
diet. The lamb becomes languid, isolates 
itself, and stands with bent back or lies 
down frequently. The excrement is repeat¬ 
edly discharged, and is thin, whitish or 
greenish, later watery, and mixed with 
mucus, and finally bloody. The lamb 
ceases to suck and eat. It bleats frequently 
and shows pain if its belly is pressed. It 
rapidly loses flesh and dies between the sec¬ 
ond and fifth days. The treatment is as 
follows : Change the food as soon as the 
symptoms appear. Give the following nour¬ 
ishment : 


White of egg.i part. 

Water.6 parts. 


Beat together and give milk-warm as much as 
the lamb wants. 

Follow that with this medicine : 


Prepared chalk.'2 ounces. 

Ginger, in powder. A ounce. 

Opium, in powder.1 drachm. 


Mix in a pint of peppermint tea and give a 
tablespoonful night and morning. 

Foun in the Foot. —The skin in the 
cleft of the foot appears macerated, and 
causes lameness. It results from keeping 
sheep in wet and filthy yards or boggy pas¬ 
tures. The disease usually disappears when 
the flock is turned into dry pastures or a 
well-littered yard. Thoroughly wash the 
feet and paint them with a mixture of one 
part powdered copper sulphate rubbed up 
with five or six parts of tar. 

Grub in the Head. —This is the grub 
of the gadfly, and is an annoyance to sheep 
by inhabiting the upper part of the nostrils. 
Sheep dread the fly, and, on its approach, 
gather together restlessly with their heads 
down, stamping the ground when struck by 
the fly. The larva ascends the nostril caus¬ 
ing pain and suffering, resulting in vertigo 
and sometimes inflammation and death. 
Sometimes the larvae are thrown out by fre¬ 
quent sneezing, and recovery takes place un- 
16 C 


* 4 * 

aided. The animal may be made to sneeze 
by shaking tobacco dust into its nostril. 
Those not thus relieved should be treated as 
follows : Pour into the nostrils a teaspoon¬ 
ful or two of a mixture of equal parts of 
sweet oil and turpentine. Be careful not to 
choke the sheep with it. 

Hooe Rot. —A common disease of 
sheep, caused by contagion and resulting in 
a disorganization of the hoof walls. The 
fore-feet are usually first attacked. The 
disease is recognized by an offensive odor. 
The first attack is usually the most severe, 
growing milder with each subsequent ap¬ 
pearance. Though a painful and danger¬ 
ous disease, hoof rot is nearly always cur¬ 
able. It is absolutely important that every 
particle of diseased matter should be cut 
away. Then stand the sheep in a shallow 
tank containing a hot saturated solution of 
copper sulphate for ten minutes. Keep as 
hot as the hand can bear by adding boiling 
water. Next apply the following dressing 
and bandage the foot to prevent irritation : 


Fowdered sulphate of copper.1 part. 

Tar.3 parts. 


Liver Feuke.—A disease caused by a 
flat worm in the liver. If the white of the 
eye appears thickened, yellowish, or pure 
white instead of pink, the sheep is con¬ 
demned. The progress of the fluke is slow. 
The animal is dull, the lining of the mouth 
turns pale. The flesh wastes and the skin 
loses its color, becomes dry and lacking the 
natural oil in the fleece. Later the animal 
becomes thin in the flanks, weak, the fleece 
falls of in patches, the belly is swollen, and 
thirst excessive. 

The remedies are preventive rather than 
curative. As the fluke cannot develop on 
dryland, drain the pasture or fence off the 
bog. In wet seasons give corn, beans, or 
other nutritious diet in addition to the pas¬ 
turage. Salt is a good preventative, and 
should be accessible in the pasture. When 
the disease has been recognized, remove the 
animal to a dry pasture and give the follow¬ 


ing dose: 

Sulphate of magnesia. y 2 pound. 

Oil of turpentine.3 drachms. 


Mix for a drench. Give one-third of the 
quantity every two days. When this has 















242 


FARM AND STOCK BOOK 


acted, give common salt, sulphate of iron 
and wormwood mixed into a lick, and sup¬ 
ply plenty of nourishing food. 

Pinning. —A trouble caused by the first 
gummy excrements of the lamb adhering to 
the tail and plastering up the vent when it 
hardens. Remove the dung and rub the 
parts with pulverized dry clay, chalk or dirt. 

Rheumatism. —The symptoms are often 
stiffness of one or more limbs. Walking is 
then difficult, and the motion unnatural. 
The neck is also frequently stiff. The 
animal is depressed, not inclined to change 
position, and its bowels constipated. Usu¬ 
ally the joints swell and are hot and tender 
to the touch. The disease generally lasts 
one or two weeks, and recovery is slow, 
taking three or four weeks, with a tendency 
to relapses. The disease is caused by inju¬ 
dicious feeding of the ewe during the period 
of gestation, or after birth, and thus affect¬ 
ing the lamb through the milk, predisposing 
the animal to cold. Give the ewes a pure, 
wholesome diet, and the lamb the following 


laxative : 

Sulphate of magnesia.2 ounces. 

Powdered carraway or ginger.X ounce. 


Mix in a half pint of thin gruel, and 
give warm, a large tablespoonful to a lamb 
two weeks old. Apply hot fomentations to 
the stiff joints. 

Scab. —This is caused by a minute in¬ 
sect living under the skin, and is one of the 
worst pests of sheep. The first symptom 
is itching, which results in a ragged ap¬ 
pearance of the fleece. The sheep rub 
themselves against trees and fences and bite 
their skin. The scabs are torn off, sores 
form, the appetite fails, and often the animal 
dies worn out with incessant torment. 

The treatment to be followed is either to dip the 
sheep in some preparation or to rub it into the 
skin. Dipping is more effectual. To make the 
dip, takes three pounds of each of the following : 
Arsenic, pearl ash or soda ash, sulphur, and soft 
soap. Mix in ten gallons of boiling water, and add 
cold water to make one hundred gallons. Immerse 
all but the head in this for a minute, rubbing it 
into the fleece. Put him on a slatted drainer over 
a tub and squeeze the fleece; then place the 
animal in a yard for a few hours. 

Swine. 

Swine are to be found on almost every 
farm, for they are one of the side-lines 


which do not require a great deal of care, 
yet which help materially in building up 
the income and may be called the rent- 
payers and mortgage-lifters. Before buy¬ 
ing stock decide on the breed which is best 
adapted to your locality. It is sometimes 
important that the hog should mature early, 
and it ought also' to have the inherent 
faculty to lay on flesh, for on its power to 
turn food into flesh depends its value as a 
pork-producer. The number of first-class 
standard breeds is comparatively limited. 

Berkshire. —An English breed of black 
color, with white markings, brought to 
America about 1823. It is of medium size 
and characterized by a dished face. The 
bones are small, the fat and lean well 
mixed, and the animal, under good care, 
will grow steadily to an early maturity, 
making a good bacon hog with suitable pas¬ 
ture and exercise. 

Chester White. —As the name im¬ 
plies, this is a white breed, and originated 
in Chester County, Pennsylvania, whence 
its name. These animals are large, with 
long, deep bodies, broad back, and fine full 
hams. The face is not as much dished as 
with some of the smaller breeds, though it 
is rather short and broad. The Chester 
White is one of the most popular porkers 
in the country, and has shown growing 
abilities worthy of general favor. 

Cheshire. —This is another white breed 
of American origin. The ears are small, 
and the animals are valued for rather long 
bodies, good hams and shoulders, and rather 
small bones. 

Poland China. —America is indebted 
to Ohio for this most admirable breed, which 
resulted from various crosses and selections 
made therein the first half of the nineteenth 
century. There is little doubt but that among 
their ancestors the Berkshire and Chinese had 
a large share in the foundation. The indi¬ 
viduals of this breed are nearly pure black, 
with white on feet, tip of tail, and about the 
nose. More white was formerly prevalent, 
but it is being bred out. ’ It is shorter in 
the legs than the Chester White, and has a 
broader back and heavier hams. It is docile, 
lazy, and hence fattens easily, and is alto¬ 
gether a most desirable breed. 







FARM AND STOCK BOOK 


Diseases of Swine. 

Unlike sheep in this respect, swine are 
subject to a great number of diseases, and 
such extremely fatal ones that the loss from 
them is estimated at many millions of dol¬ 
lars annually, in some places rendering the 
business of raising hogs a very precarious 
one. Their treatment is hindered by the 
difficulty in giving a hog medicine. In 
fact, it is a dangerous undertaking to at¬ 
tempt to give a drench to a full-grown hog. 
On this account medicines are, when possi¬ 
ble, mixed with his food or drink, and as he 
is not delicate about eating, he does not 
discard any unless very disagreeable. If 
the animal refuses food and water, the drugs 
may be given as follows: Two or three 
men are needed for the undertaking. Pass 
a stout chain within the mouth and back 
between the jaws, which are thus held apart 
and kept from crushing the bottle. One 
man holds the chain while another holds 
the medicine. The head should be well 
elevated, and the medicine poured slowly, 
so as not to strangle the animal. Hog dis¬ 
eases are hard to cure, and prevention is 
the wisest drug to use. Keep their skins 
clean, give them good food and a variety of 
it, a dry home and not too many in it, and 
lots of running out of doors, and what is to 
follow you need hardly read. 

Cholera.. —This is the most destructive 
disease which affects swine. It is doubtful 
whether it w T ill ever be successfully treated 
with medicine, though recent investigations 
point to a time in the near future when this 
disease will be prevented by serum treat¬ 
ment. Those who have had hog cholera in 
their herd will know it again, and need no 
description to identify it. The first symp¬ 
tom is a loss of appetite, the hair appears 
dry and harsh, and often there is a cough. 
Sometimes the disease is slow in develop¬ 
ing, and at other times rapid. The whole 
disposition of the afflicted hog, instead of 
being bright and brisk, is weary, worn, and 
wasted. He drags himself around, or stands 
with arched back. The bowels may be con¬ 
stipated or discharge a thin and watery sub¬ 
stance of dark color which has a peculiar 
offensive odor. 

The disease is very contagious, and espe- 


243 

cially prevalent among young hogs. Rats 
are also subject to it, and it is often carried 
from one farm to another by them. As 
soon as a hog gets sick it should be isolated. 
If the trouble proves to be cholera, all the 
other hogs should be taken to clean, new 
quarters, and if more take sick, move them 
again. If it is impossible to move them, 
at least isolate the sick animals. Feed small 
amounts of easily-digested food. Thorough¬ 
ly disinfect all the pens and appurtenances 
with air slaked lime and crude carbolic 
acid. If the bowels are loose, check them 
with a few drops of crystal carbolic acid, 
and if constipated give as a laxative either 
Epsom salts or castor oil. Jacob Biggie 
recommends wheat middlings as a food for 
hogs having cholera, and warns against the 
use of much water. Hogs that will not eat 
usually die. Never bury the dead animals, 
always burn them. 

The remedy for hog cholera recommend¬ 
ed by the Department of Agriculture is the 
following : 


Sulphur.1 pound. 

Wood charcoal.1 pound. 

Sodium chloride.2 pounds. 

Sodium bicarbonate.2 pounds. 

Sodium hyposulphite.2 pounds. 

Sodium sulphate.1 pound. 

Antimony sulphide.1 pound. 


Cold. —For snuffles or catarrh in the 
head little is required but a clean, dry pen. 
For an ordinary cold, keep the animal well 
housed and fed. Rub moistened mustard 
flower into the throat and chest, and a tonic 
of sulphate of iron may be given. If im¬ 
provement does not rapidly follow, give 
daily an ounce of tar by putting it well back 
in the mouth by means of a narrow wooden 
paddle. Pneumonia or inflammation of the 
lungs may set in, in which case the symp¬ 
toms are loss of appetite, quick and hard 
breathing, shivering, and -severe cough. 
This requires even greater care in stabling 
and diet, and the following medicine should 
be given : 

Nitrate of potash. 

Bisulphite of soda. 

Mix two drachms of each and give in a pint 
of gruel. 

Diarrhoea. —This is common though 
not dangerous among pigs, and is more 










244 


FARM AND STOCK BOOK 


prevalent during the damp weather of 
spring. Improper food, such as a sour 
swill barrel, is the cause. Give only water 
and a little dry corn for several days. With 
young pigs the fault is traceable to the food 
of the sow, which should be changed. Put 
coal ashes in the open for the pigs to root 
in, and give the sow the following : 


Fenuqreek, powdered.2 pounds. 

Aniseed.2 pounds. 

Gentian.1 pound. 

Carbonate of soda.2 ounces. 


Give a teaspoonful of this in the food every 
time she is fed. 

Lame Knee. —Pigs which have been 
castrated are sometimes troubled with a 
stiffness in the knee of one of the front legs. 
This is caused by continually urinating on 
the front legs and may be prevented by tie- 
ing on an apron back of the fore limbs. 

Lice. —These insects infest ill-fed and 
half-sick hogs, and are usually a sign that 
the animal is out of condition. The hog 
should be kept clean and well fed. Sponge 
it with kerosene. 

Measles. —In the muscular and other 
tissues of swine are sometimes present 
numerous small cysts about the size of a 
barley grain, which contain the e*mbryo of 
the tapeworm parasite of man, in whose in¬ 
testines they develop when uncooked pork 
containing them is eaten. Their presence 
does not appear to injure the health of the 
hog. In nearly all cases the animal swal¬ 
lows the eggs which develop into cysts, by 
feeding on human excrement or on pasture 
where it has been used for manure. The 
symptoms in the hog are a cough, running 
from the nose and eyes, weakness of the hind 
legs, and general debility. Give small doses 
of sulphur and saltpetre daily for several 
weeks,besides a liberal supply of wholesome, 
nutritious food. 

Mange* —This is caused by a small mite 
which sets up a great itching. Thoroughly 
wash the animal with warm water and soap. 
After he has dried rub in the following oint¬ 


ment : 

Flowers of sulphur.4 ounces. 

Oil of turpentine.1 ounce. 

Lard.8 ounces. 


Mix thoroughly. 

Trichinosis. —The trichina is a small 
parasite that infests flesh of animals, 


especially hogs, and is occasionally trans¬ 
ferred to man by eating pork, sometimes 
with fatal results. No cure is known. Do 
not feed slaughter-house offal, and insist on 
pork being thoroughly cooked. 

Worms. —These are very common in 
young hogs, but are not harmful unless in 
great numbers, when they may cause loss of 
flesh. Keep the hog without food for 
twenty-four hours, then give a tablespoonful 
of turpentine thoroughly beaten up with one 
egg and a half pint of milk. Give good 
food and care. 

Breeds of Poultry. 

American Class. —There are four 
breeds of American origin. They are the 
Plymouth Rock, Wyandotte, Java and 
American Dominique. The Plymouth 
Rocks may be termed the leading barnyard 
fowl in this country, as they are probably 
the most popular general-purpose family 
fowl we have, besides being extensively 
used for market. The mature cock should 
weigh 9 y 2 pounds, and the hen 7 
pounds. As a breed they are apt to have 
some imperfections, notably a tendency to¬ 
wards a deposition of fat and a narrowing 
of the breast, though in general they prove 
profitable if kept healthy, hatched early 
and grown skillfully. The popularity of 
Plymouth Rocks is owing largely to their 
capacity to grow and develop early and to 
lay at the same time a profitable number of 
eggs. They are active and vigorous, yet 
easily kept in confinement, and are not in¬ 
jured by climatic changes in temperature 
and moisture. The common color is light 
and dark gray, in alternate bars, though 
there are white and buff varieties. 

Wyandottes are stocky fowls, with bare 
legs and toes, and a better breast and 
shorter legs than the Plymouth Rocks. The 
cock ought to weigh S}4 pounds, and the 
hen 6}4 pounds. While Rocks are better 
for eggs, the Wyandottes are superior for 
flesh, especially for the early maturity of 
breast, and, hence, are one of the best 
breeds for broilers. The Wyandottes are 
quiet and have little inclination to range. 

As a connecting link between the Orien¬ 
tal and American breeds, the Java has had 
a great influence in this country. It is 











FARM AND STOCK BOOK 


2 45 


larger and coarser than the Plymouth Rock, 
and is a hardy, vigorous fowl and a prolific 
layer of large eggs, though lacking a com¬ 
pact form. The Dominique is smaller than 
the Plymouth Rock, the barred variety of 
which it closely resembles in color. The 
cock is darker and the hen lighter than 
these sexes in the Rocks, and they are also 
distinguished by a rose-comb. 

Asiatics. —Included in this class are 
the Brahma, Cochin, and Tangshan. These 
breeds were unknown in this country till 
the treaty ports of China were opened in 
1840. Soon the fowls were imported, and 
took the names of the provinces from which 
they came. They are marked for large size 
and abundant, loose plumage, extending to 
the shanks and feet. The Brahma is the 
largest of the three breeds. The weight of 
the cock should be 12 pounds, and of the 
hen 9% pounds. The Cochin has the same 
weights as the Tight Brahma, while the 
Black Brahma weighs a small amount 
lighter, and the Tangshan requirement is 10 
pounds for cock and 7 for the hen. The 
Tight Brahma is the only one of the Asiatic 
breed not merely a fancier’s fowl, and the 
attention given to plumage, especially with 
the other breeds, has tended to weaken the 
constitutions.. Brahmas are slow-growing, 
and if not hatched by May will not mature 
by fall. They are compact in form, and 
give dark eggs. Their habit of incubation 
is strongly developed, and they lay well 
during winter if early hatched. 

The Cochin is later than the Brahma in 
maturing and is not so compact. The 
plumage is loose and abundant, and the 
habit of incubation is very strongly marked. 
All but the buff variety are almost entirely 
fanciers' stock. The Tangshan is the small¬ 
est and hardiest of the Asiatics and is grow¬ 
ing in popularity. They are fairly good 
for flesh production, and early maturity can 
be acquired by crossing. 

Mediterranean. —The members of this 
class are valued primarily for their great 
e gg producing qualities, characterized by 
their prolific production of large white eggs. 
The breeds included in this class are the 
Teghorn, Ancona, Minorca, Andalusian and 
Spanish. The Teghorn is the most im¬ 
portant breed, and it has sported into many 


varieties ; it is the most popular and useful 
breed of fowls in the United States. It is a 
small, lithe, graceful bird, and is thought 
by some to be rather delicate, but whether 
this is true or no, there is no doubt that it is 
the greatest layer that sits on a nest. The 
Minorca is larger than the Teghorn, and 
later in maturing. It has a long, deep 
body, and though it does not lay as soon as 
the Teghorns, its age of usefulness is longer. 
Its eggs are uniformly large and white. It 
is not quite so hardy as the Teghorns. The 
other three breeds of this class are of little 
interest except to fanciers and students. 

Polish. —This class includes several 
varieties all furnished with a crest of up¬ 
right feathers on top of the head, arising 
from a bony protuberance of the skull, and 
is the only crested breed numerous in this 
country. They are small fowls, laying small 
eggs. It is hard to breed them with the 
proper colors. Though ornamental, the 
Polish fowls are not very active, are tender, 
and especially sensitive to wet, their out¬ 
ward characteristics having been attained at 
the sacrifice of constitutional vigor, which is 
the usual result of breeding to fancy points 
both in poultry and other kinds of stock. 

Hamburg. —Previous to 1880 this class 
was popular for eggs in this country, but 
since then the Teghorns have largely super- 
ceded them. They are smaller than the 
Teghorns, are active, strong flyers, have 
lost the inclination to incubate, and they 
lay small eggs. Their rose-combs are very 
perfect. 

French Breeds. —There are three of 
these which have met with some favor in 
America as general-purpose fowls. These 
are the Houdan, and Creve-Coeur, valued 
for their eggs, and Ta Fleche, of merit as a 
flesh-producer. All three breeds lay white 
eggs, and they are all somewhat delicate in 
constitution for our climate. 

Dorkings. —This class is to fowls what 
the shorthorn is to cattle. It was formerly 
called English, having been originated in 
England. It is pre-eminently the breed for 
high quality of flesh. It is large, short¬ 
legged, close-bodied, with a heavy breast; 
is sluggish in habit and lays large white 
eggs. It is longer in the body than the Ply¬ 
mouth Rock, and is peculiar in having a 




246 


FARM AND STOCK BOOK 


fifth toe. Originating as it did in the uni¬ 
form climate of England, the Dorking is 
rather tender for the more rigorous climate 
of the Northern States. It crosses well with 
other breeds, and causes a marked improve¬ 
ment of their flesh. 

Care and Management. 

Hatching. —The eggs to be hatched 
should be from strong healthy fowls and 
have every chance of being fertile. There 
are two principal ways of incubation—the 
natural method of hatching under the mother 
hen, and the artificial application of heat by 
an incubator. While the first method is 
still used when poultry are raised on a small 
scale, the latter is much preferable for the 
production of chicks in any but very small 
numbers. 

For mothers, select medium-sized hens 
that are not fat and clumsy and yet not 
nervous and fidgety, and get them used to 
being handled. There is no absolute rule 
governing the number of eggs to be put 
under a hen. It will depend on the size of 
the hen, the size of the eggs and the season. 
From ten to fifteen will probably be suit¬ 
able. The box to contain the nest should be 
large enough to allow the hen to turn about 
freely and so placed that she cannot be in¬ 
terfered with by other hens. The nest 
should be lined with some soft material, such 
as broken oat-straw or hay carefully spread 
out and pressed around, hollowed a little, 
and the edges raised to prevent the eggs 
from rolling to the sides where the hen can¬ 
not cover them. Yet if the nest is too con¬ 
cave, they roll close together, and when the 
hen steps among them on entering the nest 
they do not separate and some are liable to 
be broken. One of the best foods for set¬ 
ting hens is corn. The attendant should 
see that they leave the nest once a day to eat 
and drink. 

Artificial Incubation. 

As has been said, this is accomplished by 
the use of an incubator, of which there are 
different types made by various manufac¬ 
turers. They may, however, be divided 
into two general classes ; those which are 
heated by hot air, and those warmed by 
radiation from a tank of hot water, in both 


cases the heat being supplied by a lamp. 
The apparatus should be put in a warm, dry 
and well-ventilated room of uniform tem¬ 
perature, usually in a basement or cellar. 
Before filling the trays with eggs the incu¬ 
bator should be left several days to dry it 
out and give the operator an opportunity to 
acquire skill in running it at the proper 
temperature, which is from 102° to 103°. 
The eggs used should be as fresh as possible, 
and none over ten days old. After it is 
started, no more eggs should be put in until 
the hatching is complete. Until the nine¬ 
teenth day the eggs are turned and aired 
daily. After the machine has run five to 
seven days, the infertile eggs should be 
tested out according to the directions fur¬ 
nished with the machine. If the air space 
in the eggs is too small towards the end of 
the time tor hatching, moisture is applied. 

Young Chicks. —Whether hatched in 
an incubator or in a nest, the chicks should 
be taken out soon after leaving the egg. 
From the incubator they are removed to a 
brooder, and from the nest to a warm basket 
near the kitchen stove. Immediately be¬ 
fore leaving the egg their little stomachs are 
filled with yolk which will nourish them for 
thirty-six hours. Till this time has elapsed 
they should not be given any food, for it 
would only overload their systems and cause 
trouble. Success in rearing depends very 
largely on attention to feeding. Health and 
rapidity of growth depend as much on how 
as on what they eat. The chicks after 
hatching should be kept in a temperature of 
90° to ioo° and not given food until they 
call for it. Food should be given often, 
regularly, and in small amounts. The in¬ 
fertile eggs, boiled hard and mixed with 
some fine grain-food, like corn meal or wheat 
middlings, makes a good ration. In three or 
four days after commencing to eat, the 
chicks should have some sort of grit, and in 
three or four days more they will eat dry 
food, such as rolled oats. They should be 
fed once in two hours during daylight for 
two weeks. At three or four weeks old 
they can eat much the same kind of food a& 
the old chickens. 

The Fuock. —Fowls need plenty of rich 
food. They are constantly growing feathers 
which are rich in nitrogen, their flesh is 






FARM AND STOCK BOOK 


247 


principally lean meat, and their eggs are 
provided with a large amount of proteid ma¬ 
terial. Grain-food is also an important va¬ 
riation of diet, and cut bones and lime are 
valuable adjuncts. 

Poultry are very susceptible to dampness, 
and should be raised on a naturally-drained 
sandy or gravelly soil for ideal conditions. 
The smaller the number of fowls running 
together the greater will be the proportion¬ 
ate production, and forty to sixty may be 
taken as the number most suitable for one 
flock. Grass is the best way of applying 
the green food, and hence a wide range is an 
advantage. About fifty fowls will take one- 
tenth of an acre of pasture and a floor space 
in the poultry-house of 12 by 24 feet. 

Parasites and Diseases. 

Trouble from parasites arises from ne¬ 
glect on the part of the poultryman, and can 
always be overcome by vigilance and intel¬ 
ligence. To prevent the ravages of disease 
the points to be attained are cleanliness, 
pure water, frequent use of disinfectants, 
isolation of sick fowls, proper food, comfort¬ 
able houses, a judicious selection of breeds 
to suit the climate, and prompt attention to 
and treatment of those that are sick. 

Body Lice. —These are small, light- 
colored insects, that scurry about rapidly on 
the fowl’s skin, infesting largely the pos¬ 
terior parts of the body. They have biting 
mouth parts and live on the fluff and scurf 
of the body, and annoy the fowl by irritating 
the skin. If the fowl has an opportunity to 
dust there is no danger of much trouble. 
Death never results except sometimes with 
young chicks under an infected mother. 
The best dust is fine-sifted coal ashes. 

Cholera. —A disease of the digestive 
organs marked by very loose bowels, full 
crop, fever and great thirst. Food is re¬ 
fused, the comb is purple, and the fowl 
usually dies in two days. Cholera remains 
in the soil which becomes infected from the 
droppings, and is carried from place to place 
on the feet of animals. Soil should be dis¬ 
infected by saturating it with a weak solu¬ 
tion of sulphuric acid in water. All well 
birds should be removed to clean quarters 
and sick birds killed and burned. When not 
too far gone, the ravages of the disease may 


be checked by giving the medicine recom¬ 
mended below for diarrhoea. 

Crop-bound. —Marked by a hardening 
and distension of the crop, owing to stop¬ 
page of the passage from the crop to the 
gizzard. A tablespoonful of sweet-oil and 
a gentle kneading of the crop with the fin¬ 
gers sometimes gives relief. Give no food 
except a little milk till the crop is empty. 
Force down the throat a tablespoonful of 
pulverized charcoal wet with milk. If the 
crop does not then empty itself, pull a few 
feathers from the upper right side of it and 
make a cut in the outer skin about an inch 
long with a sharp, clean knife. Cut open 
the crop and remove its contents, including 
the obstruction. With a needle and white 
silk thread take a few stitches first in the 
crop skin and then in the outer skin. Put 
the bird in a coop and feed for a few days 
on moist bran and meal mash. 

Diarrhcea. —This is caused by cold, 
wet, filthiness, and improper food. Whenever 
a fowl droops and appears purged give imme¬ 
diately, in a tablespoonful of warm water, a 
teaspoonful of strong brandy or whisky sat¬ 
urated with camphor, and repeat the dose 
daily till checked. Give warm barley meal, 
or rice meal mixed with lime-water. If 
these remedies do not check the discharge, 
give the following powder mixed with a 


little meal: 

Powdered chalk.5 grains. 

Cayenne pepper.2 grains. 

Powdered rhubarb.5 grains. 


Gape Worm. —The only parasite at all 
fatal to fowls is the gape worm. It is a 
worm living in the windpipe of young fowls, 
subsisting on the animal fluids, sapping the 
vitality and finally causing the death, in a 
majority of cases, of its host. The worm 
during part of its life lives in the ground, 
and is sometimes introduced into the throats 
of its victims by their eating earthworms, in 
which it passes part of its existence. The 
irritation in the throat causes the fowl 
to sneeze. As the worms grow the chick 
chokes and gasps for want of breath. Pre¬ 
ventive measures are the most practicable. 
Keep the chickens on dry ground, and if 
the soil is known to be infected house them 
on a board floor till four weeks old, when 
the danger of fatal infection is slight. To 










2 4 8 


FARM AND STOCK BOOK 


remove the worms put a few drops of kero¬ 
sene in a teaspoonful of sweet-oil. Dip in 
the oil a soft wing feather stripped to within 
an inch of the end of its web, and insert in 
the windpipe. Twirl it around and with¬ 
draw, when some of the parasites will likely 
come with it. Or gum camphor may be 
given in the drinking water or in pellets as 
large as a pea pushed down the throat. 

Hen L,ouse. —This is really not a louse, 
but a mite, which will take advantage of 
any carelessness of the poultryman, espe¬ 
cially in warm weather. It does not live on 
the fowl, but in the cracks of the roost and 
walls, attacking the fowls when roosting at 
night, and sapping their vitality by sucking 
their blood. It rarely kills hens, though 
they may be so troublesome as to check 
their egg-laying. Have the house as free 


from cracks as possible, and spray it once a 
month with strong kerosene emulsion or 
tar-water, beginning in May and continuing 
through the summer. Whitewash the walls 
with a brush or spray-pump. 

Roup. —This disease in its early stages 
resembles a cold in the head, and is later 
marked by a watery discharge from the eyes 
and nostrils, at first clear, but afterwards 
thick and offensive in smell. It is very con¬ 
tagious by diffusion in the air and by con¬ 
tact with the secretions of the sick fowls. 
Burn a sulphur candle in the chicken house 
after turning out the fowls, keeping the 
doors and windows tightly closed. Put one 
part sulphuric acid in 200 parts of drinking 
water, and add a little cayenne pepper or 
mustard to the food. Isolate sick fowls. 


FARM MANAGEMENT 


There is hardly an industry in this 
country that has not gone through great 
changes in methods of operation in the last 
century, and, though agriculture as a pro¬ 
fession and farmers as a class have been 
considered as adhering rather strenuously 
to the old order of things, no one can gain¬ 
say the fact that mighty changes have taken 
place in the fields as well as in the factories 
and furnaces, and that the farmer of one 
hundred years ago would stand aghast to 
witness the sight of grain bound with a 
binder and separated by a threshing machine, 
or to see corn chopped and raised into the 
silo, silage fed to cows, milk separated on a 
separator, the cream flavored with an artifi¬ 
cial culture of bacteria, churned, worked, 
and salted in the same machine, which is 
run by steam-power. But while the rapid 
strides in commercial industries have been 
taking place for some time, the evolution in 
agricultural methods has only just started, 
and during the opening century we may ex¬ 
pect to see improvements in methods now 
undreamed of. It has been prophesied that 
electricity would help the farmer by driving 
his plows and wagons and other machinery. 
This is, to say the least, extremely visionary 
and remote, and not a probable outcome 
within the lives of any witnessing the meth - 


ods of to-day. But the better knowledge of 
our soils, our plants, and our fertilizers and 
manures will surely help the farmer to grow 
better crops ; and the understanding of the 
processes of digestion and assimilation of 
food by animals, and the kinds of nourish¬ 
ment needed for different purposes of main¬ 
taining life or producing a profit will as¬ 
suredly assist the stockman, who will also 
understand the laws of breeding,—of hered¬ 
ity, crossing, inbreeding. To the dairyman 
will be the knowledge of the various changes 
which take place in his milk and cream— 
processes governed by physics, chemistry, 
bacteriology. And last, but not least, the 
farmer, besides knowing his farm operations, 
will know himself, will appreciate the neces¬ 
sity for individual enterprise, and will be a 
wide-awake, observing, practical, thorough¬ 
going business man, who is not confined to 
a rut of method nor is soaring in high flights 
over the crests of unpractical visions. 

The Soil. 

Soils may be classed as sand, clay, 
loam, and humus soils. The one most pre¬ 
ferred for the majority of crops is a loam, or 
one containing in suitable proportions sand, 
clay, and humus. Sandy Soils dry out and 
warm up quickly in spring, and are easy to 




FARM AND STOCK BOOK 


2 49 


work, but they are composed mainly of 
silicates and are not, as a rule, either rich in 
plant-food or in power of retaining what is 
supplied to them artificially. Yet they have 
them uses in gro wing peaches and market gar¬ 
dening crops where earliness is an important 
feature. Sandy soils are greatly improved 
by plowing under green crops and manure, 
and by an application of lime, say forty 
bushels per acre, which tends to hold the 
grains of soil together. 

Clay lands arc not considered desirable 
oy most farmers, and, if improperly man¬ 
aged, become a great annoyance. Pears 
and some other fruits do well on clay soils, 
and, when judiciously managed, such soils 
have the advantage over sandy land of hav¬ 
ing a less easily exhausted supply of fer¬ 
tility. Clay lands may be improved by 
lime, which flocculates the fine soil particles 
into larger ones, making the soil more por¬ 
ous and thus facilitating its aeration, tillage 
and drainage. 

Loamy soils are usually considered the 
most durable. With sufficient clay to give 
body and strength, enough sand to lighten 
up and make porous the land, and with 
abundant humus to provide friable texture 
and increase the water-holding capacity, the 
loam stands first in the list of desirable 
soils. By Humus Soils are meant such as 
are found in low land and have once been 
the beds of ponds or other sources of accu 
mulation of quantities of vegetable matter. 
They are usually lacking in mineral matter, 
and though, for the most part, rich in nitro¬ 
gen compounds, they are not favorable to 
the conversion of these into nitrates, in 
which form they are soluble and capable of 
being taken up by plants. Hence, we see 
that though each kind of soil has its ad¬ 
vantages, the exclusive use of any one is 
prevented by overwhelming disadvantages 
in most cases, so that a combination of all 
gives a soil of the highest possible practi¬ 
cability. 

Fertilizers for the Farm. 

The potential or inactive plant-food is so 
closely held in many soils, that constant 
cropping without the addition of any fer¬ 
tilizer is certain to deplete and exhaust it,- 
and result in the condition so common upon 


some New England farms, and rapidly ap¬ 
proaching on the large bonanza tracts in 
the northwestern wheat belt. It has been 
said that “ tillage is manure,” and it is one 
of the fundamental labors of agriculture 
most potent in setting free the stored-up 
plant-food in the soil, as has been already 
discussed under tillage; but it is often 
profitable to supplement it by adding to the 
soil something to improve its physical text¬ 
ure and help set free the plant-food already 
there, as is often done by adding lime to 
heavy clay soils, or the direct application of 
the actual elements of plant-growth in a 
form available, or readily made available, 
for the plant’s nutrition. Fertilizers may 
be classed under two heads, natural and 
artificial. 

Natural Fertilizers. —By these we 
mean the fertilizers that are naturally pro¬ 
duced from the farm, namely, manure and 
underturned crops. As is well known, 
manure applies to the solid and liquid ex¬ 
crements of animals, mixed with more or 
less absorbent material. Before discussing 
manure we must find out why we use it. We 
say to enrich the soil. That is, to supply the 
three elements of plant-growth, nitrogen, 
phosphoric and potash, in which the soil is 
most lacking. Manure is also beneficial in 
adding humus to the soil and thereby im¬ 
proving the texture and increasing the 
water-holding capacity. 

Most manures are unbalanced; that is, 
they have more nitrogen than phosphoric 
acid and^ potash. But nitrogen is much 
more readily washed out of the soil than the 
other two, so that in the long run the differ¬ 
ence is not so great as would appear. The 
quality of manure depends on the kind and 
age of the animal and the conditions under 
which it lives and how the manure is kept. 
The manure of young animals is not as rich 
as that of older ones, since they digest their 
food more closely, and the milk fed to the 
very young ones is nearly all digestible. 
The young animal needs its food for building 
its body, while the older animal having 
attained its growth uses food only to main¬ 
tain its life or give a surplus product. Ani¬ 
mals of different kinds differ in their ability 
to digest closely. In general it may be said 
that the smaller the species of animal the 




250 


FARM AND STOCK BOOK 


richer will tlieir manure be. Thus hen 
manure is much richer in fertilizing elements 
than cow manure. It has been found at the 
Cornell Experiment Station that the average 
value of different manures is as follows : 


Cow manure.$2.43 per ton. 

Horse manure. 2.49 per ton. 

Pig manure. 3.18 per ton. 

Sheep manure. 4.30 per ton. 

Hen manure. 4.35 per ton. 

The daily value of manure was computed as 
follows: 

Cow, per 1,000 pounds of animal . . . . 8 to 10 c. 
Horse, per 1,000 pounds of animal . . . 6 to 8 c. 
Pig, per 1,000 pounds of animal . . . . 12 to 15 c. 


A cow giving milk gives less valuable 
manure than an animal being fattened. 
Manure is also influenced by the kind and 
quantity of food ; that from a nitrogenous 
ration being more valuable than that from a 
carbonaceous or starchy diet, since it will 
contain more nitrogen. The amount and 
character of the absorbent is another factor 
in determining the value of manure. Ma¬ 
nures containing large amounts of dry bed¬ 
ding, which decomposes slowly, are best 
spread over land in the fall. If applied in 
large amounts and plowed under in spring, 
they keep the water from the surface-soil, 
and thus make it dry. 

Proper Care of Manure. 

It is much too common a practice among 
farmers to throw their manure out of the 
barn window and allow it to lie on the 
ground all winter exposed to the leaching of 
every rain, thus washing out the valuable 
nitrates which are soluble in water, and 
pouring the fluid reeking with fertility into 
the roadside or stream instead of on the 
fields. It would pay every person who 
raises stock to any extent to build a shed to 
protect his manure ; for if we count the 
cost of those elements of plant fertility when 
purchased as artificial fertilizers and realize 
that one-third to one-half of the value of 
manure is often wasted in a season, we can 
see that it would take only a few years to 
pay for a shed with the manurial value saved. 
For those who have no such protecting 
structure, it would be better to draw their 
manure from the stable directly to the field 
as fast as made. On dairy farms a covered 
barnyard affords an opportunity for shel¬ 


tered exercise for the stock and a means of 
protecting the manure from the weather. 
The manure can be drawn from it directly 
to the field every two weeks or month. 

How TO Apply. —Moderately-rotted ma¬ 
nures are best applied on the surface, in late 
summer or early fall, as soon as the ground 
is plowed, and mixed with the surface soil 
by a harrow or cultivator in the case of 
wheat, rye and such crops, may be put on 
the planted fields in winter as soon as 
made, when the weather will permit. What 
is made during the last few months before 
the animals go to pasture, at which time 
the ground will be too soft to draw on the 
fields, may be stored and rotted for use in the 
fall as described. Heavy applications of ma¬ 
nure are sometimes an injury to orchards, 
oats, or barley, by increasing the vegetative 
growth at the expense of fruit and grain, 
while forage crops like corn, millet, timothy 
and blue-grass are rarely injured but are 
usually helped by it. It is much better to 
apply little and often than a large amount 
at once, when it is liable to be wasted by 
washing before the plant can use it. About 
ten tons per acre are usually the most that 
can be profitably applied at one time. 
Earge amounts of manure spread in winter 
on clay lands, especially those covered with 
grass, tend to keep them cold and wet ur.td 
late in spring. Coarse manure may be a 
detriment also tc sandy land by making it 
dry. When such unrotted manures are 
spread from the wagon in winter they are 
likely to be distributed unevenly, and should 
be spread more evenly in the spring before 
they become dry. 

I11 applying manure to the soil we do 
not give any plant food that was not first 
taken from it, unless we have bought food 
for the stock. The plants raised have been 
passed through an animal which takes out 
certain ingredients, and the residue is re¬ 
turned to the soil. With stock kept for fatten¬ 
ing, as steers and hogs, or animals of burden, 
such as horses, the part of the food used 
is the fat, heat and force-making, starchy 
part which has been made by the plant out of 
water and air, and a large amount of the ni¬ 
trogenous compounds are returned through 
the manure to the soil. But where a prod¬ 
uct is given by the animals, as milk on the 








FARM AND STOCK BOOK 


2 5 r 


dairy farm, a considerable amount of the 
nitrogenous material is taken from the food, 
leaving the manure less rich in nitrogen 
than manure of fat-stock. 

It is often advisable to give more humus 
to the soil than can be supplied where but a 
limited amount of manure is to be had. 
This is very effectually done by plowing 
under a green crop like clover, buckwheat, 
or rye. These are valuable both for im¬ 
proving the soil-texture and enriching the 
ground. It may be said of this method as 
of manure, that it returns nothing of fertil¬ 
izing value to the soil that it did not take 
from it first, and this is true with all but 
leguminous plants, such as clover, alfalfa, 
beans, peas, and vetches, which have the 
ability to use the nitrogen in the air and re¬ 
turn it to the soil when they are plowed 
under. But the crop gathers plant-food 
from all parts of the soil, and leaves it in a 
much more readily available form than it 
found it. This, then, is one of the methods 
of unlocking the stores of plant-food in the 
soil, and when the crop is plowed under 
what it has gathered is left for succeeding 
crops. Except in special cases, as in young 
orchards, where too much nitrogen may do 
harm, it is best to grow leguminous plants 
for green manuring, when they will “catch” 
and the season is suitable. By thus grow¬ 
ing clovers or vetches and plowing them 
under, considerable nitrogen which these 
plants have appropriated from the air 
through nodules on their roots may be 
added to the soil. Clover is especially val¬ 
uable on account of its long tap-root, which 
brings food from the subsoil and makes air- 
passages in the soil by its subsequent decay. 
There are three ways of green manuring: a 
full-season crop ; a catch-crop, grown be¬ 
tween other crops during the season ; and a 
cover-crop, which is sown late in the season 
and protects the soil over winter. The ideal 
way is to make the crop to be plowed under 
a full season crop coming regularly in the 
rotation. When this is not practicable, one 
of the other methods may be employed. On 
hard and poor lands it is sometimes impos¬ 
sible to get clover to catch. By plowing 
under one or two crops of field peas the soil 
may be made so mellow as to make clover 
a successful crop. Plants used for green 


manuring, and especially rye, should be 
plowed under before they grow large and 
woody. If rye is hard when turned under, 
it will decompose slowly, absorb consider¬ 
able water from the soil, and may cause 
acidity. 

Artificial Fertilizers. —The differ¬ 
ent brands of plant-food to which the gen¬ 
eral name of artificial fertilizers is applied 
contain one or all of the three elements, 
nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. 

Nitrogen comprises four-fifths of the air, 
yet is the most expensive to buy. It pro¬ 
motes vigorous growth of the vegetative 
parts, as the leaves and stalks, sometimes 
at the expense of fruitfulness and hardiness. 
It prolongs the season of growth and gives 
to foliage a dark green color. The prin¬ 
cipal forms of nitrogen are nitrate of soda, 
which is soluble in water and, hence, very 
readily available and easily washed from the 
soil, and sulphate of ammonia and dried 
blood, which are not soluble or so quickly 
available for the use of plants. 

Phosphoric acid is next to nitrogen in 
importance. It promotes fruitfulness and 
hardiness, shortens the season of growth, 
and gives strength and vigor to young 
plants. The sources are bones, beds of 
rock in South Carolina and Florida, and, to 
a small extent, basic slag. There are three 
forms, soluble, reverted, and insoluble, 
made up respectively of one part of phos¬ 
phoric acid combined with one, two, and 
three parts of lime. The less lime in the 
compound, the more soluble and readily 
available is the fertilizer to plants. 

Potash is important in forming firm, 
woody tissue and the fleshy parts, like 
fruits, potatoes and roots. Potash is mined 
in Germany and sold as kainite, containing 
12 per cent, potash ; muriate, having 50 per 
cent., and sulphate of potash, giving 45 per 
cent. Good wood ashes contain 5 to 6 per 
cent potash. 

Lime may be called an indirect fertilizer, 
because it has a powerful action in setting 
free plant-food in the soil. It has two other 
actions on the soil. It alters the physical 
condition, causing loosening of clay soils 
and the binding together of sand. By neu¬ 
tralizing the acidity of wet or sour soils, it 
favors the growth and action of certain 




252 


FARM AND STOCK BOOK 


bacteria which are necessary to the decom¬ 
position or nitrification of organic forms of 
nitrogen and the formation of nitrates that 
are soluble in water and can be used by 
plants. Quicklime is the best form. 

Salt is sometimes applied to soils, but it 
has no use as a plant-food, and is of no 
value unless by its action of absorbing 
moisture. 

Purchasing Fertilizers. 

As commercial fertilizers, the farmer can 
buy the various forms of nitrogen, phosphoric 
acid, and potash, singly or in combination. 
A “ complete” fertilizer contains all three. 
It has been too common a practice among 
some farmers to buy the brand with the 
most smell and the longest name. Neither 
one is a suitable guide. The guaranteed 
analysis is the only guide to go by. Many 
companies place upon the market brands 
which they have put up to be used on the 
different crops. In the South specified 
formulas for various crops seem to give 
more marked results than in the North, 
probably because the soil is lighter and is 
more susceptible to fertilizers. In the 
heavier soils usually found in the North the 
actual proportion to a pound of the different 
ingredients makes little difference, for some 
of the contents of the fertilizer will probably 
be locked up in the soil for several years. 
The first question for the farmer to decide 
before buying is which of the three elements 
of fertility is required by a certain piece of 
land and a 'certain crop, and what is the best 
form to get it in. 

Some companies charge much more for 
their brands than their contents are worth, 
and induce the farmer to buy them by show¬ 
ing a long and incomprehensible analysis. 
One should never buy fertilizers without 
knowing just what they contain and what 
they are for. The following prices are ap¬ 
proximately an average valuation for the 
different forms of fertilizer ingredients. 
They differ according to locality : 


Nitrogen in ammonia salts.14c. per lb. 

Nitrogen in nitrates.13c. per lb. 

Phosphoric acid (soluble). 5c. per lb. 

Phosphoric acid (insoluble). 3c. per lb. 

Potash as sulphate. 5c. per lb. 

Potash as muriate.. . . 4^c. per lb. 


Ten per cent, should be added to cover 
expenses of manufacture, bagging, and 
profits. When computing the value of a 
fertilizer from the analysis on the bag, take 
the minimum guaranteed figure ; thus, if it 
reads “ Nitrogen, 4-5 per cent.,’’use four in 
figuring the value. Cross off all lines of 
analysis beginning with “equal to” and 
“ total” ; they are repetitions to delude the 
farmer into thinking he is getting a great 
deal for his money. The cheapest fertilizer 
is the one which contains the most plant- 
food for the money. 

How much and what kinds of fertilizers 
to use depends on the kind of soil as to 
richness and texture, on the kind of crop, 
and the intensity of the farming. It is a 
matter to be worked out by every farmer for 
himself. It is a fact that every farmer 
should realize that fertilizers are valuable 
more as a supplement to the plant-food in 
the soil than an actual season’s supply for 
the crop, and are especially useful in the 
early part of the plant’s growth by supply¬ 
ing in a concentrated form food for the 
young plant before it has extended its root 
system far into the soil. Fertilizers are 
most effective when used in conjunction 
with barn manures, green manures, and 
thorough tillage. 

Rotation of Crops. 

The effect of continuously growing the 
same crops on the soil year after year is 
shown on the once rich prairie lands of the 
West, where this method is fast exhausting 
their fertility. The results are more plainly 
evident on some of the abandoned farms of 
New England, whose fertility was once 
mined rather than cultivated when they 
were new and rich. 

Though different crops are all composed 
of the same elements taken as food from the 
soil, they do not use them in the same 
amounts. Thus the root-crops require pot¬ 
ash, the grain phosphates, and the forage 
crops nitrogen. Plants have different meth¬ 
ods of getting the same kinds of food. Clo¬ 
vers can get nitrogen from the air, and nearly 
all classes of plants differ in their root sys¬ 
tems and consequently in their foraging area 
in the soil. So if we grow one crop all the 
time, it will exhaust one part of the soil 










FARM AND STOCK BOOK 


while not using the other. A shallow-rooted 
or deep-rooted plant should not be exclu¬ 
sively grown upon any one soil. We there¬ 
fore practice rotation of crops, that is, grow¬ 
ing a different crop on the soil each year 
from the one grown there before. In this 
way we give the land different kinds of treat¬ 
ment in preparation for the crop and during 
its growth. Some crops are intertilled and 
some are not, and so we give the weeds 
different treatment. It is well known that 


253 

certain insects and diseases infest certain 
crops. If we change crops we disturb the 
homes of the insects and cut off their supply, 
and allow time for the diseases to die out 
before we plant the same crop again. The 
rotation which a farm shall practice must 
in every case be governed by individual and 
local circumstances, and the system must be 
suited to the soil and the kind of farming. 
In most markets certain crops pay the best. 
In some soils certain crops grow the best. 


DAIRYING 


The) Herd. —In some parts of the country, 
especially in the Middle and Western States, 
general-purpose animals are kept which are 
depended on to give both a supply of milk 
when living, and to be easily fattened for 
beef. This may be profitable with a com¬ 
paratively small number of animals, but 
where a specialty is made of dairy products, 
it is best to get the grade of cattle best 
adapted to dairying. These will not be the 
ones most suited to beef production. The 
object is to get as large an amount as pos¬ 
sible of rich milk at the least cost of food. 
Most herds are composed of grade cows, the 
offspring of pure-blood sires and common 
dams. Especially where milk is sold for 
consumption, the herd should be examined 
frequently by an experienced veterinarian, 
and all unhealthy animals, particularly those 
suffering with tuberculosis, excluded. 

Milk. —Milk is provided by Nature for 
the nourishment of the young of mammals, 
but in the cow many years of breeding and 
selection have greatly augmented milk secre¬ 
tion, so that with some breeds it is nearly 
continuous. For a short time alter the birth 
of the calf the milk has a peculiar compo¬ 
sition and is called colostrum. After a few 
days it assumes its usual consistency and is 
then fit for use. The analysis of an average 
sample of normal milk is as follows : 


Water.87.0 per cent- 

Fat.2 to 8.0 per cent. 

Casein.3.0 percent- 

Albumen.0.5 per cent. 

Sugar.4.88 per cent. 

Ash.0.7 per cent. 


The per cent, of fat determines the qual¬ 
ity of the milk, and is governed by the indi¬ 


vidual character of the cow. The per cent, 
of water is also variable. There is no 
certain way of influencing the per cent, of 
fat in the milk by feeding foods rich in fat 
or by any prepared medicines. The richness 
of milk depends wholly upon the breed and 
individuality of the cow, and cannot be 
altered by any change in food. This shows 
the great importance of having good animals 
in the herd to start with. It is true that the 
per cent, of fat may vary slightly, and may 
increase when the cow is turned to pasture 
or other change of food is made, but such 
instances are usually followed by a reaction 
and falling off in the fat which keeps the 
average nearly constant. The amount of 
milk given by a cow is very easily influenced 
in a great many ways, and the total amount 
of fat given varies proportionately. The 
kind and quantity of feed and the care of the 
animal are important factors in determining 
the amount of milk given. It sometimes 
occurs that milk tastes of the garlic eaten by 
the cow. This can be prevented by taking 
the cow from pasture three or four hours be¬ 
fore milking, when the odor will pass off 
through the system. Bad odors and tastes 
can also be given to milk by other foods, 
especially when fed in excess, which cause 
indigestion and fermentation in the intes¬ 
tines . Rotting roots and bad ensil age should 
never be fed. 

Secretion oe Milk. —Milk is formed 
from the blood in the small milk follicles 
existing throughout the udder, which are 
connected by branching milk ducts to the 
milk cisterns, where the milk is held after 
secretion until drawn. Maternity is the 










254 


FARM AND STOCK BOOK 


primary incentive to milk secretion, though 
it is possible to cause secretion of milk in 
a virgin animal by stimulating the organ by 
friction of the hand or the sucking of the 
calf. The milk flow is greatest after partu¬ 
rition, and diminishes as the period of lacta¬ 
tion advances, especially if the animal 
becomes pregnant, which usually causes a 
shrinkage in milk flow four or five months 
after conception. The incomplete removal 
of milk has a marked tendency to check its 
secretion, and great care should be taken to 
strip clean, especially as the last milk drawn 
is the richest in fat. It is also important to 
milk regularly, and the more evenly the 
twenty-four hours can be divided, the bet¬ 
ter. Milk should be drawn without dis¬ 
comfort to the animal, with a firm, uniform, 
rapid stroke—a stroking motion to the 
lower part of the udder, folio ved by a con¬ 
traction of the fingers, beginning at the top 
of the hand and forcing the milk down. 
The fingers should not slide on the teat and 
the hands ought never to be wet with milk 
to make the teat slippery. Unusual exer¬ 
cise, sudden fright, an unfamiliar milker, 
sexual excitement, or an animal in heat in 
the herd, may cause a serious diminution of 
secretion. 

Care of Milk. —Whether milk is to be 
consumed as such or to be manufactured 
into butter or cheese, great care should be 
taken of it. Cleanliness should be the 
watchword of the dairyman. The cows 
should be kept in clean stables and milked 
before bedding. Avoid vessels with seams 
and rusty spots. Clean them by rinsing in 
’ukewarm water and then thoroughly wash¬ 
ing with scalding water, followed by an ap¬ 
plication of live steam or exposure to sun¬ 
light for two or three hours. Allow no 
cakes of dry milk in the cracks. Such 
changes as the fermentations of souring, 
ropiness, “bloody bread,” sweet curdling, 
etc., which take place in milk are caused by 
the growth of bacteria , minute organisms 
which find in milk a most congenial 
place to live, feed, and multiply. They 
usually get into milk by dirt, which 
contains great numbers of them, hence 
it is necessary to exclude dust and dirt. 
The cows should be brushed every 
day, and the belly and udder wiped 


just before milking. The air should be free 
from dust and the milker’s clothes and 
hands clean. Dampening the floor will 
keep down dust and, in summer, cool the 
air. The milk should be strained as soon 
as possible through wire-cloth and cheese¬ 
cloth, and then be rapidly cooled to a tem¬ 
perature below that of the atmosphere. 
Milk served to customers should be cooled 
and aerated in a milk-cooler—the animal 
odors being thus got rid of—and put in sealed 
bottles to prevent further contamination. 
Milk containing 4 per cent, of fat is of 
about the proper degree of richness for th* 
average person. The only satisfactory way 
to ascertain the per cent, of fat is by the 
Babcock test, with which every dairy 
should be supplied. A record should be 
kept of the amount of food given and the 
weight and richness of milk obtained from 
each cow. 

Butter-making. —The first operation 
in this process is the separation of the 
cream. There are three ways of doing this 
namely, by the Shallow Pan System, i{ 
which gravity allows the lighter cream to 
rise to the top ; by the Deep Setting System, 
in which gravity acts on a deeper quantity 
of milk usually submerged in water; and, 
thirdly, by the Centrifugal Separator. The 
first method mentioned is the oldest and 
still a common practice on many farms. 
The Deep Setting System came into vogue 
over thirty years ago, and has since been 
largely superseded by the Centrifugal Sepa¬ 
rator, which has been so improved that 
even for a few cows and the family use it is 
a desirable machine, and will soon pay for 
itself by saving the fat which the skimmer 
would lose. 

Ripening is a change undergone by cream 
before being made into butter. Cream sepa¬ 
rated by gravity is ready for ripening as soon 
as removed from the milk. Separator cream 
is cooled to 50° Fahrenheit and kept at that 
temperature for six or eight hours. The 
ripening, which is really souring, is caused 
by germs of lactic-acid fermentation. The 
access of these germs, or inoculation, may 
be left to luck, or they may be supplied in a 
starter made from buttermilk of a previous 
churning or a commercial culture. During 
ripening the cream is kept at a temperature 




255 


FARM AVD STOCK BOOK 


of 6o° to 70° F. When the cream assumes 
a somewhat thickened, glistening appear¬ 
ance it is ready for churning. It is import¬ 
ant to have the cream at the proper stage of 
ripening to obtain the best results, and this 
is learned only by experience. 

Churning should be done in a hollow 
vessel—barrel or box—without inside con¬ 
trivances (unless a combined churn and 
worker), and not by the old-fashioned 
splasher churn of our mothers. Agitation 
by contact with a splasher makes the butter 
soft. The temperature of churning ranges 
from 50° to 66° F. Butter comes quicker 
when the cream is churned warm, but the 
grain is not so good, and it is more sus¬ 
ceptible to warmth afterwards. Milk from 
fresh cows contains larger fat globules than 
that from animals farther advanced in lacta¬ 
tion. The larger the globules the more 
easily they unite and the shorter the churn¬ 
ing. To have uniform churnings it is best 
to have the cows come in fresh at all times 
during the season, and especially in the win¬ 
ter, when considerable dry feed is given and 
the globules are likely to be small. When 
the fat has gathered together in particles the 
size of kernels of wheat, the buttermilk is 
drawn off and the contents of the churn cov¬ 
ered with water at a temperature of 45 0 to 
50°. After ten minutes this is drawn off 
and the butter washed a second time in the 
same manner. 

FACTS AND FIGURE 

To Measure Grain in Bins. —Multiply the 
length of the bin in inches by the width in inches, 
and that by the height in inches, and divide by 
2,150 for struck bushels, and by 2,748 for heaped 
bushels. The quotient will be the number of 
bushels contained in the bin. 

To Estimate the Weight of Cattle.— Multi¬ 
ply the girth in inches, immediately back of the 
shoulders, by the length in inches from the square 
of the buttock to the point of the shoulder-blade, 
and divide the product by 144, which will give the 
number of superficial feet. If the animal has a 
girth of from 3 to 5 feet, multiply the number of 
superficial feet by 16, which will give the weight 
of the animal. If the girth is from 5 to 7 feet, 
multiply by 23, and if from 7 to 9 feet, multiply by 
31. If less than 3 feet girth, as in the case of 
small calves, hogs, sheep, etc., multiply by 11. Of 
course many circumstances, such as the build of 
the animal, mode of fattening, condition, breed, 
etc., will influence the weight, but the above will 
be found approximately correct. 


Working is done to remove the surplus 
water, to incorporate the salt, and to bring 
the butter into a compact form. Any further 
working is unnecessary, and results in in¬ 
juring the grain of the butter. Least harm 
is done when the butter is worked at a tem¬ 
perature of 45 0 to 55 0 F. 

Salt is added for the flavor which it 
imparts, and the amount therefore depends 
upon the taste of the consumer, averaging 
between three fourths ounce and one ounce 
to the pound. It is important, however, 
that once having settled on a proportion of 
salt, the butter-maker should maintain it 
accurately to supply a uniform product. 
The butter should be worked until the 
salt is entirely dissolved, otherwise the 
darkening effect of salt will cause mottled 
butter. 

The color of butter should be a bright 
golden yellow, such as is natural from a 
cow fed fresh pasture grasses. During a 
great part of the season this color must be 
supplied artificially by a butter-color made 
from annatto, the amount added and color 
obtained depending on the market demands. 

The following is the average composi¬ 
tion of butter : 


Fat.85 per cent. 

Casein.1 percent. 

Salt.3 per cent. 

Water.n percent. 


5 FOR THE FARMER 

Measurement of Hay. —The only exact 
method of measuring hay is to weigh it, but the 
rules given below will be found sufficient for ordi¬ 
nary practical purposes: 

To Find the Number of Tons of Meadow 
Hay in Windrozvs . —Multiply together the length, 
breadth, an4 height, in yards, and divide the prod¬ 
uct by 25. The quotient will be the number of 
tons in the windrow. 

To Find the Number of Tons of Hay in a 
Mow. —Multiply together the length, height, and 
width, in yards, and divide by 15 if the hay be well 
packed. If the mow be shallow, and hay recently 
placed therein, d^ide by 18, and by any number 
from 15 to 18, according as the hay is well packed. 

To Find the Number of Tons of Hay in 
Square or Long Stacks. —Multiply the length of 
the base in yards by the width in yards, and that 
by half the height in yards, and divide by 15. 

To Find the Number of Tons of Hay in a 
Load. —Multiply together the length, width, and 
height, in yards, and divide the product by 20. 








256 


FARM AND STOCK BOOK 


To ascertain the value of a given number of 
lbs. of hay, straw, or otner commodity sold by the 
ton, at a given price per ton, multiply the number 
of lbs. by one-half the price per ton, and point off 
three figures from the right. The result will be 
the price of the article. 

fleasurement of Wood and Lumber. —A 

cord of wood contains 128 cubic feet. To ascertain 
how many cords there are in a pile of wood, multi¬ 
ply the length by the height, and that by the width, 
and divide the product by 128. 

How to Measure Land, —If the field be a 
square or parallelogram it is an easy matter to 
multiply the length in rods by the width in rods, 
and divide by 160, the number of square rods in an 
acre. If the field be triangular, multiply the 
length of the longest side in rods by the greatest 
width in rods, and divide half the product by 160. 
If the field be of irregular shape, divide it into 
triangles, and find the acreage of each triangle as 
above. All straight sided fields can be thus meas¬ 
ured. Where the sides are crooked and irregular, 
take the length in rods in a number of places at 
equal distances apart, add them, and divide by the 
number of measurements, which will give the 
mean length ; proceed similarly with the width, 
multiply the mean length by the mean width, and 
divide by 160. Where the field is in a circle, find 
the diameter in rods, multiply the square of the 
diameter 7.854 and divide by 160. 

How to Lay Out an Acre in Rectangular 
Form. —An acre of land contains 160 square rods, 
or 43,560 square feet. Hence, to lay out an acre at 
right angles (square corners), when one side is 
known, divide the units in the square contents by 
the units of the same kind in the length of the 
known side. Thus: if the known side be 4 rods, 
divide 160 by 4, and the quotient 40, will be the 
depth of the acre-plot. If the length of the known 
side be 90 feet, divide 43,560 by 90, and the 
quotient, 48, will be the depth of an acre-plot. 


rieasures of an Acre Plot. • 

Either of the following measures include an 
acre-plot: 


3 by 53 1-8 rods 

4 by 40 “ 

5 by 32 

6 by 26 2-3 “ 

12 rods 10 feet and 8 y 2 inches square make an acre 


7 by 22 6-7 rods. 

8 by 20 “ 

9 by 17 7-8 “ 


10 by 16 rods. 

11 by 146 11 “ 

12 by 13 1-3 “ 


Seed to the Acre. 


The opinions of farmers diiier materially : and 
then the climate and soil bav^ much to do with 
the quantity. The quantity of seed sown broad¬ 
cast to the acre is about as follows: 


Wheat . . . . 
Barley . . . . 

Oats. 

Rye. 

Buckwheat . . 
Millet . . . . 
Indian-corn , , 


1^ to 2 bush. 

i '/ 2 to 2J4 “ 

2 to 4 “ 

I to 2 “ 

to iy 2 “ 

1 to iy 2 “ 

I to 2 “ 


Beans . 


to 3 

bush. 

Peas. 

. . . 2 l / 2 to y / 2 

< < 

Hemp. 


to iy 2 

ii 

Flax. 

. . . J^to 2 

i i 

Timothy. 

. . . 12 

to 24 

qts. 

Mustard. 

. . . 8 

to 20 

< < 

Redtop. 


to 16 

< < 

Flat Turnip. 

... 2 

to 3 

lbs. 

Red Clover. 

. . . 10 

to 16 

< < 

White Clover. 

• • • 3 

to 4 

ii 

Kentucky Blue-Grass . . 

. . . 10 

to 15 

<< 

Orchard Grass. 

. . . 20 

to 30 

< < 


The quantity per acre, when planted in rows, 
in drills, is about thus : 


Broomcorn.1 to 

Beans. 1 %. to 

Peas. \]/ 2 to 

Peanuts.1 to 

()nions.4 to 

Carrots.2 to 

Parsnips.4 to 

Beets.4 to 


1/2 

2 

2 

2 

5 

5 

6 


bush. 


lbs. 


Hay .—A ton is 512 cub. ft. in the mow ; that 
is, when it has settled down and become solid. 

Weight of Various Products. 

Per bush< 

Wheat.60 lbs. 

Corn (shelled).56 “ 

“ (on the cob).70 “ 

Rye . ..56 “ 

Barley.48 “ 

Buckwheat (in Pennsylvania).50 “ 

“ (in Kentucky).52 “ 

“ (in Massachusetts).48 “ 

Oats (in Ills., Mass.).32 “ 

“ (in Ohio) .33 “ 

“ (in Kentucky).33^ “ 

“ (in Maine and Pennsylvania) . . . 30 “ 

Clover-seed.60 “ 

Flax-seed.56 

Timothy-seed.45 

Hemp-seed.48 

Bluegrass-seed.14 

Red top seed.14 

Hungarian-grass seed.50 

Broom-corn seed.52 

Sorghum seed.40 


Corn-meal 


50 


Bran. 2 o 

Beans.60 

Onions (in Pa. and Kentucky) . . . . .57 

“ (in Massachusetts).52 

Salt, Turks Island.76 

“ Syracuse.56 

“ Liverpool.50 

Potatoes.60 

Peas.64 

Dried Apples (in Pennsylvania) .... 22 

“ (in Illinois).24 

“ Peaches (in Pennsylvania) .... 33 

“ “ (in Illinois).32 


< < 
ii 
ii 

a 































































BOOK V. 

BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 

THE LATEST AND MOST SENSIBLE STATEMENT OF THE RULES GOV 
ERN1NG SOCIAL INTERCOURSE—THE ETIQUETTE OF CONVERSATION 
OF PARTIES, OF VISITING, OF RECEIVING, OF WEDDINGS, OF FUNER¬ 
ALS, OF ALL PRIVATE AND PUBLIC OCCASIONS, AND OF LETTER¬ 
WRITING OF ALL KINDS. 

WHAT TO DO, WHAT TO WEAR, WHAT TO SAY, WHAT TO WRITE 


17 c 


257 






Book of Etiquette 

WHAT TO DO—WHAT TO WEAR—WHAT TO SAY—WHAT TO WRITE— 
THE CORRECT THING AT HOME—AT PARTIES—AT WEDDINGS 
—AT ALL PUBLIC AND PRIVATE FUNCTIONS 


GENERAL PRINCIPLES 

Good manners stand next to a good 
heart in adapting men and women to the 
community in which they live. Indeed, so 
far as the opinion of ordinary society rules, 
they go further, for however gifted by 
nature or education one maybe, or however 
well-intentioned and virtuous in conduct, if 
he is ignorant of the customs and require¬ 
ments of good society, is awkward or un¬ 
graceful in manner, careless in speech, and 
heedless of social demands, and even of the 
arbitrary dictates of fashion, he risks expos¬ 
ing himself to ridicule, and maybe neglected 
or contemned, while men far below him in 
character and ability, but with superior 
knowledge of correct social deportment, 
may become the admired favorites of the 
world. In short, it may be said that success 
in life often depends far more on appearance 
and deportment than on innate character. 

According to Swift, good manners are 
the art of making those people with whom 
we converse feel at ease. This is doubtless 
true so far as conversation is concerned. 
Persons of generous impulses naturally seek 
to render themselves agreeable to those into 
whose company they come, and are no more 
eager to gain enjoyment for themselves than 
to bestow pleasure upon others. The art ot 
pleasing is, in truth, a simple one, but fre¬ 
quently its cultivation is too much neglected. 
Many persons become so solicitous for the 
promotion of their own pleasure as to forget 
that their neighbors have claims upon them. > 


OF GOOD MANNERS 

Yet every man who enters society should 
bear in mind that, in a sense, he ceases to 
be an individual, and becomes part of an 
association, a social organism, as it has been 
called ; met together, not for any one’s per¬ 
sonal gratification, but for the pleasure of 
the whole company. 

The first requisite in our intercourse with 
the world, and the chief in giving pleasure 
to our associates, is sincerity of heart, a 
quality which lends the same ornament to 
character which modesty does to manners. 
A second important element of social be¬ 
havior is lack of self-assertion, a modesty 
of manner, native or acquired, which is in 
no sense inconsistent with firmness and dig¬ 
nity of character. The well-bred man feels 
at ease in all companies, is modest without 
appearing bashful, and self-possessed with¬ 
out an undue forwardness of manner. 

The Art of Conversation. 

To one who would make his way in the 
society of intelligent people, a well-selected 
fund of information and anecdote is a highly 
important prerequisite. An enlightened 
understanding and a store of interesting 
knowledge are essential to him who would 
shine in conversation. None can hope to 
make small talk go far with people of cul¬ 
ture, and all who wish to win credit in social 
circles will need something deeper end more 
enduring than chat on passing trifles and 
‘ local events. 


259 




26 o 


BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


The faculty of communicating thought 
is, in a great measure, peculiar to man, and 
the pleasure which he derives from the in¬ 
terchange of ideas is one of his leading ele¬ 
ments of enjoyment. There is nothing more 
agreeable to most persons than pleasant, 
sprightly, fluent conversation, spiced with 
anecdote, and seasoned with the results of 
good reading, and we are all happily consti¬ 
tuted to take delight in the mutual inter¬ 
change of thoughts. 

The best rule of conversation undoubt¬ 
edly is, to “adapt yourself to your com¬ 
pany.” Thus commercial men enjoy con¬ 
versation on subjects having some relation 
to affairs of business; men of pleasure, 
whose thoughts are given only to entertain¬ 
ment, prefer light talk on pastimes or social 
events ; and professional men love to dwell 
on new books, the discoveries of scientists, 
the latest doings in the arts, and similar 
learned subjects. 

Attention to these suggestions will be of 
use in helping men of learning and men 
of pleasure alike to derive mutual advantage 
from their different qualifications, and we 
need but say further that those who wish to 
please should be well informed on subjects 
of most general interest, whether this interest 
be of temporary or permanent character. 
An accurate and extensive knowledge on 
learned subjects is far from being sufficient 
for conversational needs, and may lead to 
prosy and wearisome talk in the opinion of 
less erudite people; one must also have a 
ready knowledge of the common occurrences 
of life, and of important events which are 
arising day after day, must know something 
of the fine art of chatting, and how to spice 
heavy subjects with anecdote and illustra¬ 
tion. The art of conversation is a difficult 
one to acquire, and fine conversers must be 
born with a native faculty in that direction. 

Avoid Heated Argument. 

Speech is so vital an element of social 
intercourse that too much attention cannot 
be given to its requisites, or too much study 
to its cultivation. 

In conversation it is of high importance 
to avoid heated argument. Difference of 
opinion is likely to arise very frequently, 
but one should always express his views 


calmly and gently, and avoid all eager or 
loud assertion. It is not so important that 
you should force your auditors to accept 
your special views. If your antagonist 
begins to grow warm, you should at once 
put an end to the argument by a quiet turn¬ 
ing of the conversation. Disputes severely 
try the temper of many men, and are likely 
to end in the mortification of one disputant, 
generally with no advantage to the victor. 
They should, therefore, be avoided. 

Yet no one is called upon, for the sake 
of avoiding argument, to give a general 
assent to all that is said in company. As¬ 
sent without conviction indicates a mean 
and subservient spirit, and may tend to con¬ 
firm others in wrong opinions. Yet it is 
wise to oppose calmly and correct with 
gentleness, and, while showing that you 
have a mind of your own, to show that you 
respect the opinions of your companions. 

Consider the Feelings of Others. 

Do not speak in a loud voice or assume 
a dictatorial tone, and if a statement is 
made which you know to be incorrect, be 
careful of the manner in which you correct 
the speaker. Suggest a correction, rather 
than make it; and if the matter is unim¬ 
portant it is far better to let it pass un¬ 
noticed. There is nothing more unwise 
than to insist on trifles. Those who go 
abroad to correct the world’s mistakes are 
apt to find themselves very frequently in 
hot water. If addressed in an offensive 
tone, it is the part of wisdom not to notice 
it; an intention even to insult or annoy can 
safely be passed over for the time being. 
One should consider the feelings of the 
other persons present, and not annoy them 
with personal affairs of a disagreeable 
character, nor permit others to force him 
into a quarrel in company. There is, of 
course, a limit of insult which a self-respect¬ 
ing man can not let pass ; but to bear and 
forbear is the part of good manners. * Quar¬ 
rels can be left to bide their time, and there 
is no better way of repelling an inuendo 
than by ignoring it or treating it as un¬ 
worthy of notice. Such a thing as a 
“ scene ” in society is, above all things, to 
be avoided. It is the insulter who loses 
social caste, not the insulted. 





SPECIAL DECORATIONS 

The table is prepared for a special occasion and profusely decorated with flags—potted plants and vines. This answers for 
all Patriotic occasions. At the right is a beautiful window box and hanging basket. 



TABLE DECORATIONS 

A happy suggestion for the arrangement and decoration of a dinner-table for a special occasion, such as a wedding dinner. 
The contrast of light draperies on the walls and the green of the plants is very effective. 




















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26l 


BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


Care in the Use of Witticisms. 

If you have wit, or fancy you have, 
which is oftener the case, it is well to use it 
with caution and judgment, and particularly 
to avoid seeking butts for your wit among 
your associates. Wit is a quality which 
all admire, yet which most fear, and which 
no one enjoys being made the victim of. 
If used in a satirical manner it is often malig¬ 
nant in character, and any man possessed of 
this cutting weapon may find much better 
occasioi s for its use than against the self- 
love or the foibles of his acquaintances. A 
wise man, indeed, will live as much within 
his wit as within his income, and it is far 
better to be content with good sense and 
reason, which can never hurt, than with 
this shining but cutting plaything of wit. 
However you may be admired for your 
sharpness of repartee, it is still true that 
respect and affection can be won only by 
good sense and amiable consideration of the 
feelings of others. 

There is a species of minor wit, that 
known as raillery, which is much used, and 
much abused. It is a dangerous and mis¬ 
chievous weapon in unskilful hands, and 
had better be left entirely alone. In truth, 
the injustice of a bad man is often more 
quickly forgiven than the insults of a witty 
one. The former injures us in property ; 
the latter hurts us in soul, mortifying that 
secret pride which we all possess. Raillery, 
indeed, is not always offensive ; it may even 
be used to flatter, as when we accuse one of 
faults which they are notoriously free from. 
But this sort of raillery needs a skilled hand 
to manage, and had better be left quite 
alone if it cannot be handled judiciously. 

All can be Agreeable. 

It is not given to every man to be a 
brilliant talker, or to express himself in 
writing with elegance or force. Both of 
these are gifts of the few, not possessions of 
the many. There is, however, no reason 
why any person who goes into society 
should be ignorant of the rules of polite in¬ 
tercourse, or fail to master all the customary 
forms of address. 

It is almost useless to repeat that your 
conversation should be adapted to your 
company, for that is a golden rule which 


one should know almost by intuition. In 
mixed groups one should sedulously avoid 
all such mooted points as politics and reli¬ 
gion, and every topic likely to excite argu¬ 
ment or lead to heated discussion. 

You cannot be too careful in avoiding, 
in mixed assemblages, subjects which may 
prove to point directly to some persons 
present. For instance, do not speak of the 
laxity of the divorce laws when Mr. M. or 
Mrs. N. may, unknown to you, have passed 
through the divorce court. And do not 
express yourself strongly against second 
marriages, when there may, perhaps, be one 
or two examples among your listeners. If 
a sudden silence, with perhaps a conscious 
look, follows your words, you had better 
change the subject as quickly as possible, 
and be glad that you have escaped from a 
hornets’ nest without a sting. 

Avoid Referring to Your Own Exploits. 

Talk of yourself and your own affairs as 
little as possible, and bear in mind that to 
drag into a general conversation the names of 
distinguished persons to whom you may be 
related, or who may be numbered among 
your friends, is more apt to excite contempt 
than to yield admiration. To speak of your 
own exploits, or give examples of your 
special prowess and sagacity, without re¬ 
quest of the company, is always in bad 
taste, and is more likely to gain you credit 
for self-conceit than for the qualities boasted 
of. Leave matters of this kind for people 
to find out and you will gain more credit. 

Above all, avoid any effort to monopo¬ 
lize the conversation. It is presumptuous 
and offensive in any person to imagine that 
his or her words alone are of interest, and 
impolite to rob others of the opportunity to 
speak. This is a common fault in fluent 
talkers, who are, besides, often so interested 
in what they wish to say as to be plainly 
inattentive to what others are saying. 

Personal allusions or flattering remarks 
are often in very bad taste. Words spoken 
in jest may be taken in earnest, and should be 
guarded against unless you are with intimate 
friends, who will not be likely to put a false 
construction on your words. If you intend 
a jest, you are wasting your effort if your 
point cannot be seen. 





262 


BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


Puns and slang terms should, as a rule, 
be avoided. They at times fit in neatly, but 
a habit of indulging in them.is a bad one. 
It must be remembered that there is a slang 
of the mansion as well as of the hovel, of 
the drawing-room as of the street. The 
technical terms of professions or trades have 
occasionally the effect of slang in general 
society, and simple, plain language should 
always be used in preference. It is not al¬ 
ways advisable to bring the phrases of the 
office or the factory into social circles. 

Express yourself simply and clearly. 
Avoid all attempts at elegance or pompos¬ 
ity. Use the easiest and plainest language 
you can, and stop speaking when you have 
said what you desired. “Brevity is the 
soul of wit,” therefore “speak little, but 
speak well, if you would be thought a per¬ 
son of good sense.” 

Other Rules Worth Observing. 

Should a person enter the room in which 
you are conversing, and the conversation be 
continued after his arrival, it is only courte¬ 
ous to acquaint him with the nature of the 
subject to which it relates, and to give him 
an idea of what has passed. 

Be cautious in relating anecdotes. Un¬ 
less you can tell a story with ease and 
effect, it is better not to attempt it, and, 
above all, do not mimic the peculiarities, 
infirmities, or short-comings of others in 
general society. You may give offense to 
some one present who is a friend of the per¬ 
son caricatured, and in any case such a pro¬ 
ceeding is not commendable. 

Do not speak of what passes in a house 
that you are visiting. To do so may often 
give great offence. 

You need not tell all the truth unless to 
those who have a right to know it all. But 
let all you tell be the truth. 

Do not offer advice unless you know it 
will be followed, and carefully beware how 
you advise an angry or an opinionated person. 
As a rule, advice not asked is not welcomed. 

Be cautious as to asking questions. The 
reply may be very embarrassing to the per¬ 
son of whom the question is asked. 

Do not volunteer information, especially 
in public ; but be very sure you are correct 
in what you state as facts. 


Do not sit dumb in company, but bear 
your share in the general conversation. Do 
this with modesty and self-possession, neither 
thrusting yourself forward, nor hesitating 
where you should speak. It is better to be 
a good listener than a good talker, yet it is 
a duty to take your part in entertaining. 

It is not necessary to express your opin¬ 
ions upon all subjects ; but if you give 
utterance to them, do so fearlessly, frankly, 
and with courteous regard for the opinions 
of others. The greater your learning, the 
more modest should be your manner of 
expressing it. 

A Winning Manner. 

Another important element of social de¬ 
portment is a graceful and easy bearing, and 
that softness and amiability of manner which 
is so engaging in our intercourse wfith the 
world. Such a manner is more easily felt 
than described. It is a compound of several 
elements of character and conduct; not a 
servility of demeanor, but an affability and 
courtesy in speech and expression ; and this, 
whether or not you agree with the person or 
persons with whom you are conversing. 

This should be particularly considered 
when we are obliged to refuse a favor asked 
of us, or to say what cannot be very agree¬ 
able to the person to whom we say it. If 
we have a bitter pill to administer, we should 
at least seek to sweeten it with courtesy and 
kindness. Yet this softness of manner will 
sink into a mean and timid complaisance, 
or insincere affectation, if not supported 
by firmness and dignity of character; and 
one should, while cultivating courtesy, be 
careful to avoid insincerity or fear of truth¬ 
ful expression. To be winning at the 
expense of truth and honesty is to convert a 
virtue into a fault. 

Genuine easy manners result from a con¬ 
stant attention to the relation of persons and 
things, times and places. When we con¬ 
verse with one much superior to us in 
station or in the world’s appreciation, we 
should seek to be as easy and unembarressed 
as with our equals, avoiding sedulously any 
show of servility or flattery, yet indicating 
in word, look and action, the greatest 
respect. In the society of our equals greater 
ease and liberty are allowable; but they, too, 



BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


have their proper limitations. There is 
a social respect in every case necessary, and 
though our language may have a greater 
degree of latitude among friends and equals, 
its freedom should never be unbounded. It 
is always safer to say too little than too much. 

An engaging ease of carriage and behavior 
widely differs from negligence and inatten¬ 
tion, and by no means implies that one is 
justified in consulting only his own pleasure 
in society ; it only means thathe should not 
be formal or embarrassed, disconcerted or 
diffident. It need only be said that the 
thing it is correct to do should be done with 
ease and ability ; the improper thing should 
not be done at all. 

In mixed companies different ages and 
sexes should be differently addressed. Al¬ 
though it is our duty to be respectful to all; 
old age particularly requires to be treated 
with a degree of deference and regard. It 
is a good general rule to accustom ourselves 
to have a kindly feeling towards every thing 
connected with our fellows, and when this 
is the case, we shall seldom err in the appli¬ 
cation . The inward feeling will appear in 
the outward conduct. 

Principles of Politeness. 

Another important point in decorum is, 
not to force upon others our own present 
humor or passing sentiment, but to observe 
and adopt theirs. If for the moment we are 
impressed with some strong feeling or in a 
humor out of tone with that of the com¬ 
pany, we should either restrain ourselves, 
keep silent, or confine our conversation to 
those who are most likely to be in sympathy 
with our frame of mind. Peremptoriness 
and conceit, especially in young people, is 
contrary to good breeding: they should 
seldom seem to dissent, and always use 
some softening mitigating expression. 

There is a decorum also with regard to 
people of the lowest degree; a gentleman 
observes it with his coachman, and even 
indeed with the beggar in the street. He 
considers them as objects of compassion, not 
of insult; he speaks to neither in a harsh 
tone, but corrects the one gently, and re¬ 
fuses the other with humanity. 

Politeness is one of those social virtues 
which we never estimate rightly but from 


263 

the inconvenience of its loss. Though per¬ 
haps not distinctly perceived when present, 
its absence is strongly indicated. The dif¬ 
ference between a polite person and one who 
is impolite is very marked, yet those who do 
not possess good breeding rarely understand 
its importance and worth. But as sickness 
shows us the value of health, so a little 
familiarity with those who do not trouble 
themselves to contribute to the gratification 
of others, but regulate their behavior merely 
by their own will, will soon make evident the 
necessity of established modes and formali¬ 
ties to the happiness and quiet of common 
life. 

Wisdom and virtue are by no means suf¬ 
ficient, without the supplemental laws of 
good breeding, to secure freedom of manners 
from degenerating into rudeness, or prevent 
self-esteem from developing into insolence. 
Incivility and neglect of proper social ob¬ 
servances do not necessarily yield remorse 
of conscience or reproach from reason in 
those who have not been taught to consider 
the feelings of others as well as their own. 
Yet genuine politeness always gives ease 
and pleasure, while its opposite is likely to 
impart pain or disgust. The power of 
pleasing must in great part be conferred by 
nature, though in a considerable measure it 
may be cultivated. But though it be the 
privilege of the few to charm and shine in 
society, yet all may hope, by the cultivation 
of good breeding and polite manners, to 
make themselves agreeable to their asso¬ 
ciates, though they should have no claim to 
higher distinction. 

The axiom from which flows all the for¬ 
malities of cultivated society is: “ Let no 
man give preference to himself.” This is a 
comprehensive rule, and it is difficult to 
imagine an incivility unless it is in some 
measure broken. 

Good Breeding. 

Yet there are everywhere particular cere¬ 
monial requisites of good breeding, often of 
local application, which, being arbitrary or 
accidental, can be learned only by residence 
and observation. Among these are forms of 
salutation, gradations of reverence, and 
various rules of place and precedence. Yet 
these may be violated without giving offence 



264 


BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


by one who is evidently a stranger to them, 
and when it is apparent that neither malice 
nor pride had a share in their non-observ¬ 
ance. And however rigidly these and other 
rules of behavior be observed, they can 
never condone insolence or selfishness. 
True courtesy is that which flows from the 
heart, not that which is worn only on the 
surface. 

Real good breeding is not always to be 
found among those who spend their time in 
visiting, in frequenting public entertain¬ 
ments, in studying ceremonial rules, and in 
keeping in pace with the changes of fash¬ 
ionable regulations. Such people may know 
what fashion demands in acts of deportment 
and ceremony, but they too often confine 
themselves to the exterior and unessential 
elements of civility, and are much too apt to 
consider their own gratification as of more 
value than the pleasure of others. 

The most certain way to give any man 
pleasure is to persuade him that you receive 
pleasure from him, to encourage him to 
freedom and confidence, and to avoid any 
such appearance of superiority as may over¬ 
bear and depress him. We see many who, 
by this art alone, spend their days in the 
midst of caresses, invitations, and civilities ; 
and, without any extraordinary qualities or 
attainments, are the universal favorites of 
both sexes. 

In assemblies and places of public resort 
it is frequently observed that at the entrance 
of some particular person every face bright¬ 
ens with gladness, and every hand is ex¬ 
tended in salutation. Yet, often, if you 
follow this favorite beyond the first exchange 
of civilities, you will find him of only 
ordinary abilities, and welcome to the com¬ 
pany simply as one by whom all conceive 
themselves to be admired, and with whom 
any one is at liberty to amuse himself when 
he can find no other auditor or companion. 
He can place all at ease if he will hear a 
jest without criticism, and a narrative with¬ 
out contradiction, laugh at every wit, and 
yield to every disputer. 

All are at some hour or another fond of 
companions whom they can entertain upon 
easy terms, and who will relieve them from 
solitude, without requiring them to guard 
their speech with vigilance and caution. 


We are most inclined to love when we have 
nothing to fear, and he that encourages us 
to please ourselves, will not be long without 
preference in our affection to those whose 
learning holds us at a distance, or whose wit 
calls all attention from us, and leaves us 
without importance and without regard. All 
men dislike to be placed in such unpleasant 
contrast, even though they cannot but 
admire the abilities which they are incapable 
of rivalling of even unable to imitate. 

The Demeanor of a Lady. 

An agreeable, modest, and dignified 
bearing is not only one of the most desir¬ 
able requisites of a young woman, but her 
best warrant to claim the title of lady. 
Whatever may be the transient demand of 
fashion, whatever the passing rule of custom, 
that which is amiable, graceful and true in 
taste will always please the majority of man¬ 
kind. A young lady, if she have any true 
claim to the title, should not require to have 
allowances made for her. If properly 
trained, and blessed with a just conception 
of social requisites, her address will be 
gentle and polite, her manner courteous, and 
she will need but an opportunity for observ¬ 
ation to gain those minor graces and habits 
which the local customs of society may 
demand. The general rules of social ob¬ 
servance are world-wide in their application, 
and familiarity with them flows almost 
inevitably from good sense and a good dis¬ 
position. 

On being introduced to a stranger, there 
is no insincerity in the display of a degree 
of pleasure. The well-trained girl will 
acknowledge the introduction to an elder 
person with a respectful bow and a deferen¬ 
tial manner. To one of her own age she 
will strive to make herself agreeable even 
if not particularly attracted towards the per¬ 
son introduced. It is the excess of impolite¬ 
ness to let it be seen that she does not care 
for her new acquaintance, to look over her 
dress at once, as if taking an inventory of it, 
to wear a supercilious manner, or to appear 
hurried, as if anxious to get away at the 
first break in the conversation. Politeness 
demands that she should show a degree of 
pleasure in the introduction, and courtesy, 




BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


265 


that she should avoid any action likely to 
give pain or offence. 

Incivilities to be Avoided. 

Such suggestions are hardly necessary. 
The instinct of a true lady will teach her to 
observe these basic rules of courtesy. Yet 
there is a heedlessness in many of the young, 
and an unacknowledged selfishness, which 
often lead to Incivilities of which they are 
themselves unaware. 

In conversation volubility is to be 
avoided. The words should be gently 
spoken, and the voice loud enough to be 
heard easily, but still with a degree of 
repression, an undertone below the full 
powers of the voice. Affectation especially 
should be avoided. It was once in fashion, 
but was always strained and unnatural, and, 
fortunately, has long ceased to be the mode. 
Like many peculiarities of bygone times, 
one meets with it now only in vulgar society. 
The well-bred sedulously avoid affected 
tricks of speech. 

The manner of using the eyes also calls 
for regulation. The open stare and the 
shy withdrawal of the eyes are alike to be 
avoided. They should be raised quietly 
and with interest to those of the speaker, 
and only ^withdrawn when his remarks are 
concluded. This, of course, is not neces¬ 
sary if he is speaking to a number, but even 
then the eyes should not indicate inatten¬ 
tion, and should be more or less steadily 
fixed on the speaker’s face. 

There is, in addition, a certain dignity 
of demeanor necessary to make even the 
most superior persons respected. This dig¬ 
nity cannot readily be taught; it can hardly 
be assumed ; it must flow in great measure 
from intrinsic qualities, though even the 
finest natural powers may lose their in¬ 
fluence through carelessness, and may be 
enhanced by attention and training. This 
dignity is distinct from pretension, which 
yields disgust rather than respect. A true 
lady will be equal to every occasion, and at 
home in all grades of society. Her polite¬ 
ness, her equanimity, her presence of mind, 
should be in evidence alike in the court and 
in the cottage. 

Private vexations should never be al¬ 
lowed to affect a lady’s manners, either at 


home or elsewhere. If not in condition for 
society, she should refrain from entering it, 
remembering that every one is expected and 
should hold herself bound to add something 
to the general sum of enjoyment. The self- 
control required in good society is often 
beneficial alike to the temper and the 
spirits. 

Many a plain woman has won and kept 
the affection of others merely by being al¬ 
ways gentle and womanly in manner. To 
gain an empire over the affections there 
must be somewhat of sentiment or sym¬ 
pathy in the nature of a woman. The loud, 
boastful, positive young lady will never be 
remembered with a soft interest, unless there 
be, perchance, some gentle strain in her that 
redeems her from her assumed hardness. 

Flirtation. 

With regard to flirtation, it is difficult to 
draw a limit where the predilection of the 
moment softens into a more tender and 
serious feeling, and flirtation sobers into an 
earnest form of devoted attention. 

We all dread for our daughters hasty 
and questionable attachments ; but it must 
not be supposed that long-practiced flirta¬ 
tions are without their evil effects on the 
character and manners. They excite and 
amuse, but they also exhaust the spirit. 
They expose women to censure and mis¬ 
construction, and tend to destroy the charm 
of manners and the simplicity of the heart. 
The coquette should remember that, with 
every successive flirtation, one charm after 
another disappears, like the petals from a 
fading rose, until all the deliciousness of a 
fresh and pure character is lost. On all 
these points a woman should take a high 
tone in the beginning of her life. She will 
learn, as time goes on, how far she may 
consistently lower it into an easier and 
more familiar tone of social intercourse. 

The bearing of married women should 
so far differ from that of the unmarried that 
there should be greater quietness and dig¬ 
nity ; a more close adherence to forms ; 
and an abandonment of the admiration 
which has been received before marriage. 
All flirtation, however it may be counte¬ 
nanced by the existing custom of society, 
should be decisively put aside. There is, 



266 


BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


however, no reason that conversation should 
be less lively, or society less agreeable. 

If a young married woman wishes to be 
respected, and therefore happy in life, there 
should be a quiet propriety of manner, a 
dignity towards the male sex, which cannot 
be mistaken in her for prudery, since it is 
consistent with her position and her ties. 
She should change her tone, if that has been 
unrefined ; she should not put herself on a 
level with young unmarried women of her 
own age, but should influence and even lead 
her youthful acquaintance into that style of 
behavior which is much esteemed by men of 
good taste. 

Demeanor of a Gentleman. 

One must be a gentleman before he can 
act the gentleman. To put on a semblance 
of what we do not possess is simply to ex¬ 
pose ourselves to the world, which will not 
be slow in discovering the false show, and 
ridiculing or despising the hypocrisy. May 
good breeding be acquired as an art ? Yes, 
in a measure, so far as dress, ceremonial de¬ 
portment, and outward display of gentility 
go. One may ape the gentleman, even 
while not being the gentleman. Yet there 
is a something beyond this, visible in every 
word and tone, which makes the true gen¬ 
tleman, and to gain which one must train 
his heart as well as his manners. 

In the well-chosen words of Ruskin : 
“A gentleman’s first characteristic is that 
fineness of structure in the body which ren¬ 
ders it capable of the most delicate sensa¬ 
tion, and of that structure in the mind which 
renders it capable of the most delicate sym¬ 
pathies—one may say, simply, ‘ fineness of 
nature.’ This is, of course, compatible 
with heroic bodily strength and mental 
firmness; in fact, heroic strength is not 
conceivable without such delicacy. Ele¬ 
phantine strength may drive its way through 
a forest, and feel no touch of the boughs ; 
but the white skin of Homer’s Atrides 
would have felt a bent rose-leaf, yet subdue 
its feelings in glow of battle, and behave 
itself like iron. I do not mean to call an 
elephant a vulgar animal; but if you think 
about him carefully, you will find that his 
non-vulgarity consists in such gentleness as 
is possible to elephantine nature; not in his 


insensitive hide, nor in his clumsy foot, but 
in the way he will lift his foot if a child lies 
in his path ; and in his sensitive trunk, and 
still more sensitive mind, and capability of 
pique on points of honor. Hence it will 
follow, that one of the probable signs of 
high breeding in men generally will be their 
kindness and mercifulness; these always 
indicating more or less firmness of make in 
the mind.” 

What Constitutes Gentlemanly Manners. 

The manners of a gentleman are the 
index of his soul. His speech is innocent, 
because it springs from a pure spirit. His 
thoughts are direct, because they are the ex¬ 
ponents of upright actions. His bearing is 
gentle because it arises from gentle impulses 
and kindliness of heart. Pretentious man¬ 
ners are alien to the nature of the true gen¬ 
tleman. He avoids instead of exacting 
homage. Ceremonies do not attract him. 
He is as ready to do kindly acts as to say 
civil things. He regulates his hospitality 
by his means, but graces it with heartiness 
and sincerity of welcome. He chooses his 
friends for qualities akin to his own, his 
servants for truthfulness and honesty, his 
occupations for their elevating tendency or 
their power of giving aid or enjoyment to 
others. In a word, a good heart is at the 
bottom of all his acts, and a kindly spirit 
is the fountain from which all his thoughts 
arise. In this consideration it will not 
be amiss to quote from Ward McAllister the 
following apposite passage : ‘ ‘ The value of 
a pleasant manner it is impossible to 
estimate. It is like sunshine, it gladdens; 
you feel it, and are at once attracted to the 
person without knowing why. When you 
entertain, do it in an easy, natural way, as if 
it was an every-day occurrence, not the event 
of your life ; but do it well. Eearn how to 
do it; never be ashamed to learn. The 
American people have a greater power of 
‘ catching hold ’ and adapting themselves to 
new surroundings than any other people in 
the world. 

“ If women should cultivate pleasant 
manners, should not men do the same? 
Are not manners as important to men as to 
women ? The word ‘ gentleman ’ may have 
its derivation from gentle descent, but my 



BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 267 


understanding of a gentleman has always 
been that he is a person free from arrogance 
and anything like self-assertion ; consider¬ 
ate of the feelings of others ; so satisfied 
and secure in his own position that he is 
always unpretentious, feeling he could not 
do an ungentlemanly act; as courteous and 
kind in manner to his inferiors as to his 
equals. The best-bred men I have ever met 
have always been the least pretentious. 
Natural and simple in manner, modest in 
apparel, never wearing anything voyant or 
conspicuous ; but always so well dressed 
that you could never discover what made 
them so,—the good, quiet taste of the whole 
producing the result. 

“ Here all men are more or less in busi¬ 
ness. We hardly have a class who are not. 
They are, of necessity, daily brought into 
contact with all sorts and conditions of men, 
and in self-defense oftentimes have to acquire 
an abrupt, a brusque manner of address, 
which, as a rule, they generally leave in 
their offices when they quit them. If they 
do not, they certainly should. When such 
rough manners become by practice a second 
nature, they unfit one to go into society. 
It pays well for young and old to cultivate 
politeness and courtesy. Nothing is gained 
by trying roughly to elbow yourself into 
society, and push your way through into the 
inner circle; for when such a one has 
reached it, he will find the atmosphere un¬ 
congenial, and be only too glad to escape 
from it.” 

The Demands of Etiquette. 

Etiquette makes many demands upon a 
man, demands which cannot safely be set 
aside, if he wishes to preserve the high title 
of gentleman. It is his duty to answer let¬ 
ters, notes, and invitations without delay. 
He must dress neatly ; there is no need that 
he should dress lavishly. To dress well is 
to dress appropriately. He must be defer¬ 
ential to the old and courteous to the young, 
and yield place and precedence to women— 
the older in preference. 

If he be afflicted with physical or mental 
ailments, let him bear them as philosophi¬ 
cally as possible, and, at all events, avoid 
speaking of them in company. If he be 
placed under obligation, he should not let it 


remain any longer than he can help—if it be 
of a kind that can be returned. 

It is not the large, but the little, things 
that often test and try a man’s character and 
disposition. These make up the bulk of 
existence. We are rarely called upon to 
act the hero ; we are daily required to act 
the gentleman. 

“ Among these trifles light as air,” says 
a recent writer on etiquette, “istheever- 
recurrent and not a little vexing question of 
the payment of fares in a car or omnibus by 
an acquaintance, and the adjustment of such 
matters.” 

In the opinion of this writer, there is 
only one rule about paying a lady’s fare 
under such circumstances, and that is, 
“ Don’t offer to do it,” unless called upon 
to do so through trouble on her part in 
making change or other exigency. 

Women do not altogether like to be put 
under an obligation of this kind ; some do 
not like it at all, feeling that it is not easy 
to repay. If she seeks to return the sum, 
it should be accepted without hesitation. 
There is no honor gained by attempting to 
appear magnanimous about a trifle. 

Etiquette of Travel. 

As regards offering a seat in a street car, 
that is a matter which should be governed 
by circumstances. There is no call for an 
oldish or tired man to give up his seat to a 
young woman, who is evidently better able 
to stand than himself. For a young man 
to give up his seat is a different matter, but 
in doing so preference should not be given 
to youth and beauty, as is too often the 
rule. True courtesy demands that the seat 
should be offered to the woman evidently 
least able to stand, no matter whether she 
be well or ill dressed, handsome or the op¬ 
posite, rich or poor. 

These instances are offered simply as 
examples of those small occasions for con¬ 
sideration and courteous demeanor which 
are of daily occurrence, and which are apt 
to be truer tests of character than many of 
the greater exigencies of life. There is a 
streak of selfishness, or, at the least, of self- 
indulgence, in us all to whose counsel it is 
dangerous to listen, if we desire to wear at 
least the outer aspect of a gentleman. The 




268 


BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


man who is a gentleman by nature needs no 
suggestions on these small points ; instinct 
will tell him how to act. Yet in all cases 
some training in the customs and observ¬ 
ances of good society is of utility. The 


readiness to do the right thing is not all 
there is to consider. A knowledge of what 
is the right thing to do in the daily exigen¬ 
cies of life is of equal importance to all. 


II. THE ART OF DRESS 


The fashion of attire is a question of the 
passing day; its aesthetics is a question of 
the ages. Persons of taste will avoid the 
ridiculous, whatever may be the demands of 
fashion, yet will not vary so far from the 
prevailing custom in dress as to expose 
themselves to ridicule from singularity. 

Dress ha * in it some of the essentials of 
the fine arts, and to be well dressed requires 
other requisites than the possession of wealth 
and a good figure. Good taste and refine¬ 
ment stand first; all other essentials come 
second. To dress well, the qualities of 
color, harmony, and contrast need to be 
observed, and a trained and artistic eye is 
as essential as a sensible and well-balanced 
mind. Dress, to be in good taste, by no 
means needs to be costly. Fit, proportion, 
and harmony in shade and color are the ob¬ 
jects to be observed, and while there should 
be a reasonable consideration of the dictates 
of fashion, no person of sense will follow 
fashion blindly, to the neglect of the essen¬ 
tials of adaptation to figure, face, and occu¬ 
pation. 

A WeIl=Dressed Woman. 

Some one says that “ as a work of art a 
well-dressed woman is a study.” The toil¬ 
ette of such a person is always well-chosen, 
with consideration of its purpose, and is 
always adapted to the situation, whether it 
be breakfast-room or ball-room, promenade 
or reception. If she loves bright colors, and 
they agree with her complexion, they will 
be as harmoniously arranged as the tints of 
an artist. If subdued colors are demanded, 
she will not let any desire for display lead 
her into the use of garish tints. If she is 
young, her dress will be youthful; if she is 
old, it will avoid showiness. She will 
always rather follow than lead the prevailing 
fashion, and in no event will permit the 
costume of the day to lead her into violation 
of good taste and common sense. 


The golden rule in dress is to avoid 
extremes. To affect peculiarities of costume 
shows a lack of good taste, while it is not 
less unwise to follow fashions which are 
unbecoming to the special person. Ladies 
who are neither very young nor very attrac¬ 
tive in appearance will do best to wear 
quiet colors and simple styles ; while those 
who are not rich can always appear taste¬ 
fully dressed, if they exercise care in the 
choice, and display skill and judgment in 
the arrangement of materials. A dress¬ 
maker of good taste is an essential to good 
dressing. The dressmaker is a woman’s 
good or evil genius, and may do much to 
make or mar her position in social circles. 

Dress for Various Occasions. 

Morning dress should be faultless in its 
way. For young ladies, whether married 
or single, there is no prettier summer morn¬ 
ing wear than white or very light dresses of 
washing materials. Yet those must be always 
fresh and clean, and the collars and cuffs irre¬ 
proachable. For morning wear simplicity in 
attire is'imperative. Silk should not be worn. 
Cotton and woolen are the proper materials. 

The walking-dress should be quiet. A 
rich or showy dress in the street is apt to 
attract more attention than is desirable or 
always agreeable. For the carriage, how¬ 
ever, a lady may dress as elegantly as she 
wishes. 

Elderly ladies should dress as richly as 
the*r means permit. A thin old lady may 
wear delicate colors, while one of stout 
person or florid complexion will look best 
in black or dark grey. But for young 
and old alike the complexion and figure 
have much to do with determining the suit¬ 
able colors. Rich colors harmonize well 
with brunette complexions, but for blondes 
and those of delicate tints of face the desir¬ 
able colors to be worn are those ol more 
delicate hue. 




TRAFALGAR SQUARE FROM THE NATIONAL GALLERY, LONDON 

The most interesting spot in London. The beautiful shaft commemorates Nelson’s victory at T 






























































BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


269 


At dinner parties, unless they be small 
and familiar in kind, only the fullest dress 
is appropriate. But at unceremonious din¬ 
ners demi-toilette can be worn, and high 
dresses if the material be sufficiently rich. 
Real flowers may be worn at dinner parties, 
but it is better to wear artificial ones at balls, 
since the heat and dancing are apt to cause 
real flowers to droop and shed their petals. 

Gloves, shoes, and boots must always be 
faultless. Gloves cannot be too light for the 
carriage, or too dark for the streets. A 
woman with ill-fitting gloves lacks one of the 
essentials of suitable dress. It may be 
remarked, by the way, that perfumes should 
be used only in the evening, and with the 
strictest moderation, and that perfumes to 
be tolerable must be of the most delicate 
kind. 

There has never been a more telling and 
sensible criticism than that made by Dr. 
Johnson on a lady’s dress. “ I am sure she 
was well dressed,” he said, “for I cannot 
remember what she had on.” 

Suitability of Apparel. 

Suit your dresses to the occasions upon 
which they are to be used. In the morning, 
at home, a lady may wear a loose, flowing 
dress, made high in the neck, with a belt at 
the waist, and with loose sleeves fastened at 
the wrist. On the street a walking-costume 
.should be worn, and the dress should clear 
the ground. There is nothing more disgust¬ 
ing than to see a rich dress sweeping up the 
dirt and filth of the street. 

Fashion seems to decree this at the 
present time, with the ungraceful result of 
seeing nine women out of ten awkwardly 
holding up their skirts. The tenth sensibly 
ignores fashion in favor of comfort. 

The shoes for the street should be high, 
warm, and easy to the feet, with a low, 
broad heel, and should be always neatly 
blackened. For ordinary street wear a lady 
may use either a hat or a bonnet. This is 
a matter of taste. In the dress of ladies 
great latitude is allowed ; but the aim of all 
who aspire to be well dressed should be sim¬ 
plicity and taste, thecharacter of the occasion 
being always carefully considered. Latitude 
or great variety in dress is no longer thought 
original, and startling innovations are dan¬ 


gerous experiments. With artistic taste 
they may prove a success, but are much 
more likely to be a failure. 

It is important that a lady should 
always dress neatly at home. She is then 
ready to receive a morning caller without 
having to change her dress. She should 
change her dress for the evening. Some 
neat and dainty costume should be worn, 
according to her taste, for it is in the even¬ 
ing that she is thrown most with the male 
members of her family, and is most likely 
to have visitors. In making evening calls 
upon her friends, a lady should wear a hood, 
or some light head-wrap easily laid aside. 
A bonnet should always be removed at the 
commencement of such a visit. 

Public Occasions. 

The fashion of the time must govern the 
evening dress for public occasions. Full 
dress must always be worn, but it is impos¬ 
sible to give any fixed rule regarding it, in 
view of the frequent changes in the demands 
of fashion. A competent dressmaker, or 
the fashion publications of the time, will give 
the necessary information. In Europe, the 
evening dress requires the exposure of the 
arms and neck ; but in this country the 
more sensible plan of covering these parts 
of the body is widely the fashion, and 
should be observed except on very special 
occasions. 

The dress for balls and soirees should be 
of the richest within the lady’s means. Yet 
a certain degree of repression is important, 
if one would avoid seeming overdressed. 
White kid gloves and white satin or kid 
boots are most suitable to a ball dress. If 
the overdress is of black lace, black satin 
shoes are worn. Hints and directions, how¬ 
ever, are of little need to ladies for occasions 
of this kind. Example and experience, 
either of themselves or their friends, will 
prevent them from going far wrong. 

The richest full dress should be worn at 
the opera. The head should be bare, and 
dressed in the most becoming style. Jewelry 
may be worn, according to taste, as there is 
no place where it shows to better advantage. 
A light or brilliant colored opera cloak will 
add greatly to the lady’s appearance and 
comfort. Gloves of white, or delicately 



270 


BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


tinted, kid only are to be worn. The ordi¬ 
nary walking-dress, however, is suitable for 
other places of amusement. A rich and 
elegant shawl may be worn, as it can be 
thrown off when uncomfortable. The sensi¬ 
ble fashion is now making its way to remove 
the hat at theatres and lectures, out of due 
regard for those whose view of the stage 
may be obstructed. This being the case, 
there is no need to spoil the hair by wearing 
hat or bonnet on the way thither. 

Plain and simple dress should be worn 
for church, with very little jewelry. The 
costume should be of quiet colors. It is a 
mark of bad taste for ladies to attend church 
elaborately or conspicuously dressed. It 
shows a disregard for the solemnity of the 
sanctuary, and is calculated to draw off the 
attentions of others from the duties of the 
place. 

Jewelry. 

Much display of jewelry is out of place 
for young ladies, and the kind of jewelry to 
be worn demands as careful consideration 
as that of the dress itself. Diamonds, pearls, 
and transparent precious stones generally 
belong to evening costume, and are always 
in taste at night; but they should not be 
worn in the earlier parts of the day. In 
the morning, indeed, only a simple ring or 
two are admissible, with, perhaps, a gold 
brooch, and a watch and chain. 

As regards cost of jewelry, it is by no 
means the best criterion of taste. A simple 
and inexpensive jewel may occasionally 
have the effect of an exquisite work of art, 
while a large and showy brilliant may give 
the impression of vulgar display or showy 
overdress. To wear much jewelry in the 
streets is in very bad taste, while in large 
cities it may subject the wearer to danger 
from robbery. 

In traveling it is inadvisable to make a 
display of jewelry. It is particularly unde¬ 
sirable if a lady is traveling alone, for the 
reason just given. 

Traveling Dress. 

Traveling costume should be simple in 
style and quiet in color, materials that will 
not show dirt being preferable. A water¬ 
proof cloak is a very desirable addition, as 


it may be at any time suddenly needed. In 
summer travel a long linen duster, belted at 
the waist, should be worn over the dress. 

For the country or sea-side, simple and 
inexpensive dresses should be provided for 
ordinary wear. The bonnet should give 
place to a hat with a brim sufficiently wide 
to shield the face and neck from the sun. 

Bathing dresses should be made of blue 
or gray flannel. The skirt should come 
down to the ankles, and the sleeves should 
be long. An oil silk or India-rubber cap, 
fitting tightly around the head, will protect 
the hair from the salt water. 

It is impossible to prescribe an exact 
style or mode of dress for ladies in all places 
and on all occasions. Fashion will change, 
and, it must be confessed, in the matter of 
female costume, its changes have often been 
for the better. 

In regard to “overdressing,” it is not 
i easy to draw a line, customs in different 
localities varying so much that what is per¬ 
missible in one place might be utterly out of 
place in another. The usual thing for win¬ 
ter dress is a stuff dress—a “ cloth suit,” it 
is usually called—worn with a fancy bodice. 
For elderly women, with money enough to 
afford it, costumes of silk, with elaborate 
trimming, are often worn. With toilettes 
of this kind the custom of wearing lace is 
on the increase ; but these are matters which 
the dressmaker is most competent to decide 
upon at any fixed period. As a general 
rule, however, loud colors should be avoided, 
and it is best never to risk extremes of cos¬ 
tume, whether in or out of the line of fash¬ 
ion, if one wishes to escape the verdict of 
vulgarity. 

A Wel!=Dressed Man. 

Buffon has remarked that a man’s 
clothes are a part of himself, and enter into 
our conception of his character. And cer¬ 
tainly no man who is experienced in the 
ways of the world and has any regard for 
social opinion can consider the question of 
dress as unimportant. We may excuse a 
man who dresses very negligently, but we 
rarely hold him in any high regard. Our 
conception of the interior qualities of a per¬ 
son is influenced, more than we are ordi¬ 
narily aware, by his exterior appearance. 




BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


271 


Walpole truly says: “We must speak to 
the eyes, if we wish to affect the mind.” 

In paying a visit, or in mingling in good 
society, it is complimentary to our hosts to 
be well dressed, and shows disregard of 
their wishes to be slovenly in attire. Even 
in a casual meeting, or in cases where the 
costume is likely to be of minor considera¬ 
tion, neat and careful dressing is very likely 
to be of advantage. A negligent attire in¬ 
dicates that a man is heedless of the opin¬ 
ions of others, and indifferent to their good 
will or respect. 

A careful and neat attire, on the con¬ 
trary, indicates a man who has a regard for 
himself and for the sentiments of others, one 
who finds pleasure in social intercourse, and 
loves to mingle in the society of his fellows. 
It is a kind of general offer of acquaintance, 
and proves a willingness to be accosted. 
Dress is the livery of good society, and he 
who would advance in the profession of 
pleasing must pay due regard to his outward 
aspect. 

Dress is also significant of inner feeling, 
and expresses qualities of mind which are 
likely to affect the outward conduct. That 
courtier was not far astray who dated the 
beginning of the French Revolution from 
the day when a nobleman appeared at Ver¬ 
sailles without buckles on his shoes. 

Fashion is called a despot; but if men 
are willing to be its slaves, we cannot, and 
ought not, to upbraid fashion. In truth, 
the man who rebels against fashion is often 
more open to the imputation of vanity than 
he who obeys it, because he makes himself 
conspicuous, and practically announces that 
he is wiser than his kind. Affectation is 
always the essence of vulgarity. Between 
the two it is left to the man of sense and 
modesty to follow fashion only so far as not 
to make himself peculiar by opposing it, and 
in whatever he does or whatever he wears to 
let good taste, common sense, and a proper 
regard for the opinion of his fellows be the 
guides of his conduct. 

A prime requisite in dress is its sim¬ 
plicity, with which may be coupled harmony 
of color. This simplicity is the only dis¬ 
tinction which a man of taste should aspire 
to in the matter of dress, for simplicity in 
appearance must proceed from a nicety in 


reality. One should not be simply ill- 
dressed, but simply well-dressed. 

All extravagance, all over display, and 
all profusion must be avoided. The colors, 
in the first place, must harmonize both with 
our complexion and with one another ; per¬ 
haps most of all with the color of our hair. 
All bright colors should be avoided, even in 
gloves and neck-ties. The deeper colors 
are, somehow or other, more manly, and 
are certainly less striking. The same sim¬ 
plicity should be studied in the avoidance of 
ornamentation. 

Appropriate Costume. 

You should dress according to your 
occupation and means. If you are a sales¬ 
man, you would not think it appropriate to 
appear in the regulation garb of a bishop. 
Good sense and good taste form the first 
rule, and about the only one to be consid¬ 
ered. 

In the shifting climate of our country, 
gentlemen of late years have very sensibly 
adopted the mode of dressing especially for 
comfort. They have to brave all kinds of 
weather, sometimes wade through mud and 
slush, sometimes face a summer shower or 
cyclone, and they find it more essential to 
be protected against these climatic change? 
than to appear in elegant costume. 

Their dress does not undergo so many 
modifications as that of ladies, and it is 
comparatively easy for them to wear ap¬ 
parel that will be simple and serviceable, 
and at the same time in good taste. 

There is much less to be said about the 
dress of men than of women, as it is not 
subject to such extreme changes or suscep¬ 
tible of such great diversity in color, cut, 
and material. For the day the business 
suit is the usual costume, black or dark in 
color, with shoes of black or tan leather, 
and a derby or a soft hat. Those who de¬ 
sire a reputation for dressing well will 
scarcely appear in a high hat and tan shoes 
together. 

Sack coats or cutaways can be worn 
with tweed or any rough cloth trousers and 
waistcoat, the weight and color being varied 
to fit the season. As evening approaches 
the sack coat and business suit should be 
replaced by a cutaway or frock coat. In 



272 


BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


the country rough tweed suits, fancy flan¬ 
nels and any kind of hat may be worn, 
unless the gentleman is going to some 
special social entertainment, when he should 
dress much as in the city. 

The Shirt Waist. 

In the summer of 1900 the shirt-waist, 
which was worn almost universally by 
women, was emulated by men, many of 
whom assumed, during business hours, un¬ 
starched colored shirts worn without vests, 
while a waist belt replaced the usual braces. 
Often the coat was discarded. The comfort 
of this attire during the heated term was so 
great that the “ shirt-waist man” promises 
to become a recognized summer institution. 

As for evening dress, a considerable lati¬ 
tude of opinion concerning this prevails. 
During the warm season—from June to 
October—comfort demands much laxity in 


this respect. As evening dress is never seen 
in city streets without an overcoat, and as 
few care to swelter at the dictum of fashion, 
many men of sense content themselves with 
a neat ordinary dress. There is a variety of 
usage in this respect also at the theatre, and 
it is coming to be imperative to wear even¬ 
ing attire only at formal dinners or at cer¬ 
tain fashionable assemblages which make it 
a requisite. In general, except during the 
summer, it is a safe rule for the denizen of 
fashionable circles to change his dress every 
evening, so as to be prepared for dinner or 
any other formal occasion. But as the 
denizens of fashionable circles compose a 
limited section of the community, an island 
in the sea of the multitude who claim no 
such exclusive honor, evening dress, as a 
general rule, is kept for special occasions, 
and men at home consider comfort and con¬ 
venience far more than fashion. 


III. INTRODUCTIONS. 


The laws of society do not permit you 
to claim acquaintance with other persons 
unless you have been properly introduced, 
though in traveling this rule may often 
be reasonably omitted. Under ordinary 
circumstances care and discrimination 
should be exercised in making gentlemen 
acquainted with each other, and still greater 
heed is demanded in the introduction of 
ladies and gentlemen. It should always be 
understood in advance whether or not the 
lady is likely to desire the introduction. In 
no case should it be thrust upon her without 
regard to her objections. And it is not ad¬ 
visable to make the request within hearing 
of the party concerned, since this may put 
her in an awkward situation, if wishing to 
decline. 

Do not forget that, in introducing one 
person to another, you assume a social re¬ 
sponsibility for the person you introduce, 
and great care should be taken in giving 
this indorsement. It is possible for you to 
inflict a positive injury by introducing a 
man of objectionable character to a lady. If 
you are not well informed in respect to the 
reputation of the one for whom you are about 
to become responsible, pause and go no fur¬ 


ther. You should not be a party to the for¬ 
mation of any relations which may possibly 
have an injurious effect. 

The same conditions hold good in the 
business world. An introduction carries 
with it some indorsement which may lead to 
business transactions involving great finan¬ 
cial risks. 

Rules of Introduction. 

In England, visitors meeting in the same 
house are expected to enter into conversa¬ 
tion, though no formal presentation has 
been made, and no previous acquaintance 
has existed. In the United States, how¬ 
ever, the fashion of introducing people who 
meet as strangers still continues, though in 
certain highly fashionable circles the English 
fashion is affected. It, perhaps, has its ad¬ 
vantages, in enabling visitors to converse 
freely without waiting for the formality of 
an introduction, and leaving them free not 
to know one another afterwards. But it 
has its disadvantages as well, especially 
in the case of shy and easily embarrassed 
people. 

The American rule has long been to 
introduce generally, and in early society in 




BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


this country it was deemed necessary to 
make everybody in company acquainted, 
from a somewhat forced idea of the require¬ 
ments of hospitality. This wholesale cus¬ 
tom is no longer observed, and common 
sense prevails in this as in social customs 
generally. 

One should always show discretion in 
this observance, as in all the demands of 
society. It is not, for instance, advisable 
to interrupt a conversation for the purpose 
of making an introduction. The intention 
will wait, and even if it fails altogether no 
harm is usually done. Few persons will 
thank you for making them too conspicuous. 

Of the places where an introduction is 
not in order we may particularly instance a 
church. Here it would be quite improper, 
not only within the building, but even at 
its entrance. Nor is it necessary to intro¬ 
duce two persons at an entirely casual meet¬ 
ing—in a street car, for example, or if you 
happen to meet an acquaintance, whom your 
companion does not know, at some friend’s 
door. Of course, if the chat should be ex¬ 
tended, or if you think it desirable that they 
should know one another, an introduction 
is perfectly admissible ; but it is in no sense 
incumbent upon you. 

One further remark in this connection 
may be made, in reference to the frequent 
failure to catch the name of the person intro¬ 
duced. This often causes a feeling of em¬ 
barrassment, and a somewhat awkward 
attempt to discover the missing name. “ I 
didn’t quite catch the name,’ is the most 
ordinary way out of the difficulty, but some¬ 
thing more original might well be attempted, 
as, “Pardon my inattention to Mr. C. I 
was so occupied with the honor offered me 
as to be deaf to the name ’ ’ ; or, less effu¬ 
sively, “Will you kindly tell me again 
whom I have the favor of meeting ?’ ’ 

The trouble is worse when you imme¬ 
diately forget the name, and are lacking in 
this particular on your second meeting with 
the new acquaintance. It is a useful accom¬ 
plishment which all do not possess, that of re¬ 
membering names readily; and to be obliged 
to make the worn-out admission, “Your 
face is perfectly familiar, but I have for¬ 
gotten your name,” is an awkward way out 
of the difficulty. Better try and get through 
18 C 


^73 

the interview in a way to escape the need of 
using the name, and endeavor to learn it 
before another meeting is likely to take 
place. By repeating the name in acknowl¬ 
edging the introduction and fastening your 
attention thereto, it will not be difficult to 
remember the name. 

The Introducer’s Formula. 

In introductions the common formula is : 

‘ ‘ Mrs. Blank, may I, ” or “ allow me to pre¬ 
sent,” or “ introduce, Mr. Smith.” 

Never reverse this order, and so intro¬ 
duce the lady to the gentleman. When the 
sexes are the same, present the person of 
the lesser to the one of the greater age or 
importance. 

Always mention the name in introducing 
members of your family. Say, “ My father, 
Mr. Simpson,” “ My daughter, Miss Simp¬ 
son,” or “Miss Kllen Simpson.” Your 
wife should be introduced simply as “ Mrs. 
Simpson.” 

In introducing persons with titles, the 
title should always be distinctly mentioned. 
Thus, you should say, in presenting a clergy¬ 
man to a senator of the United States, 
“ Senator A., permit me to introduce you to 
my friend, the Reverend Dr. W. Dr. W. is 
the rector of St. M. Church, Boston.” 
Then turning to Dr. W., say, “Senator A. 
represents the State of M. in the United 
States Senate.” 

Upon meeting strangers it is well to add 
some pleasant remark or suggest some inter¬ 
est in common between them. This will 
serve to put them at their ease and aid them 
to start a conversation. The party presented 
may simply say, “ How do you do?” or 
‘ ‘ I am glad to know you, ’ 5 following it with 
such subject of talk as may occur to him. 

Introductions do not necessitate future 
mutual recognition, unless agreeable to the 
parties introduced. The ceremony is simply 
an opportunity offered for present acquain¬ 
tance, and can be ignored by one or both 
parties immediately after they leave the 
presence of the person who made the intro¬ 
duction. 

A gentleman should never bow to a lady 
when first meeting her after an introduction, 
until she gives him some sign of recognition, 
thus intimating her desire to continue the 



274 


BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


acquaintance. A gentleman should always 
return the bow, even though he may not care 
for the acquaintance. 

Ladies and gentleman need not shake 
hands with each other when introduced. A 
bow is sufficient acknowledgement of the 
introdu :tion. Persons of the same sex may 
or may not shake hands. In formal fashion¬ 
able c rcles the hostess alone shakes hands, 
but ordinarily it is quite in order to offer 
the hand when introduced. 

Persons meeting at the houses of friends 
when making morning calls need not be in¬ 
troduced to one another, and should not be 
iinless there is good reason to believe that 
such introduction will be mutually agree¬ 
able. Nor is it proper for persons who have 
met in ihis manner, without introduction, to 
bow or express recognition otherwise should 
they again meet. 

A person making a visit to your house 
should be introduced to every caller. At 
an evening party it is the duty of the host or 
hostess to make their guests acquainted with 
one another. 

A gentleman should always promptly 
offer his services to a lady in any position of 
difficulty, whether he knows her or not. 
Her acceptance of his services does not give 
him any claim upon her acquaintance, nor 
need she feel obliged to recognize him after¬ 
wards without a formal introduction. 

An introduction, however, gives one a 
claim upon the courtesy of another, whether 
the acquaintance be pleasant or the contrary. 
To ignore a person to whom you have been 
properly introduced is certainly an act of 
ill-breeding, and under certain circumstances 
becomes an act of insolence. 

Salutations. 

In meeting a friend upon the street, or in 
company, you should salute him cordially, 
but quietly and respectfully. A gentleman 
should always salute a lady by raising the 
hat and making a formal bow. In company, 
the head being uncovered, the bow alone is 
your salutation; but it should in either case, 
be a decided inclination of the head and 
body, not a mere nod. 

In this country, among ladies, kissing is 
a common mode of salutation, even on the 
street. But indications are that this custom 


is less popular for hygienic reasons. Gen¬ 
tlemen generally shake hands, or in pass¬ 
ing each other bow, or make a courteous 
motion of the hand. Even where you are 
not on good terms with a person it is cour¬ 
teous to bow to him. Should he fail to re¬ 
turn the bow the offence is his, and you have 
lost nothing by your politeness. 

The lady should bow first in meeting a 
gentleman on the street. It is her privilege 
to do so, as she thus shows whether she 
desires to continue his acquaintance or not. 
A failure on her part to bow first excuses 
the gentleman from saluting her. Among 
very intimate friends either party may salute 
first. 

In riding, a gentleman raises his hat 
with .his right hand, as the left is occupied 
with the reins. 

When two or more gentlemen, walking 
on the street, meet a lady who is known to 
one only, all should raise their hats and bow. 
Those unacquainted with the lady thus show 
their respect for their friend’s friend. 

A gentleman when smoking, if meeting 
a lady acquaintance, should remove the cigar 
from his mouth and hold it down by his side 
before raising his hat to her. Above all, 
never smoke while walking or riding with 
a lady. She may not object to it, but that 
does not pardon your rudeness. 

A young lady should treat an elderly 
person, either man or woman, with the same 
deference she expects at the hands of a gen¬ 
tleman. 

Calls, Formal and Informal. 

Residents of large cities should call in 
person upon all their acquaintances at 
least once a year, if circumstances permit, 
and should pay additional visits to all from 
whom invitations have been received. Calls 
should also be made when an engagement 
or marriage has taken place in the family of 
an acquaintance, or an acquaintance has 
returned home after a long absence. 

The receipt of any especial hospitality, 
such as a dinner, luncheon, dance, etc., 
obligates that the recipient should call as 
soon thereafter as possible. If living at a 
distance a brief note to the host or hostess 
acknowledging the pleasure received is pro¬ 
per ; especially is this expected after an ex- 



BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


275 


tended visit. This is imperative, but it is not 
necessary after a five o’clock tea or an at- 
home, no one being obliged to follow one call 
with another. Such obligation as exists is for 
the party who gave the tea to return your 
call; and this is obviously impossible if her 
invitations have been very numerous. After 
being invited to visit a country house, a call 
should be made on those giving the invita¬ 
tion immediately after their return to their 
town residence. 

In case of a newcomer to the street, or 
the city if a small one, older residents should 
call, and this visit should invariably be 
returned in person within a week. Etiquette 
permits a gentleman—a stranger—to call 
upon a lady under the following circum¬ 
stances : If she has invited him to call, if 
he brings a letter of introduction, or if an 
intimate friend of the lady or of the family 
presents him. 

Custom and courtesy require that a lady 
shall call on her lady friends at stated times, 
or at moderate intervals. These calls are 
generally short and formal in character, the 
conversation being devoted to society news 
and similar light subjects. Ten or fifteen 
minutes is the usual length of a formal call, 
half an hour the extreme limit. If while 
calling a second visitor arrives, the first 
visitor should take leave as soon as she can 
do so without seeming abrupt. Special 
friends of the hostess may linger for an hour 
if they wish. 

In the large cities of the East such calls 
were formerly made between 11 a.m. and 
4 p.m., but later hours in the afternoon are 
now the vogue, as from three to half-past five. 
Evening calls, unless in response to invita¬ 
tion or through mutual understanding, are 
out of order except in small communities. 
They may break into the dinner hour, or 
interfere with a theatre.party or other outing. 

Of course, these rules do not refer to the 
intercourse of intimate friends, the informal 
“ running in,” which may take place at any 
time in the day or evening, and need not in¬ 
terfere with any engagement. Gentlemen, 
as a rule, have only the evening to call in, 
but may call on Sunday afternoon after three. 

A lady, in making a formal call, should 
not remove her bonnet or wrap. A gentle¬ 
man , in a similar case, was formerly required, 


while leaving his umbrella and overcoat in 
the hall, to bring his hat and cane into the 
receiving room, either holding them or 
placing them on the floor by his chair. This 
rule, however, is no longer observed, and it 
is optional with the visitor to leave them in 
the hall if he prefers. 

Ladies should make morning calls in 
simple toilette, and not in very rich dresses. 
Gentlemen wear morning dress. 

Ending a Call. 

When a call is ended it is customary 
among the best bred people to ring for a ser¬ 
vant to open the front door for a visitor. 
Some persons prefer to attend visitors to the 
door themselves; and this should be done 
if a servant is not called upon. It is not 
courteous to let a visitor find his or her way 
out of your house unattended. 

A lady should never attend a gentleman 
to the door ; nor a lady either, if in so doing 
she is obliged to leave other lady callers in 
the drawing-room. 

It is optional with the hostess whether 
or not to rise from her seat and cross the 
room to greet a visitor, or to accompany to 
the door a lady who is taking her departure, 
in case of no other ladies being present. 
But in these, as in all other cases where the 
rules of etiquette are not imperative, it is 
well to remember that the course which sets 
the guest most at ease will always be the 
choice of a kindly nature. 

In making a call, if the lady called upon 
is not at home, leave your card ; and if there 
are several ladies staying there whom you 
desire to see, request the servant to present 
your compliments to them severally. Should 
you not have a card, leave your name. 

When a lady visitor takes her leave, a 
gentleman, if present, should rise, and offer 
to conduct her to her carriage. The offer 
may not be accepted, but if it is, do not 
forget to return and pay your respects to 
your hostess before quitting the house. 

In case of other visitors entering during 
your call, your hostess is not obliged to in¬ 
troduce you to them, and you should take 
no offence at her failure to do so. In taking 
leave after their entrance, do so in such a 
way as not to make it appear that your 
departure is on account of their coming. 



276 


BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


You may make visits of congratulation 
upon the occurrence of any happy or agree¬ 
able event in the family of a friend—such 
as a marriage, a birth, or the inheritance of 
wealth. Such visits should be made in the 
morning. 

You should not defer a visit of condo¬ 
lence beyond the next week after a death 
occurs in a family. Among friends such 


visits are regarded as an imperative duty, 
except where contagious diseases render 
them dangerous. 

In calling upon a person living or stay¬ 
ing temporarily at a hotel, wait in the parlor 
and send up your card. Even intimate 
friends should observe this rule. A gentle¬ 
man may wait in the office or hall of the 
hotel while the waiter takes up his card. 


IV. VISITING AND VISITORS 


Visits of friendship are governed by no 
set rules of etiquette, and need not be formal 
either as to length or manner. It is to be 
presumed that friends or relatives will con¬ 
form to each other’s tastes and habits, and 
conduct themselves in a manner that will be 
mutually agreeable. With intimate friends 
strict ceremony is uncalled for, yet there are 
certain liberties which you enjoy at home 
which are not* proper to take in the house of 
a friend. 

It is a sign of ill-breeding, in such a 
visit, to criticise the conduct of servants or 
children, or anything connected with the 
household or the members of the family. 
Remarks of any kind on the faults or foibles 
of persons belonging or closely related to 
the family are sadly misplaced; and such 
remarks made after taking leave show a 
lack of good feeling which is not redeemed 
by being unheard by those interested. In 
such cases one should strictly apply the 
golden rule of friendship, to do nothing by 
act, word, or deed that may cause a dis¬ 
agreeable feeling on the part of an enter¬ 
tainer or any member of his family. 

Evening Calls. 

In small communities, where it is cus¬ 
tomary to make formal evening calls after 
dinner, the usual hour is from nine to ten 
o’clock. In making an informal evening 
call, a lady may bring a gentleman with 
her, presenting him to her hostess, who will 
present him to her other guests. 

The mistress of the house usually receives 
the visitors, being assisted by her husband 
or some other gentleman in the case of even¬ 
ing parties. The reception should be quiet, 
easy, and without over-ceremony. In some 
places it is customary to announce the 


names of guests as they enter the room. 
The host or hostess may then present them 
to other guests, if they are not already 
acquaintances. 

When any one enters the room, whether 
announced or not, courtesy requires that the 
host or hostess shall rise at once, advance 
toward the visitor with words of welcoming, 
and request him or her to be seated. The 
seat offered should be one that seems most 
suitable to the age or sex of the visitor. If 
the master of the house receives the visitors, 
he will take a chair and place himself at a 
little distance from them ; if, on the con¬ 
trary, it is the mistress, and if she is intimate 
with the lady who visits her, she will place 
herself near her. 

If several ladies come at once, we give 
the most honorable place to the one who, 
from age or other considerations, is most 
entitled to respect. If the visitor is a 
stranger, when the master or mistress of the 
house rises any person who may be already 
in the room should do the same, unless the 
company is a large one. When any of the 
company withdraw, the master or mistress 
of the house should conduct them as far as 
the door. But whoever the persons may be 
that depart, if we have other company we 
may dispense with conducting them farther 
than the door of the room. 

If, upon entering a house where you wish 
to pay an evening call, you should find a 
small party assembled, it is best to present 
yourself precisely as though you had been 
invited. Aftei a short while you may take 
your leave, explaining that you only in¬ 
tended to make a brief call. 

Do not unduly prolong an evening visit. 
It is apt to become tiresome even to your 
most intimate friends, and, though they 




BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


2 71 


politely exert themselves to be agreeable, it 
does not argue that they are not wearied. 

Should you find a lady on the point of 
going out when you make your call, make 
it as brief as possible, in order to leave her 
at liberty to carry out her plans. 

When you have risen to go, do not delay 
your departure. 

When you are prevented from attending 
a dinner party, or social gathering, call 
upon the person giving it without delay, 
and express your regret for your absence. 
In visiting a city where a friend resides, 
it is best to go to a hotel, although he may 
have invited you to make his house your 
home. You can afterwards call upon him, 
and should he then urge you to accept his 
hospitality, you can do so with propriety. 

When asking guests to visit you in your 
home, whether in the country or city, it is 
proper to fix the date of their arrival and 
of their leaving, whether the length of their 
visit is to be two days or a fortnight. If 
the desired duration of a visit should not 
be specified in the invitation, a considerate 
person will take care not to extend it over a 
week, and a shorter time would be still bet¬ 
ter. It is courteous, in every case, to state 
to your host how long you expect to stay. 

In case of a visit without invitation, you 
should always write to inform even a near 
relative or very intimate friend of your in¬ 
tended visit, and the time you expect to arrive. 

Among the leading duties of the host or 
hostess may be named the following: See 
that everything has been prepared for the 
comfort of the guests. Anticipate their 
bodily wants as much as possible. Direct 
that some servant shall go to their rooms 
twice a day and ascertain whether anything 
is desired, and whether any assistance can 
be rendered. Arrange so that they can be 
provided with cold or warm baths, as they 
may prefer, every morning. See that coarse 
towels or bath-sheets are within their reach. 
Have a can of hot water taken to each room 
at the hours of dressing. A pitcher of iced 
water and a glass on a tray should be placed 
in the bedrooms at night. 

Entertaining Guests. 

Do not bore visitors by constantly trying 
to amuse them. After means of amusement 


have been provided, let it be optional with 
them as to whether they avail themselves of 
these or not. Permit your visitors to enjoy 
the liberty of solitude and quiet if they 
prefer. Any apparent effort to entertain is 
always bad form. The every-day life of a 
family should not be interfered with by the 
arrival of guests. 

Visitors should conform as much as 
possible to the habits and customs of the 
household. They should be moderate in 
their demands for personal attendance. 
They should not carry their moods into the 
drawing-room or to the table, and, whether 
they are bored or not, should be ready to con¬ 
tribute as much as is in their power to make 
an atmosphere of pleasure. If the above 
involves too much self-sacrifice, then an 
invitation to visit should not be accepted. 

In case a lady guest is expected, some 
gentleman of the family should meet her at 
the train, or other place of expected arrival, 
look after her baggage, and make all ar¬ 
rangements requisite to enable her to reach 
your house without delay or discomfort. 

Bidding Guests Adieu. 

While it is not wise to disarrange the 
regular routine of a household on account 
of the arrival of a guest, a reasonable time 
should be devoted to the entertainment of 
the visitor. Receptions, excursions, etc., 
may be provided for, the places of note in 
the vicinity shown, and pleasant acquaint- 
ences visited or invited to call. The guest, 
on departure, should be accompanied to cars 
or boat, and cordially taken leave of on the 
departure of the conveyance. 

Dadies or gentlemen of true courtesy 
will treat with kindness or politeness the 
servants of the family visited, and may rea¬ 
sonably remember with some gratuity those 
by whom they have been served. Simple 
presents may also with propriety be made 
to the children of the family. Costly or 
lavish gifts, however, are not in order, and 
have the ill effect of placing your enter¬ 
tainers under an obligation for which they 
may not mentally thank you. 

Do not outdress the members of the 
family in which you are a guest, especially 
in attending an entertainment or place of 
amusement with them. 




2 7 8 


BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


Enter heartily into the plans that are 
made for your entertainment or amusement. 
You should never permit your host or 
hostess to feel that he or she has disappointed 
you while seeking to add to your enjoyment. 

Upon returning home after a visit, write 
immediately to your host or hostess, an¬ 
nouncing your safe arrival; and be careful 
to send kind messages to each member of 
the family, mentioning all by name. 

Engraved or Printed Cards. 

The extent to which the use of visiting 
cards is sometimes extended furnishes oc¬ 
casion to some, unused to polite society, to 
ridicule what they call “ pasteboard polite¬ 
ness,” and yet these paper representatives of 
our personality are exceedingly useful 
things; indespensible, indeed, to the full dis¬ 
charge of social obligations. 

In the selection of cards several things 
are to be considered ; style, size, color, and 
character of writing. As for color, it should 
always be pure white. The size and shape 
are regulated by the prevailing fashion, but 
any attempt at display, such as fancy de¬ 
signs, gilt borders, odd shapes, etc., are 
considered vulgar by well-bred people. 

The most tasteful card is an engraved 
one. The printed card comes next, then 
the written card. The fashion as to letters 
changes, but a plain script or old English 
text, well engraved, is always neat and in 
good taste. In case the card is written, it 
should be done in pencil rather than in ink, 
thus suggesting that its use is a matter of 
accident. 

The proper size for a gentleman is 
smaller and more oblong in shape than that 
ordinarily used by ladies. If he have no 
title, “Mr.” should precede the name. A 
lady’s card should have the word ‘‘ Mrs.” or 
‘ ‘ Miss ’ prefixed to her name. The eldest 
daughter of a family needs “Miss” only 
before the family name. The younger 
daughters need the christain names also. 

The titles properly placed on cards are 
those of army and navy officers, physicians, 
judges, and ministers of the gospel, but 
neither militia nor any other complimentary 
titles are allowable. 

Ladies now usually have the entire 
name—with the prefix of ‘ ‘ Miss ’ ’ or 


“ Mrs.” engraved on their cards, as “ Mrs. 
John Morris Eames,” “ Miss Edith Lloyd 
Richardson.” 

Custom sanctions the engraving of the 
address on all visiting cards, and some 
ladies have the reception day engraved in 
the left-hand corner. In some cities there 
is one exception to this rule. A young 
lady, during her first winter in society, does 
not use a separate visiting card, but has her 
name engraved on the card of her mother or 
chaperon. 

A single gentleman, if he prefers, can 
have his club address engraved on his card, 
instead of the number of his residence. 

A widow can use on her cards either her 
own or her husband’s name, as choice may 
dictate ; though she has legally no right to 
retain the latter, custom sanctions it. 

Husband and wife must have separate 
visiting cards. It is no longer the fashion 
to have the two names printed together, as 
formerly. 

Rules for Leaving Cards. 

In making the first call of the season, a 
lady leaves with her own, her husband’s 
card, and also those of her sons and 
daughters. After a dinner party, or other 
special entertainment, a lady leaves her 
husband’s card with her own. 

A married lady, in calling upon another 
married lady, should leave one of her own 
cards and two of her husband’s—one of the 
latter being for the wife and one for the 
husband. If the lady called on has a 
daughter in society, the visitor should leave 
two of her own cards and three of her hus¬ 
band’s. If there be another lady in the 
house besides the hostess two cards each of 
wife and husband should be left. When 
calling on a mother and daughters, a lady 
should leave two cards. 

When paying a first call to several ladies 
—not mother and daughters—a card should 
be left for each. When calling on the guest 
of a house, a card should be left for the 
hostess also, even if she is a stranger to the 
visitor. 

When calling at a hotel, it is allowable, 
and even desirable, to write the name of the 
person for whom the visit is intended upon 
the card, to avoid the chance of mistakes; 



BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


279 


but this should never be done at a private 
residence. Cards should be left or sent on 
the day of a reception, if illness, a death in 
the family, or any other cause prevents the 
acceptance of the invitation. 

Cards should not be turned down at the 
corners, nor bent over at one end—the fash¬ 
ion is now out of date. 

In sending a first invitation to a person 
on whom the hostess has never called, cards 
should be enclosed with the invitation ; but, 
if possible, a call should precede a first 
invitation. 

After a proper interval of time, cards of 
condolence may be acknowledged (by send¬ 
ing mourning cards inclosed in an envelope). 

No lady should use on her cards a sug¬ 
gestion of her husband’s profession or titles 
of honor, such as “ Mrs. General Brown,” 
“Mrs. Dr. Smith,” etc. Nor should she 
be addressed in this manner in conversation. 

In case a person is going away, and likely 
to be absent for a length of time, it is proper 
to write p. p. c. on his or her card, and mail 
the same to acquaintances. The letters thus 
used signify ‘ 1 pour prendre congS , ’ ’ which 
translated from the French means ‘ ‘ to take 
leave.” Some write the English words out 
in full. Upon returning home your friends 
must first call upon you. 

If death occurs in any household where 
one is in the habit of visiting, it is proper to 
leave cards upon the family within a month 
after. 

When a gentleman calls after receiving 
hospitality, he should leave cards for all the 

V. BALLS AND I 

It is in the evening party that society 
puts on its gayest aspect, and is on its best 
behavior. Here everything is regulated by 
a strict code of observance, any departure 
from which opens one to critical remark. 
It is necessary, therefore, that the etiquette 
of the ball-room should be fully understood 
by all who claim admission to society. 

These entertainments always include danc¬ 
ing and a supper. If large, they are called 
balls; if small, simply dances or parties. 
Balls are of two kinds, public and private, 
but there is no essential difference between 
the etiquette required on the two occasions. 


ladies of the family and one for the gentle¬ 
man representing the head of the house, 
whether young or old. 

When a lady is paying merely formal 
visits she need not necessarily ask whether 
the lady upon whom she is calling is at 
home, but can leave cards simply, unless 
she is under obligation for some courtesy, 
in which case she must ask whether the 
lady can receive her. 

It is better to leave cards in the hall 
when entering an afternoon reception or tea, 
as the hostess might otherwise not remember 
your presence, and a card left in person 
would afterwards remind her that she was 
your debtor for a visit—for if you attend an 
afternoon reception it is equivalent to a call. 

If you receive cards for a series of “at 
homes,” and for some good reason cannot 
accept the invitation, send your card on the 
last day named. 

A card left for you during your illness 
should be answered by a call as soon as 
your recovery will permit. 

Should you send a card to a person who 
is ill, the bearer should always make a ver¬ 
bal inquiry as to your friend’s condition of 
health. 

In making calls upon an intimate friend 
it is not necessary to send your card in. 
The simple announcement of your name is 
sufficient. The use of a card always has an 
air of formality about it. Where persons 
are on cordial terms, and are visiting back 
and forth frequently, a card can very well 
be dispensed with. 

VENING PARTIES 

As regards the giving of private parties 
or balls, the rule is, that ball-goers should 
make one return during the season. In 
doing so, it is in good taste to restrict the 
number of invitations as far as social obli¬ 
gations will permit, that the guests may not 
be overcrowded, and the unpleasantness of 
the “crush” may be avoided. To gain 
this desirable end, however, it is always 
safe to make the invitations in excess of the 
number desired, as some are sure to fail to 
come. One-third more than the room will 
comfortably hold may usually pe safely 
asked. And experience shows that more 




28 o 


BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


gentlemen than ladies should be invited, in 
order to secure an equal number of dancers 
of both sexes. 

Invitations may be sent out from two to 
three weeks before the time fixed for the 
party. Less than two weeks is usually con¬ 
sidered too short notice. 

The hour for balls has, unfortunately, 
been made very late by the absolute dictum 
of fashion. Unless specially indicated on 
the invitation, a hostess cannot hope to as¬ 
semble her guests before half-past ten, and 
in large cities the rooms are often not filled 
till an hour later. 

Subscription Dances. 

In most of the large cities several series 
of dances are arranged by certain leaders in 
the social world to which people are invited 
to subscribe. Each subscriber is usually 
entitled to a number of invitations for dis¬ 
tribution, though in some instances the 
price of the subscription is small, and only 
permits one person to take advantage of 
each. 

The subscription balls take place in 
some public ball-room, as a rule. In New 
York, for instance, at Delmonico’s. 

Several ladies are selected to form the 
reception committee, and they stand in one 
of the outer rooms, bowing to the guests as 
they enter. On such occasions, no one 
shakes hands ; the ladies courtesy, and the 
gentlemen bow. 

No unmarried lady should go to one of 
these balls, or to any large party, without a 
chaperon, and invitations should be sent to 
an elder member of her family, in order 
that she need not look outside for proper 
attendance. 

In the West and South it is customary 
for gentlemen to take unmarried ladies to 
evening entertainments, but in the East, 
and in the best city society generally, such 
a thing would be considered the greatest 
breach of decorum. At a small dance in 
a private house a young lady may dispense 
with the services of a chaperon, if desired, 
but she should be escorted to and from the 
house by a servant or relative. 

A good floor is essential to the enjoy¬ 
ment of dancing ; when the carpet is taken 
up, care should be used that no roughness 


of surface is presented. Some ladies have 
their dancing-floors carefully polished with 
beeswax and a brush. A crumb-cloth or 
linen diaper, thoroughly well stretched over 
a carpet, is the next best thing to a polished 
floor. 

The question of music is important. If 
it is a large ball, four musicians is the least 
number that should be engaged—piano, 
cornet or flute, violin, and violoncello. In 
small assemblies the violin and piano are 
sufficient, or, on occasion, the piano alone. 
In such a case a chance pianist should not 
be depended upon, but a professional one be 
engaged. 

The orchestra should occupy what is 
considered the top of the room. In cases 
where it is not convenient to adhere to this 
rule, the end farthest from the door is usu¬ 
ally chosen. The position of the orchestra 
needs to be considered by the dancers, so 
that, in quadrilles, their movements may be 
regulated thereby. 

The Dressing Room. 

A cloak-room for ladies must be pro¬ 
vided, with maids to receive shawls and 
cloaks and to render such other assistance 
as may be required. It should contain sev¬ 
eral looking-glasses, and a supply of such 
articles as may be required in a lady’s 
toilette. 

A hat room for gentlemen must not be 
forgotten, with valets to wait upon them. 
It is best to provide checks for articles be¬ 
longing to ladies and gentlemen left in 
charge of the attendants. Where checks 
cannot be had, tickets numbered in dupli¬ 
cate may be used—one being given to the 
lady or gentleman, and the other pinned to 
the coat or cloak. By this means the prop¬ 
erty of each guest is identified, and con¬ 
fusion at the time of departure is prevented. 

Small fees of twenty-five or fifty cents 
are often given to servants in the dressing- 
room at a public ball, but never in private 
houses in this country, though the custom 
is common in England. Waiters should be 
on hand at supper to serve the meal, as the 
fashion of the gentlemen waiting upon the 
ladies is rapidly becoming obsolete. 

In large cities, an awning should always 
be extended from the front door to the curb 




BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


281 


stone, on the occasion of a reception or 
other entertainment, as ladies do not like to 
step out of their carriages in light or elab¬ 
orate dresses without some protection from 
the weather, and from the gaze of a curious 
crowd. 

The Question of Toilette. 

Ladies may wear as handsome dresses as 
they wish, and make their fullest display of 
jewelry. As everything about a ball-room 
should be light and attractive, it is in order 
for elderly ladies, who do not dance, to wear 
dresses more youthful in style and color 
than would be suitable for dinner, concert, 
or opera. For those who dance, silk dresses 
are, as a rule, objectionable. 

Flowers are the proper ornaments for the 
head and dress. French ladies select them 
w 7 ith reference to the season ; but this is not 
insisted on in this country, and summer 
flowers may be worn at Christmas. 

Ladies in deep mourning should not 
dance, even if they permit themselves to at¬ 
tend a ball. Should they do so, black and 
scarlet or violet is the proper wear. Where 
the mourning is sufficiently slight for danc¬ 
ing to be seemly, white, with mauve, violet 
or black trimmings, flounces, etc., is proper. 

White gloves befit the ball-room; in 
mourning they may be sewn with black. 
They should be faultless as to fit, and never 
be removed from the hands in the ball¬ 
room. 

The attire in which a gentleman can 
present himself in a ball-room is so rigor¬ 
ously defined, and admits of so little variety, 
that it can be described in a few words. 

He must wear a black dress coat, black 
trousers, and a black waistcoat; a white 
necktie, white kid gloves, and patent leather 
boots. The waistcoat should be low, so as 
to disclose an ample shirt-front, fine and 
delicately plaited ; it is better not embroid¬ 
ered, but small gold studs may be used 
with effect. Excess of jewelry is to be 
avoided. The necktie should be of a wash¬ 
ing texture, not silk, and not set off with 
embroidery. 

In the BalFRoom. 

In a private ball or party, guests, on en¬ 
tering, should at once proceed to pay their 


respects to the lady of the house, who will 
remain near the door to greet them as they 
appear. Some of the gentlemen of the 
house should be near, to introduce to the 
lady any of their friends on their arrival. 
The daughters of the household are not 
required to assist in the ceremony of recep¬ 
tion. 

The fashion of carrying numerous bou¬ 
quets to a ball is rapidly going out of exist¬ 
ence, and many ladies refuse to take any 
flowers into a ball-room, the old custom 
having given rise to much vulgar rivalry 
and ostentatious display. 

At public balls cards giving the order 
of dances are provided, on which gentlemen 
can write their names opposite the numbers 
of the dances for which they have been ac¬ 
cepted by the lady holding the card. In 
England such cards are in general use, but 
they are rarely provided at private balls in 
this country. 

From eighteen to twenty dances is a 
convenient number to arrange for, with 
supper as a suitable break at about the 
middle of the entertainment. A ball should 
begin with a march, followed in succession 
by a quadrille and a waltz. Then waltzes 
and quadrilles follow as may be arranged. 

The cotillon or German, now so widely 
known, fills up the larger part of the even¬ 
ing, and begins, as a rule, immediately after 
supper. In a private house, the gentleman 
who has been invited to lead the German 
must ask the unmarried daughter of the 
family to dance with him, or the married 
daughter if so indicated as the family’s 
choice. At the more general dances or 
large balls a young married lady is usually 
the one selected to dance with the leader. 

It is quite the custom for a gentleman to 
engage a partner for the cotillon before the 
evening of the dance, and in this case, pro¬ 
vided he can afford it, he usually sends her 
a bouquet of flowers. But should the lady 
request him not to remember her in this way 
her wishes should be respected. 

Any gentleman, provided his acquaint¬ 
ance with the lady be sufficiently intimate to 
warrant him in doing so, has the privilege 
of sending her offerings of flowers whenever 
he cares to do so. In such a case he should 
go to a florist, leave an order for the kind of 





282 


BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


bouquet he wishes sent, and also his card 
in an envelope addressed to the lady, which 
envelope should accompany the flowers. 

Formerly, at public balls a master of 
ceremonies was considered always neces¬ 
sary, but this official is no longer provided, 
the management being now entrusted to a 
committee of arrangements, who are distin¬ 
guished by wearing ribbons in the button¬ 
hole, or rosettes. The members of the 
committee superintend the dances, provide 
partners for those who need them, and 
introduce gentlemen to ladies with whom 
they desire to dance. 

In private balls, the lady of the house or 
some member of the family attends to intro¬ 
ductions, and when she has grown daughters 
they may employ themselves in arranging 
sets, introducing partners, and the like, de¬ 
sisting from dancing themselves while any 
of the lady guests remain unprovided with 
partners. 

Requests to Dance. 

The former fashion of saying, “May I 
have the pleasure of dancing with you ? ’ ’ 
has now given place to a less formal method, 
and a young man may accost a young lady 
with, “ I hope you have kept a dance for 
me,” “ Won’t you spare me a dance?” or 
‘ ‘ Shall we take a turn ? ” A young lady 
does not answer, “ I shall be very happy,” 
a reply which has disappeared with “ May I 
have the pleasure ? ’ ’ but may say, ‘ ‘ I am 
afraid I have none to spare except number 
ten, a quadrille,” or “ I am engaged for the 
next five dances; but I’ll give you one, if 
you come for it a little later,” or something 
similarly appropriate. 

Another form of invitation is, “Are you 
engaged for this dance ? ’ ’ An unsophisti¬ 
cated girl may answer by saying, “ I do not 
think I am,” while perfectly aware that she 
is not, and the young men are quick to see 
through the evasion by which the maiden 
seeks to conceal her lack of partners. A 
clever girl will escape from the dilemma by 
such an answer, as “ I am glad to say I am 
not,” thus inferring that she might have 
been engaged had she desired, but preferred 
waiting for the chance of dancing with 
him —a suggestion flattering to the gentle¬ 
man. 


Ball-room small talk is not expected to 
rise above the common-place. The ma¬ 
terials supplied by the entertainment itself 
are very limited—the band, the flowers, the 
floor, the supper. Dull people usually ring 
the changes on these themes. For instance, 
“ How well the band plays ! ” “ What a 

pleasant ball-room this is ! ” “ Don’t you 

think the floor slippery ! ” “ How warm it 

is growing ! ”, etc., etc. Such phrases, by 
incessant repetition, grow wearisome, and 
those who can master any more novel 
phrases should make an earnest effort to 
vary the monotony. Nothing very serious 
or profound is in place, but almost any one 
can escape from such trite subjects as these. 

In the Dance. 

When a lady has accepted an invitation 
to dance, the gentleman offers her his right 
arm, and leads her to her place on the floor. 

A slight knowledge of the figure is suffi¬ 
cient to enable a gentleman to move through 
a quadrille, if he is easy and unembarrassed, 
and his manners are courteous ; but to ask 
a lady to join you in a waltz, or other round 
dance, in which you are not proficient, is 
an offence not easily forgiven, as it may ex¬ 
pose the lady to awkward einbarassment. 

It is inadvisable to dance in every set, as 
the exercise is unpleasantly heating and 
fatiguing. Never forget an engagement— 
it is an offence that does not admit of ex¬ 
cuse, except when a lady commits it; and 
then a gentleman is bound to take her at 
her word without a murmur. It is quite 
probable, however, that he will remember 
it against her, and take care not to be again 
victimized by her. 

At the end of a quadrille the gentleman 
should offer his right arm to the lady, and 
walk half round the room with her. He 
should inquire if she will take refreshments, 
and, if she replies in the affirmative, conduct 
her to the room devoted to that purpose. It 
is good taste on the part of the lady not to 
detain her cavalier here so long as to prevent 
him from fulfilling his next engagement, 
since he cannot return to the ball-room un¬ 
til she is ready to be escorted thither, and 
resigned to her chaperon or friends, or to 
the partner who claims her promise for the 
next dance. 




BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 283 


Taking Supper. 

The gentleman who dances with a lady 
in the last dance before supper, conducts 
her to the supper-room, attends on her 
while there, and escorts her back to the ball¬ 
room. At a private ball, the lady of the 
house may ask a gentleman to take a lady 
down to supper, and he is bound to comply, 
and to treat her with the politest attention. 

In either case a gentleman will not sup 
with the ladies, but stand by and attend to 
them, permitting himself a glass of wine 
with them ; but taking a subsequent op¬ 
portunity to secure his own refreshment. 

Refreshments must be provided for the 
guests during the evening ; and, as nothing 
should be handed round in the ball-room, a 
refreshment-room is necessary. This should, 
if possible, be on the same floor as the ball¬ 
room, because it is not only inconvenient, 
but dangerous, for ladies heated by the 
dance to encounter the draught of the stair¬ 
cases. 

In the refreshment-room, lemonade, tea 
and coffee, ices, biscuits, wafers, cakes and 
cracker bonbons should be provided. Some 
persons add wine to the list. 

The supper table should be set in a 
separate room. It is usually opened to the 
guests about 12.30 o’clock, and may con¬ 
sist of hot and cold dishes, including oysters, 
bouillon, game, croquettes, filet of beef, 
salads, pates, ices, cakes, sweets, jellies, 
fruits, and champagne, punch, lemonade 
and mineral waters, or such combinations or 
variations of these viands as may be decided 
upon. Small tables are frequently used at 
balls, so that four or six people may sit at 


one table and eat their supper comfortably 
in courses. 

In private parties the character of the 
supper will, of course, depend upon the 
taste and resources of those who give the 
ball. To order it in from a good caterer is 
the simplest plan, but may often prove too 
expensive. If provided at home, let it be 
done on a liberal, but not too profuse a 
scale. 

After the Ball. 

Assemblies of this kind should be left 
quietly. If the party is small, it is permis¬ 
sible to bow to the hostess ; but at a large 
ball this is not necessary, unless you meet 
her on your way from the room. It is im¬ 
portant to avoid making your departure 
felt as a suggestion for breaking up the 
party, it being very impolite to indicate by 
your movements or manner that, in your 
opinion, the entertainment has been kept up 
long enough. 

Finally, let no gentleman presume on a 
ball-room introduction. It is given with a 
view to one dance only, and will certainly 
not warrant a gentleman in going further 
than asking a lady to dance a second time. 
Out of the ball-room such an introduction 
has no force whatever. 

If those who have danced together meet 
next day in the street, or the park, the 
gentleman must not venture to bow, unless 
the lady chooses to favor him with some 
mark of her recognition. If he does, he 
must not expect any acknowledgment of his 
salutation. 

After a private ball it is etiquette to call 
at the house during the following week. 


VI. BREAKFAST, LUNCHEON AND TEA 


The hour at which breakfast shall be 
served is governed entirely by the habits and 
tastes of the family. Where it is very late, 
it is often preceded by the sending of coffee 
or tea, rolls and eggs in some form, to the 
bed rooms, the family, in such a case, not 
coming down to a general meal till about 
noon. Breakfast, however, is served in the 
same manner whether the hour be early or 
late, and this meal should always be quite 
free from formality. 


A tea and coffee tray should be placed in 
front of the mistress of the house. It is 
quite within the rules of breakfast etiquette 
for people to wait on themselves and to help 
each other, and as the bread, small dishes, 
etc., are frequently on the side table, this is 
a very convenient fashion. One servant is 
enough in the dining-room in the morning, 
even though a larger number may be retained. 

Ordinary courses for breakfast consist ot 
three or four, such as hominy or oatmeal 




284 


BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


first, then eggs, meat, or ham, and the 
chief portion of the food, followed by grid¬ 
dle-cakes and finally fruit. Toast should 
be freshly made, and sent up from time to 
time while the breakfast goes on. It should be 
always hot, as cold toast is never palatable. 

Luncheon. 

In imitation of the French, the meal 
which in our country is usually called 
“ lunch ” or “ luncheon,’’ is sometimes de¬ 
signated as ‘ ‘ breakfast. ’ ’ It may either be 
formal, resembling a dinner, or informal, 
like the breakfast just described. It is ser¬ 
ved between 12.30 and 1.30, and the hostess 
may make it as simple or as elegant as 
she chooses. A formal luncheon party, 
however, differs little, if at all, from a din¬ 
ner. If the occasion is a ceremonious one, 
the table is set in the same manner as for 
a dinner, and the dishes are handed by the 
servants; but the guests enter separately, 
instead of arm in arm. 

At a large lunch-party either one long 
table, or several little ones, may be used. 
If the latter method is preferred, take care 
that the servants have ample room to pass 
between them. Each plate should have be¬ 
side it two knives, two forks, one or two 
spoons, and a water-goblet. 

The first course should consist of fruit 
or of raw oysters, or of bouillon or chicken 
consomme, served in cups set on plates, and 
provided with teaspoons. 

This course is followed by an entree, 
chops with one or two vegetables, game or 
chicken, and salad, with sweets, candies, 
fruits, etc. Black coffee is usually served 
after luncheon. 

In an informal lunch, if the hostess pre¬ 
fers, the sweets may be placed on the table 
in advance ; but vegetables must be served 
from the side-board, and the chops, cold 
meats, etc., should be served by the hostess. 
Yet at such luncheons vegetables are fre¬ 
quently omitted, and in the selection of 
dishes the greatest latitude of choice is per¬ 
missible. Among those most frequently 
served may be named oysters, croquettes, 
French chops, cold meats, beefsteak, fish, 
omelettes and salads. 

At formal luncheons a bouquet for each 
lady is sometimes provided, they being 


grouped as an ornament in the centre of the 
table, and distributed after the meal. The 
custom is a pretty one, and worth encour¬ 
aging. Occasionally, also, some pretty 
trifle is given to each guest as a memento 
of the occasion, but there is no obligation 
for this to be done. 

Guests should be punctual in attendance 
on such an occasion, or send word promptly 
if prevented, by some sudden occurrence, 
from coming. Either a white or figured 
table-cloth may be used, but it must be one 
that will wash. 

These are rules which etiquette and good 
breeding demand shall be observed, not 
alone at luncheon, but at all meals. The 
table is the social centre, and it is essential 
that those who gather around it shall con¬ 
form themselves to the most approved rules 
of good society. A knowledge of table eti¬ 
quette is very desirable to possess, since 
many regard it as one of the surest tests of 
good breeding. It is at the dinner table, 
however, that strict rules of observance be¬ 
come indispensible. There is much more 
freedom allowable at the earlier meals of the 
day, and a digest of table rules may be left 
till we come to speak of the principal meal. 

It may be said, however, in regard to 
conversation at the lunch table, that both 
etiquette and good breeding forbid indul¬ 
gence in gossip, particularly in any sense 
ill-natured, and nothing can be more ill-bred 
than to make, after the meal, carping criti¬ 
cisms on the hostess and the entertainment 
she has provided. 

Teas and Afternoon Receptions. 

These are among the most informal en¬ 
tertainments given, and the difference be¬ 
tween a large afternoon tea and an afternoon 
reception is little more than the name, 
though the latter is perhaps a shade more 
formal. They frequently take place at 
the same hour, and the character of the 
invitations and entertainments differ very 
little. 

The day and hour of an afternoon tea 
may be written on a visiting card. For an 
afternoon reception, an “ At Home ” card is 
used. No answer need be sent to such an 
invitation, unless one is particularly re¬ 
quested, which is not ordinarily the rule. 



BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


285 


It is necessary to speak to the host and 
hostess immediately upon entering the room, 
but owing to the constantly moving crowd 
it is not essential that guests should again 
address the host and hostess when they are 
about to leave. 

The length of stay can vary from five 
minutes to an hour at an afternoon recep¬ 
tion , but at an evening reception the time is 
usually more extended. 

Only simple refreshments should be 
served at an afternoon tea. Thin slices of 
bread and butter, sandwiches, fancy biscuit 
or cake, tea, coffee, or chocolate, ice cream, 
and bouillon are offered. Punch and lemon¬ 
ade—but no wine of any kind—may be 
added if desired ; and also salted almonds, 
cakes, candies, and other dainty trifles. 
English breakfast tea is now preferred, 
served with cream and white sugar, or 
slices of lemon for those who like tea made 
in the Russian style. 

At an afternoon reception the table may 
be supplied with oyster-salads, pates, boned 
turkey, ice-cream, coffee, and bonbons. 

For a reception music is desirable, as it 
adds greater brilliancy to the entertainment. 

The hostess should shake hands with 
her guests and receive them cordially ; any 
formality is out of place on an informal 
occasion. 

If the number of guests is small, the 
hostess should walk about the room, talking 
with her visitors; if large, she should re¬ 
main near the door, and have the aid of 
other ladies, who should entertain the 
guests, ask them to take refreshments, and 
make introductions when necessary. 

At a large and elegant afternoon recep¬ 
tion the windows may be darkened, the gas 
lighted, and musicians employed, if the 
hostess desires. 

What is known as a high tea is a meal 
taking the place of a dinner, at which hot 
meats, cakes, warm breads, preserves and 
other sweets are served. Such teas are more 
popular in the country than in town. 

At the informal tea, of which it is the 
custom to partake at about five o’clock 
in many households, a tray is brought in to 
the mistress of the house, and placed before 
her on a small table. This tray should con¬ 
tain a tea-service, cups, saucers, etc. The 


lady herself makes the tea, pours it out, and 
passes it to the members of the family or the 
visitors who may chance to be present. The 
servant brings in thin slices of bread and 
butter, cake, and, perhaps, English muffins, 
which are usually served with the cup of tea 
at this hour. 

Suppers. 

Supper, as a rule, is similar to dinner, 
and unless served at a ball or as a part of 
some other entertainment has very much 
the character of that meal. A fter the theatre 
or opera, people frequently indulge in some 
refreshment which may or may not be dig¬ 
nified by the name of supper. 

Picnics. 

If one person gives a picnic he must 
provide everything, the modes of convey¬ 
ance to the place selected, the refreshments, 
entertainment, etc., but if several join in 
this the labor and expense should be equally 
divided. 

The refreshments should consist chiefly 
of cold dishes, such as meats, boned turkey, 
sandwiches, salads, cakes, jellies, pies, etc., 
with lemonade, or such other drinks as may 
seem desirable. Hot dishes are sometimes 
served, prepared at a neighboring house. 

Picnics are often so arranged that each 
lady attending furnishes a dish of some 
kind. In this way all the refreshments can 
be provided without any difficulty. 

Sometimes a wooden platform is erected, 
and dancing is the chief amusement after 
eating. 

A picnic generally lasts from about noon 
until twilight, and the best season of the 
year for such an entertainment is when it is' 
pleasant to be out of doors. 

Sufficient china, glass, etc., should al¬ 
ways be provided, though they should be of 
a plain and inexpensive kind, for fear of 
breakage. 

Theatre Parties. 

A dinner, either at home or at a restau¬ 
rant, is frequently followed by a visit to the 
theatre or the opera. In such a case it is 
proper for the one who gives the theatre 
party to invite an equal number of ladies 
and gentlemen, a proper chaperon, of course, 



286 


BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


being provided. If the party are to dire 
together before going to the play, half-past 
six is usually the hour appointed, whether 
the dinner is to take place in a private house 
or in a restaurant. If there is to be no din¬ 
ner, some house is selected where the guests 
assemble at a proper hour to reach the 
theatre in time. 

It is customary, when you invite married 
people or gentlemen to the opera, to send 
them their tickets so that they may join you 
at the opera house, unless for some reason 
you wish to go with them. Unmarried ladies 
are usually asked to dine by their friends 
and go with them from their home. Sup¬ 
pers are rarely given after the opera, owing 
to the lateness of the hour. If the party 
did not dine together, however, it is custo¬ 
mary for the host or hostess to give the 
guests a supper somewhere after the play. 

It is the duty of the chaperon to see the 
unmarried ladies safely home. 

Chaperons. 

The word chaperon is French, and signi¬ 
fies a married lady, or one of sufficient age 
and dignity to accompany an unmarried 
one with propriety to any reputable enter¬ 
tainment. 

Her services may be called upon, not 

vii. banquet: 

The formal dinner is one of the most im¬ 
portant occasions in social life, the test to 
which the degree of acquaintance of any one 
with the customs of good society is often 
put, the trial scene of good breeding and 
familiarity with polite observance. The 
rules to be observed at table are so many 
and minute that they require careful study, 
and many who pass muster on less formal 
occasions, may sadly err in some of the in- 
dispensible details of the etiquette of the table. 

In ordinary, informal dinners, indeed, 
this strictness of observance is not de¬ 
manded, and much more freedom is per¬ 
missible, the home feeling here taking the 
place of ceremonious rules. Yet even here 
it is important to avoid falling into too great 
a latitude of action, since habits formed at 
home are very apt to accompany one 
abroad. 


alone for theatres, operas, concerts, balls, 
or other evening entertainments, but are de¬ 
manded on many occasions during the day. 
No party of any kind which includes both 
sexes should be formed unless some married 
lady has charge of it. 

The greatest courtesy and deference to a 
chaperon should always be manifested by 
the young ladies and gentlemen under her 
charge. Indifferent civility in this respect 
is the height of ill-breeding. 

When an older lady passes a younger 
one in a ball-room and bows, the younger 
one should never remain seated when re¬ 
turning such a mark of recognition. 

In leaving a room simultaneously, 
younger and unmarried ladies should always 
stand aside until the older or married ones 
have passed out. 

The chaperon should behave with 
dignity, while’ being as genial and agree¬ 
able to the younger members of her party 
as possible. She should see that the un¬ 
married ladies she has charge of reach 
home safely, and never leave them to a 
chance escort, no matter how tired she may 
be. One can never be too sure but that 
young girls may be exposed to unpleasant 
situations, if left without a companion of 
judgment and experience. 

AND DINNERS 

Choosing Quests. 

In giving a dinner party, the first and 
often the most important question is, whom 
to invite. How many to invite follows as a 
problem of little less importance. For a 
pleasant dinner the number should be small 
rather than large, eight or ten being a fair 
average. An even number seems prefer¬ 
able, though this is not a matter of essential 
consideration. 

Of course, large dinners are often a 
necessity, when given for business, family, 
or other reasons ; and when display is the 
leading motive in giving the dinner, the 
number may be as great as the resources of 
the establishment will permit. But if com¬ 
fort and the pleasure of social intercourse 
are the objects proposed, the number will 
need to be limited. 




BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


2 *7 


As to who should be invited, we have 
here a question that has sadly troubled many 
generations of hosts and hostesses. To 
bring together an incongruous mass of 
people is simply to invite failure. Guests 
should be selected with strict attention to a 
sense of fitness ; and equal attention should 
be given to placing those of similar tastes 
together at table. The ease of conversation 
and the enjoyment of the dinner depend 
largely on this. Clever conversationalists 
are always most desirable guests. These 
are not always to be had, but even a single 
fluent talker often acts as a leaven that will 
rouse to speech a whole company of ordi¬ 
narily quiet people. The invitation should 
be sent a week or two before the time fixed, 
or as much as three weeks if the affair is to 
be one of great formality. 

Duties of the Hostess. 

A dinner party is regarded by many per¬ 
sons as the most formal and, at the same 
time, the most elegant mode of entertaining 
guests—it is certainly the one which most 
severely taxes the resources of the hostess. 
Any woman not positively ill-bred can fill 
the position of hostess at a ball; but it re¬ 
quires tact, readiness, and a thorough knowl¬ 
edge of society to make a dinner party, in 
the ordinary parlance, “gooff well.” No 
matter how exquisite the china, glass, floral 
decorations, silver, and linen may be, if the 
hostess is a dull or awkward woman, the 
banquet will not be a success, for a proper 
selection of guests and the power of drawing 
them into gay and brilliant conversation are 
quite as needful as any of the material 
accessories. 

The hostess should call into requisition 
all her tact and knowledge of society to set 
her guests at ease. No accident must dis¬ 
turb her. If her rarest china or most preci¬ 
ous bit of glass is broken, she must appear 
not to notice it. If any one has had the 
misfortune to arrive late, she must welcome 
him or her cordially, though her duties to 
her other guests have not permitted her to 
wait in the drawing-room more than the fif¬ 
teen minutes permitted by etiquette to the 
tardy. She must think only of encouraging 
the timid, inducing the taciturn to talk, and 
enabling all to contribute their best conver¬ 


sational powers to the general fund of enter¬ 
tainment. The same rules, of course, apply 
to the host. 

The arrangements for dinner should be 
much the same whether the party be large 
or small, though, of course, the larger num¬ 
ber will require a few extra servants, and 
may render advisable some extra courses. 
It should be remembered, however, by 
givers of dinners that' too many courses are 
objectionable, and that in the best society of 
to-day fewer dishes are offered than was for¬ 
merly the custom. 

The hour for dinner should be fixed 
to suit the convenience of the guests and 
will vary in city and country. In the city 
it should be no earlier than seven nor later 
than eight o’clock, and the probability must 
be borne in mind that the guests will not all 
assemble till at least fifteen minutes after the 
hour named in the invitations. Tardiness 
of this kind was formerly considered rude, 
but has now become so common as to be 
expected and allowed for. 

Arranging the Table. 

In the centre of the table should be either 
a vase of flowers or a dish of fruit. Ferns 
make a very attractive effect. There should 
be small dishes of candies, figs, prunes, 
crystallized ginger, etc. Olives or radishes, 
salted almonds, etc., should beset in pretty 
little dishes on the table. These, with the 
silver, glass carafes of water, and wine de¬ 
canters, complete the decoration of the table. 

Everything else should be served from 
the side-table, and passed to each guest. 
This saves great confusion, and contributes 
more than anything else to the comfort of 
the meal. It is important also to have 
warm food served on hot plates. Cold 
plates will spoil the best dinner ever 
cooked. 

The table cloth should be of the finest 
quality; and it is well for those whose 
means do not permit them to follow fash¬ 
ion’s every caprice, to remember that fine 
white table linen is always in place. If 
colored materials are used, the latest edict 
of fashion forbids the employment of any 
stuffs that will not wash. 

Decorations should always be arranged 
so that they will not prevent the guests 



288 


BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


from seeing one another. Th£ preference 
is now for low dishes of flowers of delicate 
perfume. Those of strong fragrance should 
be avoided, as in a warm room their odor 
may become oppressive. 

An ostentatious display of flowers, plate, 
or ornaments of any kind is not in the best 
taste ; nothing being more vulgar than a 
seeming desire to impress your friends with 
a show of wealth. 

Placing the Table=Ware. 

On the right of the space left for the 
plate place two knives and a spoon. The 
present mode is to use silver knives as well 
as forks for fish, and in that case this knife 
is placed with the others. On the left three 
forks—that for sweets smaller than the 
others. At times other knives, forks, and 
spoons are provided, but it is better to bring 
these in as needed for the separate courses, 

The glasses are placed on the right. 
These should be at least four in number. 
As it is a great breach of decorum, as well 
as a sign of ignorance, to drink one sort of 
wine from a glass intended for another, we 
shall describe the glasses commonly in use. 
The tall glass, or that with the shallow, 
saucer-like top, is for champagne ; the green 
for hock, chablis and similar wines ; the 
large, ample glass for claret and burgundy ; 
the round, full-shaped glass for port, and 
the smaller glass for sherry. 

It must not be understood, however, 
that wines are essential to a high-toned 
dinner. Some of our very best families, the 
acknowledged leaders of fashion, never put 
champagne or any other kind of wine on 
their tables. 

Each guest must be provided with a 
table-napkin, which, in laying the table, 
should occupy the place reserved for the 
plate. 

There are many different and various 
ingenious ways of treating the dinner-nap¬ 
kin. The simplest is to leave it in the folds 
in which it comes from the laundress. 

Bread should be cut in thin slices, and 
laid on a napkin at the left of each plate. 

The room may be lighted with either 
white or colored candles or lamp. Many 
persons prefer to have the light fall in part 
from side brackets or sconces on the wall. 


Dress. 

As regards dress for a dinner party, it 
must be governed in great measure by the 
character of the dinner, whether friendly 
and informal, or an occasion of leading im¬ 
portance and marked formality. For the 
latter, lady and gentleman alike should 
dress as elaborately as for a ball, though 
ball dress and dinner dress should by no 
means be the same. The occasions differ 
widely, and the fitness of things needs to be 
strictly observed. 

As to the character of the lady’s dress, 
that must depend on her own taste. It will 
suffice to state here that full dress is re¬ 
quisite and that jewelry may be freely worn. 
For an ordinary, small dinner, however, a 
much less elaborate toilette is sufficient, and 
may prove more comfortable. 

The gentleman will wear the ordinary 
evening dress already described. He may 
wear more*jewelry than is in good taste 
earlier in the day. 

Entering the Dining Room. 

If the dinner is to be a large and formal 
one, a gentleman should receive an envelope 
before entering the drawing-room in which 
is a card bearing the name of the lady he is 
desired to take in to dinner. If he does not 
know the lady he should ask the hostess to 
present him to her. At small and informal 
dinners this is not necessary, the hostess 
simply mentioning to the gentleman the 
name of the lady he is wished to escort to 
the table. In fact, though still in use, the 
custom above named is going out of fashion, 
an assignment in the drawing-room being 
considered sufficient. 

A card is generally laid at each place, 
giving the name of the guest who is to oc¬ 
cupy it. This custom is also unnecessary 
at a small dinner. Menus, or bills of fare, 
are often placed before the guests at large 
dinners, but rarely at small ones. 

When the guests have all arrived and 
the dinner is ready, the butler or waitress 
should enter the drawing-room and politely 
say to the lady of the house, “ Dinner is 
served ’ ’ ; then he or she should return to 
the dining-room and stand be' ; nd the 
hostess until she is seated. 




BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


289 


The gentleman of the house must offer 
his right arm to the lady who has been 
selected as the important guest of the even¬ 
ing, and then proceed to the table, placing 
her on his right, he generally taking the 
lower end of the table. The other guests 
follow, each gentleman with the lady selected 
for him ; and finally the hostess enters with 
the gentleman whom she wishes to honor, 
he taking a seat at her right. 

The remaining guests, in case their seats 
are not indicated by cards, will take the 
seats assigned to them by the host or hostess. 
In case no assignment is made, it should be 
remembered that questions of precedence, 
formerly so much considered, are growing 
to be of minor importance, particularly in 
this country. 

Every place at a friend’s table is equally 
a place of honor, and should be equally 
agreeable, so that, in the best circles, it is 
becoming the custom for the guests to sit in 
the order in which they enter the room. A 
little care should, however, be taken that p 
judicious distribution of the guests, accord¬ 
ing to their tastes, accomplishments, terms 
of intimacy, etc., is secured. Eadies sit on 
the right of gentlemen. 

As soon as seated all the guests remove 
their gloves, and, taking the napkins from 
the table, open them and spread them on 
their knees. The napkin is not to be tucked 
into the waistcoat or pinned on to the front 
of the dress. It will usually contain a roll; 
that is placed on the left side of the plate. 

The Dinner. 

It is not easy to lay down any fixed rule 
for the character of the dinner. That must 
be governed by the season and the taste and 
resources of the host. However humble 
the pretensions of the dinner, it should 
never consist of less than three courses, 
namely, soup or fish, a j oint (which, in a small 
dinner, may be accompanied by poultry or 
game) and pastry. Cheese with salad fol¬ 
lows as a matter of course. Dessert succeeds. 

The number of servants necessary will 
depend, of course, on the number of guests. 
Three will be enough for a party of ten or 
twelve persons. On their training and effi¬ 
cient service the success of the dinner will 
largely depend. 

19 C 


What is above said about courses applies, 
of course, to a very simple meal. In those 
of more pretension the courses may vary 
considerably in number and character, 
though custom lays down certain fixed rules 
for the succession of viands. For an ordi¬ 
nary dinner the following will suffice as an 
example. 

Dinner Courses. 

The dinner may begin with oysters on 
the half shell, five or six for each person. 
If not the season for oysters, small clams 
are frequently served in the same way. 
These should be very cold, and the clams 
are better if surrounded by cracked ice. A 
piece of lemon should be in the centre of 
each plate, and pepper and salt be passed 
with this course. 

Soup follows. Either one or two may 
be served—a white and a clear, or a white 
and a brown soup ; but never serve two 
kinds one after the other. 

Follow the soup with fish. At the best 
tables you will find a silver fish-knife as well 
as fork ; if not, eat with a fork in the right 
hand and a small piece of bread in the left. 

When there are two kinds of fish, the 
larger one—say the turbot—is placed before 
the host; the lady taking that which is less 
calculated to fatigue in the helping. When 
fish sauce is handed, put it on the side of 
your plate. There are certain sauces appro¬ 
priate to each kind of fish—as lobster sauce 
with turbot, shrimp or caper with salmon, 
oyster with cod, and so on. 

The entrees follow, being ordinarily 
served in covered silver side-dishes. They 
consist of sweetbreads, pates , cutlets, and 
made-dishes generally. It is not customary 
to do more than taste one or two of these. 
Too much attention to them is apt to unfit 
one for enjoying the rest of the dinner. In 
eating of these dishes the fork alone, where 
possible, should be used. 

The meats and vegetables follow. Some 
vegetables, such as asparagus, sweet corn, 
or maccaroni, can be offered by themselves ; 
but hostesses should beware of making the 
meal tiresome by a needless number of 
courses. 

It is not allowable, however, to serve 
more than two vegetables with one course, 





290 


BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


nor to offer anything except potatoes or 
potato salad with the fish. 

The roast meats are placed about the 
table in this way: The largest and most 
important, say haunch of venison, before 
the host; one before the lady of the house, 
and such dishes as tongue or ham before 
particular guests, who occupy seats at points 
where carving-knives and forks are placed in 
readiness. 

Carving is an important accomplishment, 
and one that every gentleman should seek 
to acquire. A man should be able to carve 
a joint or a bird easily and dexterously, but 
facility can only be acquired by practice, 
which it is important to have. It is cus¬ 
tomary, however, to have the joint carved 
off the table, put back as before carving, 
and served. 

It is hardly necessary to say that knife 
and fork are used in the eating of meat, 
poultry, or game ; and it seems equally un¬ 
necessary to say that the purpose of the 
knife is simply to cut the food. Under no 
circumstances must it be used to convey it 
to the mouth. Vegetables are eaten with a 
fork. A spoon is rarely necessary, and a 
knife comes into use only in such cases as 
cutting off the heads of asparagus and the 
like. 

If considered desirable, a course of vege¬ 
tables may follow that of meat,—asparagus, 
cauliflower, artichokes, baked tomatoes, or 
some similar dish being served. 

Game follows. Salad may be served 
either with the game or as a separate course. 
In the latter case serve with it cheese and 
bread and butter. The bread can be cut 
very thin and carefully buttered, or the 
butter and bread can be served separately. 
If preferred, the cheese can be served as a 
separate course. 

Follow the cheese and salad with the 
sweet dishes and ices, then serve the fruit, 
and lastly the bonbons. Coffee may be 
served in the drawing-room, when the 
courses have not occupied too much time, 
or at the table, according to the preference 
of the hostess. 

Black coffee, which should be made very 
strong and clear, must be served in very 
small cups, with tiny coffee-spoons. 


After the Courses. 

Everything except the lights and orna¬ 
ments should be removed from the table 
before the dessert is served, the crumbs being 
brushed off with a crumb-scraper or a nap¬ 
kin, a clean one of course. 

Finger bowls, set on handsome china or 
glass plates, with a fruit napkin or embroid¬ 
ered doily between, should be placed on the 
table for the fruit course. The dainty em¬ 
broidered doilies, however, must never be 
used, and substantial fruit napkins should 
be supplied when any fruits that stain badly 
are served. 

Where there is more than one servant, a 
second waiter carrying the proper vegetables 
should follow the first, who passes the meat 
or fish. The lady next the host should first 
be helped, and the others in turn, after 
which the gentlemen should be served. 
But when there is only one servant, the 
guests may be helped in the order in which 
they sit, beginning with the lady at the 
host’s right, then passing to the one at his 
left, leaving the host himself to be served last. 

When the servants have placed the des¬ 
sert on the table and have handed the fruit 
and sweets once round, they retire. Any 
further service which the ladies may require 
can be given by the gentlemen, who will, of 
course, exert themselves to see that their 
neighbors are properly attended to. 

Retiring from the Table. 

Then the hostess bows to the lady of most 
distinction present, and all the ladies rise and 
prepare to retire. The gentleman nearest 
the door opens it, and holds it open for them. 
The hostess is the last to go out. While 
they are going all the gentlemen rise, and 
remain standing until they are gone. It 
would not, however, be a violation of eti¬ 
quette for the gentlemen to accompany the 
ladies to the drawing-room at once, and 
what is here said applies principally to for¬ 
mal dinners, and to families in which the 
gentlemen are accustomed to conclude the 
meal with cigars and wine. 

Tea and coffee are dispensed by the lady 
of the house in the drawing-room. This is 
her special province. It should be accom¬ 
panied by a few wafers ; a plate of very thin 



BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


291 


rolled bread-and-butter and a few biscuits 
of the lightest description may be added. 
One cup of tea or coffee only should be 
taken ; and certainly no one can need to be 
told that it must not be poured into the 
saucer to cool. It will be handed round 
the room by the servants. 

In the drawing-room there should be a 
little music to give relief to the conversa¬ 
tion. 

At a plain family dinner, at which one 
or two guests are present, more devolves on 
the host and hostess, and less on the servants. 

General Hints. 

You should sit at a convenient distance 
from the table, and sit upright. Do not 
lean back, or tilt your chair, or stoop for¬ 
ward towards the table. 

When grace is said at the table, observe 
the most respectful attention, reverently in¬ 
clining the head. 

Do not be impatient to be served. 
Should you need anything at the hands of 
the servants, do not order them to serve 
you, but request them politely, in a low, 
distinct tone, adding, “ if you please.” In 
declining a viand offered by them, say, 
“Not any, I thank you,” etc. 

Do not hesitate to take the last piece of 
bread or cake in a dish handed to you. 
Your host has more for other guests. When 
a plate containing food is handed to you, 
set it down before you, and do not pass it to 
your neighbor. 

Wines. 

As regards the use of wines at dinner, 
the following rules will suffice. They 
should be served in the following succession. 

First. —Sherry, which must be very 
cold and decantered. This to be passed with 
the soup. If a white wine is to be served, it 
should be given with the oysters and also 
very cold. This must not be decan tered. 

Second. —Champagne, which should be 
packed in ice several hours before it is to be 
used. Serve it in the bottle with a napkin 
held round it to absorb the moisture. 
Champagne is passed with the meat. 

Third. —Claret, which must be decant- 
ered and warm, and served with the game 
and salad. 


Fourth. —Madeira, also decan tered but 
of its natural temperature, and passed with 
the dessert. 

Mineral waters, such as apollinaris, can 
be passed at dinner, as some prefer a min¬ 
eral to natural water. As has been already 
said, a glass suitable for each variety of 
wine is placed on the table. This is not the 
case with the Madeira glasses, which are 
kept on a side-table, and brought to the 
table after the glasses previously used have 
been removed and before sweets are served. 

After dinner, when the ladies have left 
the room and the gentlemen are preparing 
to smoke, coffee, without milk, is served 
and carried to the ladies in whichever room 
they may be. 

It may be said in conclusion that the 
custom of wine drinking during dinner, and 
of drinking and smoking afterwards, is no 
longer of so ordinary application as former¬ 
ly. While still generally retained in the 
case of large and formal dinners, it is fre¬ 
quently omitted in small, and commonly in 
family dinners, being considered by many a 
custom ‘ ‘ better kept in the breach than the 
observance.” 

Dinners at Restaurants. 

When a dinner is given at a public 
restaurant, a table can be reserved in the 
public dining-room, or a private room can 
be engaged. It is usual to order the dinner 
beforehand, so that there will be no needless 
delay in serving it when the guests arrive. 

If a lady gives the dinner it is better for the 
guests to meet at her house, so that they may 
all go together to the restaurant, but if an 
unmarried gentleman is the host he must 
appoint an hour for the party to meet him 
in the vestibule of the restaurant, and the 
lady who has consented to chaperon his din¬ 
ner must be there very punctually, in order 
to spare any unmarried lady the annoyance 
of arriving alone at a public place. 

The style of the dinner must rest with 
the taste of the host or hostess, but it should 
resemble as nearly as possible a dinner in a 
private house, both in table appointments, 
variety of dishes, service, etc. 

It is perfectly admissible for an unmar¬ 
ried lady to dine at a restaurant, provided 
that she is properly chaperoyied . 



292 


BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


Lunches and breakfasts are, under the 
above circumstances, governed by the same 
rules as those given in regard to dinners. 

Ladies may lunch or breakfast without 
gentlemen in respectable public restaurants, 
but two ladies should if possible be together, 
rather than that one should lunch or break¬ 
fast alone. 

Of course, no one needs to imagine that 
in entertaining a few friends at dinner all 
this ceremony is indispensible. It belongs 
to occasions where formality and close at¬ 
tention to fixed social rules are considered 
necessary, but there is an agreeable form 
of informal dinner which calls for no man¬ 
ual of observance, in which the friends are 
taken into the bosom of the family and the 

VIII. COURTSHI 

Preceding the marriage comes the court¬ 
ship, an event which, since the world began, 
has been one of vital interest to man and 
woman, but which is so varied in its inci¬ 
dents and characteristics that no set rules of 
etiquette can be made to apply to it. It 
may suffice to say that when a gentleman 
feels such admiration for a lady as to induce 
him to make a proposal of marriage to her, 
it is the more manly and courageous way to 
do so verbally instead of in writing. During 
courtship anything that offends good taste, 
or is conspicuous in the conduct of a be¬ 
trothed pair, should be sedulously avoided, 
—such as making public each other’s senti¬ 
ments. These concern the pair alone ; they 
lack interest for the public at large, and eti¬ 
quette demands that they should be kept 
secret. 

A sufficient public announcement of the 
engagement is made by the ring, which it is 
usual for the gentleman to give the lady, as 
a token of the new relation existing between 
them. This may be a diamond solitaire, if 
the means of the gentleman will permit. 
Otherwise, a plain gold band is in order. It 
must be worn on the third finger of the left 
hand. 

When the engagement is once formally 
made, it may be made known by the young 
lady or her mother to relatives and intimate 
friends. Good form, however, requires that 
the gentleman should gain the consent of 


ease of unfettered home intercourse prevails. 
For such dinners there are no set rules; 
every community, every family, make their 
own laws, and calmly ignore or simply 
laugh at the dictates of fashion. Here soup 
may be omitted, if not cared for ; you may 
pass up your plate to your host for a slice 
of beef; you may do a dozen things that are 
quite out of order where formality prevails, 
and be as heedless and happy as you please. 
But all this is behind closed doors; when 
you fall under fashion’s eagle eye no such 
looseness is for a moment to be considered ; 
you must eat and drink to rule and measure 
or consider yourself a candidate for banish¬ 
ment. 


AND MARRIAGE 

the guardian or parents of the lady before 
making his proposal to herself. This is 
particularly important if he is in moderate 
circumstances and she wealthy. 

The length of the engagement must de¬ 
pend largely upon the wishes of the parties 
most particularly concerned. Of late years 
it has become the fashion to shorten the 
time, and unless the marriage is likely to 
take place within six months it is better 
to make no public announcement of the en¬ 
gagement. 

Hasty marriages, on short acquaintance, 
are in all cases to be avoided. The loving 
pair should grow to know each other well 
and intimately before courtship is allowed to 
pass its preliminary stage of attractive ac¬ 
quaintance ; and many an unhappy mar¬ 
riage has come from undue haste in this 
particular, ardent fancy being permitted to 
take the place of cool reflection and growing 
knowledge. 

There is a delight in courtship, more¬ 
over, which is often unwisely abridged by 
too quick a marriage. In the words of one 
wise maiden, who was asked why she did 
not marry when she had so many lovers, 
“ Being courted is too great a luxury to be 
spoiled by marrying.” But all this is mat¬ 
ter for which it is useless to attempt to lay 
down rules. Men and maidens have fol¬ 
lowed their own inclinations in regard to the 
length of the period of courtship since 




BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


293 


civilization began, and will probably con¬ 
tinue to do so. 

It is only when the engagement has been 
made and formally announced that etiquette 
can have anything to do with the matter. 
A couple once betrothed, and the betrothal 
made public, have placed themselves, in a 
measure, in the hands of society, and must 
yield in some degree to social obligations, if 
they wish to avoid invidious comment. 

Wedding Preliminaries. 

After the wedding day is fixed the hap¬ 
py couple are especially obliged to con¬ 
form to the rules of etiquette, there being 
fixed laws laid down for every detail of the 
subsequent ceremonies. One thing should 
be borne in mind, that the wedding belongs 
to the family of the bride. It is their affair 
to send the invitations, provide the music, 
the decorations, the wedding breakfast, etc.; 
the duties of the groom being restricted to 
providing the certificate, naming the clergy¬ 
man, and a few others. The announcement 
of the engagement is generally followed by 
a dinner given by the parents of the bride, 
to which some of the relatives of both fami¬ 
lies are invited. Subsequent dinners are apt 
to be given by relatives and intimate friends 
of the engaged couple. 

The gentleman’s parents, relatives, or 
friends call as speedily as possible upon the 
young lady and her parents or guardians. 
The selection of the wedding day is usually 
left to the choice of the bride-elect and her 
mother, and to their taste are similarly left 
such details of the occasion as the arrange¬ 
ment for the wedding, the character of the 
trousseau, or bridal outfit, the breakfast or 
reception, the choice of bridesmaids, the 
style of the ceremony, etc. 

Any time of the year may be regarded 
as suitable for a wedding to take place, 
though certain periods, such as Easter week, 
are often preferred. In Europe there is a 
strange prejudice against the month of May. 
As regards the day of the week, Wednesday 
or Thursday are apt to be selected ; while 
Friday is looked upon as unlucky. In this 
country Friday holds the same doubtful 
position, but any other day of the week, and 
any month of the year, are quite in order. 


Marriage is regulated in this country by 
the laws of the State, a license being re¬ 
quired in some States, and not in others. 
This the intending husband should procure, 
he being accompanied by the father, guar¬ 
dian, or near relative of the lady, that the 
requisite information required by the law 
may be given. 

The bridal trousseau does not include 
plate, china, furniture, or any household 
ware, but is restricted to the bride’s attire, 
of which sufficient is usually provided to 
last during the first few years of wedded 
life. Too great a quantity of wearing ap¬ 
parel is to be avoided, whatever the wealth 
of the bride or her family, since the rapid 
changes in fashion are likely to make some 
of it useless before it can be worn. The 
extent and character of the trousseau, of 
course, must be governed by the means and 
taste of the bride and her family. 

Bridal Gifts. 

The custom of presenting gifts to the 
bride has grown until it has become much 
of a burden and something of a farce, from 
the absolute uselessness of many of the arti¬ 
cles sent and the annoying duplication that is 
likely to take place. In every case the presents 
should be in accordance with the means and 
probable style of living of the recipients, 
and as far as possible in harmony with their 
tastes and surroundings. Nothing is more 
ill-advised than to send some gorgeous orna¬ 
ment for a plain, simply furnished house. 
Simple, tasteful selections, however, are 
rarely out of place, and there is a wide 
choice of articles which every family can 
use. The variety is endless, ranging from 
the costliest silver and jewels, clocks, lamps, 
fans, odd bits of furniture, camel’s hair 
shawls, etc., down to a pretty vase, a bit of 
embroidery, a picture, or a piece of china 
painted by the hand of a friend. No one 
should hesitate to send a present whose 
money value is small, such gifts are often 
the most welcome, and a present which 
owes its existence to-the donor’s own labor 
is regarded as especially flattering. 

Gifts are usually packed where they are 
bought, and sent directly from the shop to 
the bride’s house. They should be sent 
1 during the week preceding the wedding, and 



294 


BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


not less than two days before the event. It 
is so customary to make an exhibition of 
the presents on the day of the wedding or 
the preceding day, that it is very necessary 
that they should arrive in good time. 

The display of the wedding presents is a 
point to be decided according to the bride’s 
wishes. Some people think it ostentatious, 
others devote much time and care to their 
arrangement, and it is undoubtedly gratify¬ 
ing to many to be permitted to see them. 

One rule, however, is invariable —the bride 
must acknowledge every gift by a personal 
note. It must be borne in mind that the 
gifts are hers, her own private property, 
which she can claim from the hands of the 
sheriff, if misfortune supervenes, and leave 
by will to whom she elects. Of course, 
gifts may be sent specially intended for the 
groom. 

If people do not know what to send, or 
what the young couple require, they should 
take some means to discover, for nothing is 
more annoying than to receive duplicate 
presents. It is not uncommon for soup- 
ladles, butter-knives, tea-urns, and other 
articles of table use or house-ornament to 
be given so profusely that the young couple 
are almost as well fixed to set up a store as 
to begin housekeeping. 

It is customary for the gentleman to 
make his bride a present of jewelry to be 
worn at her wedding, where his means will 
permit him to do so. If a wealthy man, he 
often presents the bridesmaids with a sou¬ 
venir of the occasion, a fan, bracelet, ring, 
or bouquet. He buys the wedding ring and 
furnishes the bride’s bouquet; but there his 
privilege or duty ends. The bride’s family 
supply the cards, carriages, and wedding 
entertainment. 

Flowers. 

The bride’s bouquet should be composed 
exclusively of white flowers, such as gard¬ 
enias, white azaleas, or camellias, with a 
little orange blossom intertwined. It is the 
privilege of the groohisman to procure and 
present this to the bride. 

It is generally considered a delicate at¬ 
tention on the part of the bridegroom to 
present a bouquet to his future mother-in- 
law. This maybe composed of choice vari¬ 


ously colored flowers, whilst those of the 
bridesmaids should be white, with an edging 
of pale blush roses. These also are pre¬ 
sented by the groom. 

To save trouble and anxiety with regard 
to bouquets, it is the best plan to order them 
from some practical florist. He will know 
exactly what to send, and will deliver them 
fresh on the day of the marriage. 

The Bridesmaids. 

The bridesmaids are usually selected 
from among the sisters of the bride, or her 
cousins or friends. The head-bridesmaid is 
ordinarily her most intimate friend. Oc¬ 
casionally the sisters of the bridegroom as¬ 
sist as bridesmaids, but the bride’s own 
sisters should always be given the prefer¬ 
ence. 

The number of the bridesmaids, of 
course, must be governed by circumstances. 
Six is a usual number, though more are 
frequently selected. An even number must 
always be chosen. 

The dress of the bridemaids is usually of 
some light white material. They frequently 
wear wreaths and veils, but of a lighter and 
less costly character than those of the bride. 
Bonnets are often worn instead of veils. It 
is desirable for them all to be dressed as 
nearly alike as possible. 

In this country the bridesmaids either 
provide their own dresses or may accept 
them from the bride. 

The Groomsmen. 

The number of groomsmen must corres¬ 
pond to that of the bridesmaids. These 
gentlemen have little to do, with the ex¬ 
ception of the first or principal grooms¬ 
man, who is charged by the bridegroom 
with the management of the whole affair, 
and should be furnished by him with money 
to pay all the expenses. He is usually his 
brother or most intimate friend. 

Where a ring is used he should take 
charge of it, and present it to the bride¬ 
groom at the proper moment. He must 
hand the minister his fee, and pay the sex¬ 
ton and other persons entitled to payment 
their legitimate charges. 

It is his duty to undertake all the ar¬ 
rangements for his friend on the eventful 



BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


295 


day, and to see that they are properly car¬ 
ried out. 

The dress of the groomsmen should be 
similar to that of the bridegroom, the dress 
worn being that suitable to the hour of the 
day, in the same fashion as for any other 
entertainment. They should be dressed as 
nearly alike as possible. 

The Bride. 

After the wedding invitations are issued 
the bride does not ordinarily appear in pub¬ 
lic. On the morning of the wedding day 
she usually breakfasts in her own room, and 
remains there till the hour arrives to dress 
for the ceremony. It is the privilege of the 
bridesmaids to perform this service. 

The bride’s costume is, as a rule, of 
white, either silk or satin, or of material in 
accordance with the means of tbe parties. 
A bridal veil of lace or of tulle is usually 
worn. The gloves, of course, should be 
white, and the shoes of white kid 
or white satin. It is customary for 
the bride to make some slight presents 
to the bridemaids on the morning of the 
marriage. These should be simple, it be¬ 
ing borne in mind that the gift is merely to 
serve as a memento of the occasion, and 
that no article of much value is demanded. 

After dressing, the bride remains in her 
room until the carriage is announced, or the 
time has arrived to descend to the drawing 
room if it is to be a home wedding. The 
bride’s carriage is the last to leave the 
house. It should contain but one occupant 
besides herself—her father, or the person 
selected to give her away at the altar. 

The Ceremony. 

The ushers are selected by the gentle¬ 
man, though the lady is generally consulted 
in the choice. Six is the number ordinarily 
chosen, and their duties are to show people to 
seats in the church, and to present the guests 
to the bride and groom at the wedding recep¬ 
tion. They, and the groomsmen as well, 
should all wear boutonnieres , or button-hole 
bouquets, made of some handsome white 
flowers. 

The bridal procession is formed by the 
ushers, who walk first two and two, .fol¬ 
lowed by the bridesmaids, also two and two j 


then the child-bridesmaids, if this pretty 
custom is adopted, and then the bride, lean¬ 
ing on her father’s right arm. Sometimes 
the children lead the others. At the altar 
the ushers separate, moving to the right and 
left, the bridesmaids do the same, thus leav¬ 
ing room for the bridal pair. 

Upon the entrance of the bridal party 
within the doors of the church, the organist 
will play a “ Wedding March,” and as they 
take their places at the altar will change 
this to some low, subdued, but sweet and 
appropriate melody, which he should con¬ 
tinue with taste and feeling throughout the 
service. As the bridal party leave the church, 
the music should be loud and jubilant. 

The front pews in the church should be 
reserved for the families and especial friends 
of the happy pair. These are generally 
separated from the others by a white ribbon 
drawn across the aisle. 

The wedding party should stand accord¬ 
ing to the positions decided upon by the 
wishes of the bride and groom. Usually 
the bride takes her place upon the left of 
the groom, her father stands a little in ad¬ 
vance of the rest, behind the couple, and her 
mother just in the rear of her father. The 
bridesmaids group themselves on the left of 
the bride, the groomsmen on the right of 
the bridegroom, all in the rear of the prin¬ 
cipals. 

The clergyman, who should be already 
in his place, at once begins the marriage 
ceremony. 

When a ring is used, to avoid the long 
delay of drawing off the glove, brides now 
cut the finger of the one on the left hand, so 
that it can be slipped aside to allow the 
putting on of the ring ; this is the routine al¬ 
most invariabljTollowedat church weddings. 

The responses of the bride and bride¬ 
groom to the clergyman should be given 
clearly and distinctly, but not in too loud a 
tone. On the conclusion of the ceremony 
the newly-married couple and their attend¬ 
ants withdraw in much the same manner as 
on advancing, the bride now taking her 
husband’s left arm. 

The Wedding Breakfast. 

The English fashion of a wedding-break' 
fast is now often followed in this country, 




296 


BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


the guests being specially invited a fortnight 
in advance. On such an occasion the gen¬ 
tlemen, on reaching the house, leave their 
hats in the hall; but the ladies do not re¬ 
move their bonnets. 

In going to the table, the bride and 
groom precede, then the bride’s father with 
the groom’s mother, the groom’s father with 
the bride’s mother, the best man with the 
first bridesmaid, the other bridesmaids with 
gentlemen selected as their escorts, and 
finally the remaining guests. The dishes 
usually provided are bouillon, salad, birds, 
oysters, ices, jellies, etc. 

The health of the bride and groom is 
proposed, usually by the groom’s father, 
and response is made by the father of the 
bride. The health of the bridesmaids may 
also be proposed ; but the occasion is ordi¬ 
narily more pleasurable if strict formality is 
dispensed with. 

After remaining for an hour or two with 
the guests, the bride retires to change her 
wedding dress for a traveling costume. 
She is met by the groom in the hall, the 
necessary good wishes and kisses are ex¬ 
changed, and the pair drive away, often fol¬ 
lowed by a shower of rice and slippers. 

As regards the desideratum of wedding 
cake, it is no longer the fashion to send it; 
but small boxes of it, neatly tied with white 
ribbon, are prepared, of which each guest may 
take one upon leaving the house, if desired. 

What is above said relates to the mar¬ 
riage of a maiden. In the case of the mar¬ 
riage of a widow certain changes in dress 
and ceremony are requisite. A widow must 
never be attended by bridesmaids, nor must 
she wear a veil or orange blossoms ; the 
proper dress at church is a colored silk and 
bonnet, pearl gray or some other delicate 
shade being preferable, though she is privi¬ 
leged to wear white if she desires. She 
should be accompanied by her father, 
brother, or some near friend. 

A House Wedding. 

A fashionable wedding at home calls 
into requisition the services of both florist 
and caterer; the former to decorate the 
rooms, the latter to furnish the marriage 
feast. A variety of floral devices may be 
employed, from the marriage bell and mono¬ 


gram to a bower of ferns large enough to 
receive the bride and bridegroom. 

The part of the room to be occupied by 
the bridal party should be marked off by a 
white ribbon. After the clergyman has 
taken his place, the bride and groom enter 
together, followed by the mother, father, 
and other friends. Hassocks should be 
ready for the bridal pair to kneel upon, in 
case this is deemed necessary as a part of 
the ceremony. 

Where money is lacking to defray the 
charges of florist and caterer, or in country 
localities where their assistance cannot be 
had, the loving hands of friends may decor¬ 
ate the rooms with foliage and blossoms, 
and the table be supplied with simple dishes 
such as the household means can furnish. 
Wedding-cake, light cakes, ices, and coffee 
arranged on a table prettily ornamented with 
flowers is a sufficient entertainment at a 
quiet home-wedding, and, let it be added, is 
in far better taste than a more ostentatious 
display which is beyond the means of the 
family, and leaves a burden of debt behind. 

In fashionable circles, after the return of 
the bridal party the members of both fami¬ 
lies give a dinner in their honor, and the 
bridesmaids, if able to do so, give them 
some entertainment. 

Brides sometimes announce, when send¬ 
ing out their wedding-cards, two or more 
reception days ; but they do not wear their 
wedding-dresses, though their toilettes may 
be as handsome as they desire. When in¬ 
vited to balls or dinners, however, the wed¬ 
ding-dress is perfectly appropriate for a 
bride to wear—of course without the wreath 
and veil. 

Sending Cards. 

In some circles the young couple send 
out cards with their wedding invitations, 
stating the day and hour they will receive 
callers after their return from their wedding 
tour. No one who has not received such 
a card should call upon a newly married 
couple. Such cards should be as simple 
and unostentatious as possible. Where 
they are sent out, the wedding journey must 
be terminated in time to allow the new 
couple to be at home at the time indicated 
for the reception of their visitors. 



BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


2 97 


Visitors should call punctually at the 
time appointed. In some places it is cus¬ 
tomary to offer the guests wedding-cake and 


wine. The mother, sister, or some intimate 
friend of the bride must assist her in receiv¬ 
ing these calls. This rule is imperative. 


IX. FUNERAL ETIQUETTE. 


The great sorrow brought upon a family 
by the death of one of its members often 
renders the immediate relatives incapable of 
properly attending to the arrangements nec¬ 
essary for the funeral. The services of a 
near friend or a relative, therefore, are often 
availed of, he being informed of the wishes 
of the family, and relieving them of all fur¬ 
ther care, by himself taking charge of every¬ 
thing needing to be attended to. 

The ladies of the family, before the 
funeral, see none except intimate friends, 
and may with propriety deny themselves 
even to those. 

Immediately after a death the relatives 
and intimate friends of the deceased should 
receive some notification of it. An under¬ 
taker must also at once be summoned, and 
the arrangements and details of the funeral 
be left to him. Notices should be inserted 
in one or more of the daily papers of the 
time and place of the funeral services, etc. 

In some parts of the country it is custom¬ 
ary to send notes of invitation to the funeral 
to the friends of the deceased and of the 
family. These invitations should be printed, 
neatly and simply, on mourning paper, with 
envelopes to match, and should be delivered 
by a private messenger, where convenient. 

A written notification, however, is fre¬ 
quently sent where only a few are to be 
specially invited, the newspaper announce¬ 
ment being trusted to inform those less 
closely connected. 

The expense of a funeral should be in 
accordance with the means of the family. 
It is a foolish form of pride and ostentation 
that induces the members of a family to load 
themselves unnecessarily with debt in order 
to make a showy funeral display. All 
marks of respect should be shown to the 
dead, but undue expense is more indicative 
of a desire on the part of the living to im¬ 
press their friends and neighbors than a 
genuine desire to do honor to the one who 
has passed away. 


Where invitations are sent out, a list of 
persons invited must be given to the person 
in charge of the funeral, in order that he 
may provide a sufficient number of carria¬ 
ges. Those invited should not permit any¬ 
thing but an important duty to prevent 
their attendance. 

The House Services. 

When the funeral is at the house, some 
near relative or intimate friend should act 
as usher, and show the company to their 
seats. 

A decorous silence should be preserved 
in the chamber of death, no one speaking 
except in low, subdued tones. The mem¬ 
bers of the family are not obliged to recog¬ 
nize their acquaintances. The latter show 
their sympathy by their presence and con¬ 
siderate silence. 

The coffin, if in good taste, will never 
be unduly elaborate or over ornamented. 
A black cloth casket, with plain silver 
mountings, is preferable to any other. 

The clergyman usually stands in a posi¬ 
tion as nearly as possible midway between 
the family and assembled friends, so that his 
words may be heard by all. The family re¬ 
main seated together, usually in some room 
upstairs, and never appear until it becomes 
necessary to enter the carriages. If the 
funeral be in church, they occupy the front 
pews, the intimate friends sitting immediate¬ 
ly behind them. 

Six or eight of the most intimate male 
friends of the person who has died are in¬ 
vited by the family to act as pall-bearers. 
On the day of the funeral they assemble at 
the house, and the undertaker provides each 
of them with black gloves and a mourner’s 
scarf. They walk with their heads uncov¬ 
ered beside the coffin, up the aisle, if the 
services be held in church, and also escort 
the body to the grave. They usually sit in 
one of the front pews, reserved for their use, 
while the funeral services are being con¬ 
ducted. 




298 


BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


Flowers. 

With regard to sending flowers, the 
wishes of the family should be considered. 
If you are uncertain upon this point, it is 
safe to send them. They should be simple 
and tasteful, also in keeping with the age of 
the person who has been removed by death. 

As the sending of elaborate floral designs 
has been much overdone of recent years, it 
is becoming frequently the custom not to 
send flowers to houses of mourning, and in 
many funeral notices a request is made to 
this effect. Whatever flowers are received 
are usually placed upon the coffin during 
the services, and afterwards carried to the 
cemetery to be laid on or a few laid in the 
grave. 

In preparing the bod}" for the grave, the 
usual custom is to dress it in the garments 
worn in life; but young people are fre¬ 
quently laid out in white robes. 

It is optional with the ladies of the fam¬ 
ily to attend the remains to the last resting 
place or not, as they may prefer. And of 
recent years the invitation is generally to 
the house only, notification being given 
that the funeral will be private. This is a 
judicious innovation, in the direction of 
economy and the avoidance of ostentatious 
display, and it is one that is likely to grow 
among people of taste and judgment. 

After the funeral, only the members of 
the family return to the house, except in the 
case of friends or relatives from distant 
cities, and a widow or mother may properly 
refuse to see any others than her nearest 
relatives for several weeks. 

Mourning. 

The length of time for wearing mourning 
has greatly decreased during the past five 
years, as formerly there was such an exag¬ 
geration of this that sometimes the young 
people in a family were kept in constant 
black, owing to the death of successive 
relatives. 

For deep mourning, black stuff dresses, 
heavily trimmed with black crape, and long 
crape veils, are worn. During the second 
period the crape is left off, and plain black 
alone is used ; and for half-mourning light 
black, black silks, black and white, or cos¬ 
tumes of mauve or grey, can be worn. 


For gentlemen, at first plain black che¬ 
viot suits, with broad crape bands on their 
hats, and black gloves. For the second 
period they cease to wear black clothes, 
varying these by dark suits of black and 
grey, and the width of the crape hat-band 
is narrowed. For half-mourning the black 
hat-band is the one emblem of grief retained. 

A widow should -wear deep mourning 
for twelve months, plain black for the 
second year, and half-mourning for six 
months. 

For parent, brother, or sister, the usual 
time of wearing mourning is one year ; for a 
young child, six months; for an infant, 
three months. 

There is much difference of opinion in 
regard to the wearing of mourning dresses, 
many objecting to doing so for what they 
consider excellent reasons. In truth, the 
mourning attire aids to keep up the feeling 
of grief, and to depress where some means of 
enlivening the feelings is desirable. Yet it 
serves as a protection to those whose deep 
sense of loss induces them to avoid many 
social duties, and who would escape from 
thoughtless and painful allusions. It is a 
matter, in short, that must be governed by 
the feelings and sentiments of those directly 
concerned. 

During the first period of mourning it is 
not considered becoming to visit places of 
amusement or to enter social life or indulge in 
gaiety of any kind. After a certain time 
elapses—six months or a year, according to 
the depth of the mourning—a person is at 
liberty to go out quietly to concerts, theatres, 
informal dinners, etc. 

It is customary to send a few words of 
sympathy to the family after a death has 
taken place. Such letters should be brief 
and written with real interest and affection, 
otherwise they had better be omitted. 

During a period of mourning, note paper 
and visiting cards are usually edged with a 
black border, the width of this to be deter¬ 
mined by the depth and recency of the 
mourning. The very wide band is exagger¬ 
ated, ostentatious, and in bad form. 

No invitations of any kind should be left 
at a house of mourning, until after a lapse 
of a month or more, according to circum¬ 
stances. Then, cards to balls, weddings, 



BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


2 99 


and general entertainments may properly be 
sent. When persons who have worn black 
are ready to resume their social life, they 


should leave cards with all their friends and 
acquaintances, either in person or by send¬ 
ing them through the mail. 


X. ANNIVERSARY AND OTHER OCCASIONS 


Among the festivities which society pro¬ 
vides for its enjoyment, that of the anniver¬ 
sary wedding has of late years come greatly 
into vogue. It is a pleasant custom, and has 
been gradually extended until numerous 
anniversaries of the wedding day, differ¬ 
ently named, are celebrated with appropri¬ 
ate ceremonies. Beginning with the silver 
and golden wedding, on respectively the 
twenty-fifth and the fiftieth anniversaries, 
there have been gradually added various 
others, such as the wooden wedding on the 
fifth, the tin wedding on the tenth, the 
crystal wedding on the fifteenth, the linen 
or china wedding on the twentieth, and, as 
an occasion of exceedingly rare occurance, 
the diamond wedding on the seventy-fifth 
anniversary of the marriage. 

This is not the whole list, much ingenuity 
having been exercised in adding to the fre¬ 
quency and diversity of these anniversaries, 
and to those named may be added the iron 
wedding, celebrated after one year of mar¬ 
ried life ; the paper wedding, on the second 
anniversary ; the leather, on the third ; the 
straw, on the fourth; the wooden, on the 
seventh ; the ivory, on the thirtieth ; the 
coral, on the thirty-fifth ; the woolen, on the 
fortieth ; and the bronze, on the forty-fifth. 
It is now a common custom, however, to 
overlook all the anniversaries preceding the 
silver wedding. 

Gifts and Invitations. 

A leading feature on these occasions is 
the sending of gifts, which are expected to 
be made of the material which gives the 
name to the wedding, and much ingenuity 
is exercised in selecting or inventing suit¬ 
able presents, those of an amusing kind 
being often a leading feature. 

Invitations to any of these occasions 
should be appropriate in design. For in¬ 
stance, the straw wedding cards may be 
printed on straw-colored stationery, the ivory 
wedding cards on ivory, and the bronze 
wedding cards in a similar way. For the 


silver wedding the cards may be printed in 
letters of silver, and in golden letters for 
the golden anniversary. 

An appropriate form of invitation, say 
for a silver wedding, will be as follows : 

1870. Mr. and Mrs. Brown 1895. 

Request the pleasure of your company, 

Oh Monday,June the Ninth , 

At eight o'clock P.M., 

Silver Wedding. 

William Brown. Susan Campbell. 

Many persons omit the names at the end, 
and in some cases an exact copy of the mar¬ 
riage notice, taken from the newspapers of 
the wedding period, is made to serve the 
purpose. A second form is here appended * 

1850. 1900. 

Mr. and Mrs. Henry Wilson, 

At Home, 

May fourth , 1900, 
at eight o'clock R.M. } 

Golden Wedding. 

The entertainment may be similar to 
that supplied at any reception, with the ad¬ 
dition of a large wedding-cake, containing a 
ring, which the bride cuts just as she did 
twenty-five years before. 

As to character of the gifts, there is 
abundant scope for selection, with the gen¬ 
eral remembrance that they should be in 
consonance with the name of the anniver¬ 
sary. In the case of a wooden wedding, for 
instance, there is an opportunity for the be¬ 
stowal of beautiful gifts in wood-carving, 
handsome pieces of furniture and picture 
frames, as well as the regulation wooden 
rollers, chopping trays, etc., for the kitchen. 
Bits of birch-bark are frequently used for 
the invitations. 

Tin weddings have become occasions of 
special liveliness, and much ingenuity is 
exercised in devising amusing gifts. One 
young wife received from her father-in-law 
a check, marked “tin,” enclosed in an 
elaborate tin pocket-book. The tin utensils 




300 


BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


used in the kitchen and household furnish 
an abundant variety for choice. Tin fun¬ 
nels holding bouquets of flowers and tied 
with ribbons are usually numerous, and the 
glittering metal, adorned with bows of rib¬ 
bon of every hue, is very effective when dis¬ 
played on a table. The invitation is usually 
printed on a bit of tin. 

On the fifteenth anniversary, or crystal 
wedding, the invitations are frequently crys- 
talized, while the gifts may embrace every 
variety of glassware. The linen wedding is 
more rarely celebrated, many persons con¬ 
sidering it unlucky. The Scotch have a 
superstition that if any allusion is made to 
this anniversary, one or other of the married 
couple will die within the year. 

The silver wedding is usually a joyous 
occasion. The bride and groom are still in 
the prime of life, their children are of the 
age for a full enjoyment of festivity, and 
their circle of friends is likely to be complete. 

Those who receive invitations usually 
send some present composed of silver, which 
may be as trivial or as costly as the donor 
chooses. They are generally marked “ Sil¬ 
ver Wedding,” or bear some appropriate 
motto with the initials of the couple en¬ 
closed in a true lover’s knot. The variety 
of articles is almost endless,—silver clocks, 
photograph frames, belt-clasps, mirrors, 
brushes and combs, and other toilet articles 
set in solid silver, and the long array of 
table-ware. 

The golden wedding is a much less fre¬ 
quent occasion, and far less likely to be a 
joyous one. Age has crept upon the prin¬ 
cipals, and is creeping upon their children 
and friends, life has grown sober, and its 
pathway is apt to be strewn with many som¬ 
bre memories. 

As articles of gold are apt to be more 
expensive than many of those invited care 
to give, flowers are frequently made to do 
duty in their place—preferably yellow ones. 
As for the diamond wedding, the seventy - 
fifth anniversary, it is so rare an occasion 
that no description of it is necessary. Of 
course, it calls for presents of jewelry, 
though, as in the case of the golden wed¬ 
ding, guests may replace them with some¬ 
thing less expensive and more appropriate 
to the age of the married pair. 


Christenings. 

Another occasion incident to married 
life, is the christening, which next demands 
consideration at our hands. 

When children are to be christened at 
home, it is rapidly becoming the custom to 
celebrate such events by giving some sort of 
a social entertainment, the size or arrange¬ 
ment of which depends upon the taste and 
circumstances of the parents. If many are 
to be present, the invitations should be sent 
out formally, as though for an afternoon re¬ 
ception. The usual hours selected are from 
4 until 6 p.m. Upon a small table a silver 
or china bowl should be placed, which is 
used as a font. Flowers in abundance are 
never in bad taste at a christening. 

After the clergyman has performed the 
baptism, a beverage called “caudle” is 
served in cups to the guests. 

Recipe for making Caudle .—This should 
be made of fine, smooth oatmeal gruel, fla¬ 
vored with wine or rum, lemon peel or nut¬ 
meg, and sugar added according to taste. 
Of course, in the case of a church christen¬ 
ing no house-entertainment is called for, 
and a family party is all that is likely to 
come together. 

Private Theatricals. 

The private theatrical provides an enter¬ 
tainment which is daily growing in popular¬ 
ity both in England and our own country. 
Sometimes a stage is erected in a private 
house, but more frequently small theatres 
are engaged, where the performance takes 
place. 

Instruction, or “ coaching,” is as a rule 
given to the amateur performers by some 
professional manager, actor, or actress en¬ 
gaged for the occasion, and is essential if 
any satisfactory entertainment is hoped for. 
Rehearsals are equally necessary and must 
be frequent to insure success. 

For tableaux it is better to have the 
advice and taste of some clever artist, as the 
beauty and interest of the human pictures 
depend so largely upon the posing and 
drapery of the figures, to say nothing of the 
effect of the lights and the choice of colors. 

Entertainments of these kinds may take 
a considerable variety of forms, and are 
very pleasant breaks in the monotony of 




BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


301 


party giving and the other set affairs of 
ordinary life. The time spent in prepara¬ 
tion, however, is likely to be considerable, 
and the result is often more farcical than the 
performers intend or understand. 

Etiquette for General Occasions. 

There are, or should be, rules of eti¬ 
quette applicable to every situation, the 
home circle, the street, the store, the travel¬ 
ing conveyance, and in short for all the 
occasions in which men and women are 
brought together. These consist mainly in 
observing the ordinary requisites of polite¬ 
ness, the avoidance of rude or selfish behav¬ 
ior, and of any actions likely to hurt the 
feelings or offend the tastes of those with 
whom chance or social relations bring us 
into contact. It is not sufficient for the 
demands of society that we are morally cor¬ 
rect ; correctness in deportment is no less 
important, and there are numbers of small 
observances required from any one who 
wishes to keep on the correct side of the line 
which divides good manners from ignorant 
or boorish behavior. 

Etiquette of the Household. 

First among these requisites comes the 
etiquette of the home circle, in which the 
principle of politeness and courtesy are 
often laid aside as a consequence of care¬ 
less habits and selfish egotism. Good man¬ 
ners are too often a cloak which is flung 
aside like a needless burden as soon as the 
home threshold is crossed, yet there is no 
place where kindness and thoughtfulness 
should be considered as more important, 
and in which neglect of the small courtesies 
of life are so likely to wound or distress. 

Certainly the true gentleman or lady will 
endeavor to be as courteous and considerate 
in the familv circle as among strangers, and 
equally avoid impatient and cutting remarks 
or lack of polite attention. Some few re¬ 
marks on the rules of propriety fcr the 
home will not come amiss. 

The house should be kept in as good 
order for the comfort of the family as when 
strangers are expected, and the members of 
the household should be careful to act in 
drawing-room or at table as if a guest were 
present. Formality, indeed, is not called 


I for, but ease of manner does not imply 
rudeness, and politeness should never be 
laid aside. 

Only a few leading suggestions can be 
here given. These will suggest others to 
all who attend to them. First, it is import¬ 
ant to make special efforts to be punctual at 
meal time. Nothing interferes with the regu¬ 
lar movements of the household, or disturbs 
the equanimity of the hostess, more than 
carelessness or irregularity in this respect. 
To have to keep food warm for the late 
comer, or perhaps to cook it afresh, is a need¬ 
less waste of time and labor, and is apt to 
add to the household expenses. 

Do not fail to rise and offer a chair on 
the entrance of an older person, or at all 
events an infirm person, to the room in 
which you are seated, and never precede an 
older person in entering or leaving a room, or 
in ascending stairs. Do not permit children 
to occupy the pleasantest seats, to the depri¬ 
vation of their elders, or to be annoyingly 
intrusive when older persons are engaged in 
conversation. The “children’s hour” 
should not be permitted to encroach upon 
that of their elders. Never enter any per¬ 
son’s room without knocking. 

Be careful to give any one who desires 
to read full*access to the light. Avoid mak¬ 
ing unnecessary noise on coming home late 
at night, and in this way disturbing the re¬ 
pose of the household. Gentlemen who are 
in the habit of smoking at home should 
confine their devotions of the cigar to a single 
room, and avoid careless distribution of ashes 
or matches on floors or tables. 

If callers are likely to drop in to meals, 
it is advisable to have a seat at the table re¬ 
served ; and a room should also be set aside, 
where possible, for chance visiting friends. 
In every case a welcome should be ready, 
and every indication of being discommoded 
be sedulously avoided. 

As regards the intercourse of the immedi¬ 
ate members of the household, it will suffice 
to say that, while formality can well be laid 
aside, politeness and courtesy should never 
be forgotten. 

Table Manners. 

In conclusion a few rules of importance 
in table manners, familiar to most, but too 



3°2 


BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


often carelessly ignored, may be given. The 
napkin should be spread over the knees, 
not fastened at the neck or tucked into a 
button hole. It should be folded after using, 
if the hostess folds hers. 

The fork should be held in the palm of 
the left hand. If in the right, it should be 
used with the prongs upward, and held be¬ 
tween fingers and thumb. 

Avoid bending over the plate, drooping 
the head too low, thrusting the elbows out, 
or sitting with the back turned toward the 
person in the next chair. 

Be careful not to take large mouthfuls 
nor to eat too hastily or heartily. 

Never hesitate to take the last piece of 
bread that may be offered. A refusal to do 
so would be a reflection upon the hostess, 
suggesting that she had not provided fully 
for her guests. 

In regard to rarer dishes, however, it is 
wise to show no inclination for more, if the 
supply on the table seems small. 

Never play with napkin ring, fork, or 
other article, and keep the hands off the 
table when not employed. Never leave the 
table till the meal is over, and avoid reading 
newspapers, books, etc., at table unless alone. 

Never use a spoon to eat vegetables. A 
fork is the proper thing. Never take butter 
from the dish with your own knife, or use 
it except on your own plate. It is scarcely 
necessary again to give warning against 
putting the knife in the mouth. Yet this 
unpardonable breach of table etiquette is 
often committed by persons whose training 
should have taught them better. 

The table should be a centre of cheerful 
and enlivening conversation, and too close 
attention to the duty of eating should be 
avoided, alike from reasons having to do 
with healthy digestion, and the desirability 
of every one striving to bear a part in the en¬ 
tertainment of the family circle. The table 
is the one place where all the family meet at 
leisure, and where they should seek to make 
themselves agreeable. 

Etiquette of the Street. 

Courtesy requires the return of all civil 
greetings—those of servants included. 
Only the most serious causes can justify 
“a cut . }} 


In bowing, the head should be bent; a 
mere lowering of the eye-lids, affected by 
some people, is rude. Etiquette does not per¬ 
mit a familiar nod, except between business 
men or very intimate friends. In passing and 
repassing on a public promenade or drive, 
bows need to be exchanged only at the first 
meeting. In carrying canes, umbrellas, and 
packages, care should be taken not to dis¬ 
commode passers with them. This is par¬ 
ticularly needed in the case of raised um¬ 
brellas, which are often carried with care¬ 
less disregard of the convenience of others. 
This is one annoying way in which selfish¬ 
ness is shown. 

At a street crossing it is the duty of 
gentlemen to make way for ladies, and 
younger for older persons. In walking or 
driving, the rule to keep to the right will 
enable all to avoid danger of collision. 

A gentleman should always offer his 
arm to a lady in the evening. In the day 
this is only in order in case of the pavement 
being slippery, there being a crowd, or the 
lady being old or needing support. If there 
are two ladies, he should offer his arm to 
one, and let the other walk beside her. 

In the Electric Car. 

If a gentleman desires to offer his seat 
to a lady, he should not beckon to her, but 
rise and offer it to her courteously. It is 
the duty of the lady, in accepting the seat, 
to acknowledge his courteous attention by 
a bow and an audible expression of thanks. 
On the other hand it is an indication of ill- 
breeding to show signs of displeasure if, on 
entering a crowded car, no seat is offered. 
It should be borne in mind that the gentle¬ 
man has a right to his seat, and is under no 
obligation, except that of politeness, to give 
it up, and weariness or weakness may render 
it inadvisable for him to rise. No lady, if 
young or strong, will expect or permit an 
old gentleman to relinquish to her his seat. 
If, however, a lady is ill or greatly fatigued 
she should not hesitate to request a seat, 
giving her reasons for doing so. No gentle¬ 
man, and few who are not gentlemen, would 
refuse such a request. 

No gentleman will take a vacant seat 
while ladies are standing, and none should 
stand on the car platform in such a manner 



BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


3°3 


as to discommode alighting passengers. It is 
easy and courteous to move aside, and step 
down into the street if necessary. If baskets 
or bundles are brought into the car care 
should be taken not to let them annoy 
passengers. 

Etiquette of Business. 

Never forget that time is precious to 
some persons, though you may be ready to 
waste it; also that money is necessary, and 
that it is every one’s duty to settle all debts 
as promptly as possible. 

Never fail to have all the details of an 
agreement decided so far as they can be 
before the transaction is concluded, and 
bear in mind that a contract can be broken 
only by the consent of all the parties con¬ 
cerned. 

Never keep washer-women, seamstresses, 
nor any one dependent upon daily labor 
waiting for payment, and, on the other hand, 
when requesting payment of a debt, avoid 
any unpleasantness of tone or manner. 

Never buy on credit, if cash can be had. 
This is a rule of common sense and practi¬ 
cal economy. 

Never forget that a character for fair 
dealing is a capital that cannot be lost. Do 
not think it unnecessary to learn the min¬ 
utest details of any business, nor imagine 
that success in any business can be attained 
without a thorough training for it. 

Never fail to be courteous in all busi¬ 
ness intercourse ; a pleasant manner will do 
much to insure success. 

Never insist on entering any business 
office, if told that its occupant is not at lei¬ 
sure. Courtesy requires that you should 
quietly await his leisure, or offer to call 
again if time will not permit you to wait. 

Etiquette of the Club. 

Doubtless, while there are few members 
of clubs who do not have a sufficient know¬ 
ledge of the rules of etiquette governing 
them, some may desire information on cer¬ 
tain points, and it is for the benefit of the 
latter that the following brief directions are 
given : 

All members should become familiar 
with the regulations, and rigidly obey them. 

You have a full right to vote against 


the admission to a small social club of any 
one whose society is not agreeable to you. 
It would destroy the pleasure of such a club 
if all its members were not congenial. Yet 
you should not allow personal prejudice to 
influence you in voting upon the admission 
of a new member of a large club. Is the 
gentleman’s record clear, and is he in all 
respects a worthy associate for gentlemen ? 
This is the only question to be asked. 

Never persistently propose for member¬ 
ship of a small club a name that has been 
refused. Avoid any conduct likely to be 
disagreeable or disobliging to fellow-mem¬ 
bers. A gentleman should be as courteous 
in a club-house as he would be in his own. 

Do not talk loudly in reading-rooms or 
library, and never misuse books, news¬ 
papers, nor other club property. 

It is selfish and impolite to monopolize 
the best arm-chair, to make a practice of 
dining early to secure an extra share of a 
favorite dish, or to require special attention 
from waiters to the discomfort of other 
guests. 

Avoid showing anger in political or re¬ 
ligious discussions, or making a personal 
matter of an argument. Do not seek to 
force your opinions on others against their 
will. 

Never mention the names of ladies in the 
club, or show idle curiosity about other 
members. 

Never send an employee out of the club¬ 
house on any private errand without first 
requesting permission of the clerk or super¬ 
intendent. 

If the guest of a club, do not take 
the liberty of introducing any one else ; but 
the guest of a club is expected to avail him¬ 
self of all the privileges of its members. 

When a gentleman is admitted to the 
privileges of a club through the courtesy of 
a member, he is expected, when his tempo¬ 
rary membership ceases, to pay any debts he 
may have incurred, for if he omits to do 
this his club-host is obliged to settle his 
account for him. 

Etiquette of Traveling. 

Ladies should wear neat traveling 
dresses of suitable material and simple style, 
display as little jewelry as possible, and 



BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


3°4 

carry the smallest amount of baggage by 
hand. It is important to have the initials 
or full name on all trunks. 

Never attract attention by loud talking 
or laughing, and, if under the escort of a 
gentleman, do not annoy him with needless 
requests. Always repay a gentleman any 
traveling expenses, no matter how trivial. 

A lady when traveling alone, should, if 
possible, arrange to be met at the station by 
some friend. In arriving at a station in a 
large city where she is a stranger, she should 
avoid taking a hack, choosing instead horse- 
cars, or the stages plying between stations. 

While always acknowledging with 
thanks any courtesy offered, young ladies 
should avoid entering into unnecessary 
conversation with or accepting favors from 
men who are strangers. 

Older ladies are privileged to offer ad¬ 
vice or assistance, should occasion require, 
to young ladies traveling alone. 

It is courteous for a gentleman to offer 
to buy tickets, and check the baggage of a 
lady who is traveling under his care; but 
he should first take her to the ladies’ wait¬ 
ing room, not leave her standing on a 
crowded platform. He may also offer to 
get her refreshments, newspapers, or books, 
and—if the journey is a long one—invite 
her to walk up and down the platform at 
the stations. If, by any accident, the 
friends expected fail to meet a lady at the 
station, the gentleman escorting her should, 
if possible, go with her to her destination. 

A gentleman may offer to help a lady, 
even if she is a stranger, whenever she seems 
really in need of aid. For instance, if she 
is laden with many parcels, or has several 
children with her who must be transferred 
from boat to car, or station to station. 

Two gentlemen, strangers to each other, 
may talk together if agreeable to both ; but 
it is wise to discuss only general topics. 

Gentlemen may offer to open or shut a 
window for ladies; but should never pre¬ 
sume upon a chance civility thus extended, 
by attempting to use it as a means of enter¬ 
ing into conversation with them. While 
not regarded by all. persons as obligatory, 
it is always courteous for a gentleman to 
offer his seat to a lady who is standing in 
any public conyeyance. 


No gentleman should smoke in cars or 
other places when ladies are present, spit on 
the floors in cars or stations, be disobliging 
in a smoking-car by refusing to change his 
seat to accommodate a party who may de¬ 
sire to play some game, or accept a light, 
or any trifling civility, from a fellow passen¬ 
ger, without any expression of thanks. 

Before entering boat, train, or car, give 
the passengers who are in the act of leaving 
time to get off. Before taking a seat just 
vacated wait a sufficient time to see if its 
former occupant intends to return. 

It is ill-bred to complain about the tri¬ 
vial discomforts that fall to every traveler’s 
lot, and make uncomplimentary compari¬ 
sons between one’s own home and the place 
where one happens to be. 

Never occupy more than one seat in 
crowded conveyances, and if you have 
placed a parcel on a empty seat, cheerfully 
remove it whenever it is needed. Do not 
take the seat beside any person in a steam- 
car without asking if it is engaged. 

Never incommode fellow-travelers by 
opening a window which forces them to sit 
in a draught—it may be an affair of life and 
death to delicate persons. 

Table Etiquette for Children. 

It may not be out of place to add here 
a few good old rules for children’s behavior 
at table which can safely be followed : 

Give the child a seat that shall be strictly 
its own. 

Teach it to take its seat quietly. 

To use its napkin properly. 

To wait patiently to be served. 

To answer promptly. 

To say “ thank you.” 

If asked to leave the table for a forgot¬ 
ten article, or for any purpose, to do so at 
once. 

Never to interrupt and never to contra¬ 
dict. 

Never to make remarks about the food. 

Teach the child to keep his plate in 
order. 

Not to handle the bread nor to drop 
food on the cloth and floor. 

To always say “ excuse me, please,” to 
the mother when at home, and to the lady 



BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


305 


or hostess when visiting, if leaving the 
table before the rest of the party. 

To fold its napkin and to pnt back its 
chair or push it close to the table before 
leaving. 


And after leaving the table not to return. 

Children who observe every one of these 
rules are well-behaved, delightful com¬ 
panions, and owe it to their mothers’s care¬ 
ful training. 


XI. FORMS OF INVITATIONS 


XI. Forms of Invitations. 

In issuing invitations for any occasion, 
they should be sent out as nearly as possi¬ 
ble together, and in ample season. If they 
be for a large reception, dinner, or similar 
entertainment it is best to send them a week 
or two in advance; and for a ball, in the 
height of the season, two or three weeks. No 
one should be invited at the last moment, 
except it be an intimate friend, who can be 
trusted to excuse lack of ceremony. 

For large or formal occasions, such as 
dinners, balls and receptions, use plain 
cards, or note-paper, engraved in plain 
script. If the invitations be written, small 
white note-paper, of the best quality, should 
be used, and the writing done carefully, 
with proper attention to the arrangement of 
words. 

Invitations to Parties. 

The following will serve as a correct 
form for a note of invitation to a private 
party : 

Mrs. William H. Johnson 
requests the pleasure of 

Mr. and Mrs. James Browns' company 
On Thursday evening, April eighth, 
from nme to twelve o'clock . 

As an example of a suitable reply we 
give the following: 

Mr. and Mrs. James Brown have much 
pleasure in accepting Mrs. William H. John¬ 
son's kind invitation for Thursday evening, 
April eighth. 

Or, if circumstances render it necessary 
to decline, the cause of declination should 
be courteously stated, as follows: 

Mr. and Mrs. James Brown regret that 
a previous engagement to dine with Mrs. 
Rowland deprives them of the pleasure of ac¬ 
cepting Mrs. William Johnson's kind invita¬ 
tion for Thursday evening, April eighth. 

20 c 


The reasons for declining may be very 
varied, but should be distinctly stated. ‘‘ A 
previous engagement *' has often to do duty 
in this case. 

A prompt reply must invariably be made 
by all who recognize the obligations of 
courtesy, and it may be well to give one or 
two examples of an uncivil manner of re¬ 
plying, into which well-meaning persons 
sometimes fall through ignorance or care¬ 
lessness : 

Mr. and Mrs. Brown regret that they can- 
not accept Mrs. William H. Johnson's invita¬ 
tion for Friday evening. 

A still ruder form is : Mr. and Mrs. 
Brown decline Mrs. Johnson's invitation for 
Friday evening. 

It needs little knowledge of the laws of 
etiquette, however, to teach people not to 
commit such glaring incivilities as the 
latter. 

A simple form of invitation to an even¬ 
ing party is the following : 

Thursday, May seventh. 

Mrs. - requests the pleasure of Mr. 

- 's company at an Evening Party, Thurs¬ 
day, May twenty-eighth. 

An answer will oblige. 

Dancing. [Music, or any special attrac¬ 
tion] . 

The answer, which should be returned 
within a day or two, may be similarly brief: 

Mr. - has much pleasure in accepting 

Mrs. - 's polite invitation for Thursday 

evening, the twenty-eighth. 

Saturday, May ninth. 

Short or verbal invitations should never 
be given, even among relations and intimate 
friends. These are discourteous, as imply¬ 
ing that the persons invited are of no im¬ 
portance. 








3°6 


BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


Dinner Invitations. 

Dinner invitations are written or en¬ 
graved in the name of both husband and 
wife: 

Mr. and Mrs. Henry Wilson 
request the pleasure of 
Mr. and Mrs. Samuel Clayton's company at 
dinner 

November eighth , at seven o'clock. 

An acceptance should be worded as 
follows : 

Mr. and Mrs. Samuel Clayton 
accept , with pleasure , 

Mr. and Mrs. Henry Wilson's kind 
invitation to dine with them , 
on Monday , November eighth , at seven o'clock. 

An invitation to dinner, once accepted, 
should be held as little less than a sacred 
obligation. Only disabling sickness or 
other extreme necessity should be permitted 
to stand in the way of its being kept ; and 
then, if time permits, immediate notice, 
with reason for same, should be given. A 
dinner party is carefully arranged for a set 
number, and one or more empty chairs are 
sure to disturb the completeness of the 
occasion, and cause heartburnings to host 
and hostess. A late invitation to fill the 
gap is usually sent, with proper explanation, 
to some friend who may be depended upon 
to overlook the informality. 

Invitations should be issued in the name 
of the hostess, except those to weddings and 
dinner parties. 

R. S. V. P., the initials of the French 
phrase “ Responded, s'il vous plait," or 
“ Please reply,” may be written in the 
right-hand lower corner of an invitation if 
an answer is particularly needed. Its use, 
however, is becoming less frequent, since it 
tacitly implies that the recipient needs a 
reminder. In a dinner invitation it is 
especially unnecessary, since nothing can 
be more discourteous than to fail in an 
immediate answer. The day and hour 
named should be repeated in the answer, to 
avoid possible misunderstanding. If guests 
are asked to meet a distinguished gentle¬ 
man, or lady, this should be mentioned in 
the card of invitation, directly after the 
hour of dinner ; for instance : 


At seven o'clock , to meet 
Mr. John P. Wallace , 
of London. 

Or an extra card may be inserted with the 
regular invitation, saying, “ to meet Mr.—,” 
etc. 

Here is an example of an invitation to a 
reception specially designed for this pur¬ 
pose : 

Mr. and Mrs. Thomas F. Jackson 
request the honor of your presence 
on 

Tuesday evening , November fifteenth , 
from eight until eleven o'clock , 
to meet the 

Rev. Professor Patton 
of the 

University of Pemisylvania, 

R. S. V. P. 119 Locust Avenue. 

Invitations to large entertainments, re¬ 
ceptions, etc., may be sent to persons in 
mourning if the bereavement has not oc¬ 
curred within a month ; but etiquette per¬ 
mits them to refuse without assigning a 
reason, sending, however, cn the day of 
the entertainment, black-bordcred visiting- 
cards, which announce the cause of their 
absence. Invitations to dinners and lunch¬ 
eons should never be given to persons in 
recent affliction. 

Always direct an answer to an invitation 
to the person or persons who issue it, even 
though they may be strangers to you. 
Always answer an invitation to dinner or 
luncheon at once , accepting or refusing 
positively. The reason is obvious; the 
number of seats being limited, a prompt 
reply gives the entertainer an opportunity 
to supply your place. Should illness, a 
death in the family, or any other reason 
prevent the keeping of a dinner engage¬ 
ment, a letter or telegram should be imme¬ 
diately sent, stating the fact. All invita¬ 
tions, in fact, should be answered with as 
little delay as possible. 

When issuing invitations to a family, 
direct one to the husband and wife, one to 
the daughters, and one to the sons. The 
daughters’ names may be placed after the 
parents on the same card, but not the song. 



BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


307 


Notes of invitation to a gentleman should 
be addressed Mr. A. B. Cohen, never A. B. 
Cohen, Esq. Gentlemen must never be in¬ 
vited without their wives, nor ladies with¬ 
out their husbands, unless to entertainments 
given exclusively to gentlemen or to ladies. 

Small Entertainments. 

Visiting-cards must not be used either 
to accept invitations or to regret the neces¬ 
sity of declining them, though invitations 
to small entertainments may with propriety 
be written on a lady’s visiting-card. 

A less formal mode of invitation to an 
evening reception may be the following: 

Mrs. Smith, 

At Home, 

Tuesday , May ninth, at nine o'clock , 84.9 
Green Street. 

If*dancing, music, or other entertain¬ 
ment is provided, it can be mentioned in a 
word at the bottom of the invitation. 

We append below an invitation to a 
musical and card party, with acceptance 
of same : 

Hilton, January 1, 1902. 
Dear Mrs. Nuttall : 

We purpose having a small partyfor music 
and cards next Thursday , and hope that you, 
your husband, a?id the dear girls will join us. 
If you cayi favor us with your company,please 
ask the young ladies to bring their violins and 
music , and do not be later than eight o'clock. 

We unite in kindest love to you all. 

Believe me, most affectionately yours, 
Lois Markley. 

ACCEPTING. 

My Dear Mrs. Markley : 

We shall have much pleasure in accepting 
your kind invitatio7i for Thursday next. 
Edith desires me to give you her love, and 
to say that she is delighted at the prospect of a 
musical evening; she will bring all your 
favorite selections, and do her best to play 
them. With our united regards, believe me, 
yours affectionately, 
SUSANA NUTTALL. 

“ The Willows 
January twelfth, 1902. 


Where there are several sisters in a 
family, addressed on an invitation as “ The 
Misses ——,” it is usually understood that 
not more than two of them will avail them¬ 
selves of the invitation. 

Invitations for any general entertainment 
sent to a country house where guests are 
stopping, are, as a rule, addressed to “ Mr. 

and Mrs.-, and party,” this invitation 

being expected to include the sons and 
daughters of the family as well as the visit¬ 
ors. 

Form of English Invitations. 

The following is the style often used in 
England for invitations to garden parties, 
etc. : 

Mr. and Mrs. Jones 
request the pleasure of 
Mr. and Mrs. Robinson’s 
company at a garden party on Tuesday , June 
ninth, at four o' clock. 

Collation at seven o'clock. 

Dancing 8 to 11. 

10 Corson Place. R. S. V. P. 

For afternoon teas, etc., the visiting-card 
of the hostess, with simply “Tea at four 
o’clock,” and the date in the left-hand cor¬ 
ner, is all that is necessary, or possibly “ At 
home from four until seven.” 

Wedding Invitations. 

Invitations to marriage ceremonies are 
issued in the name of the bride’s parents, 
or, if both are dead, in the name of a near 
relative dr guardian. Paper without crest 
or monogram is considered the best to use 
so far as good taste is concerned. The ac¬ 
cepted form is as follows : 

Mr. and Mrs. Robinson 
request the pleasure (or honor ) of your company 
at the marriage of their daughter 
Mary Burd 
to 

Mr. James Howard Wilson, 
at St. James' Church, on Tuesday, June tenth, 
at twelve o' clock. 

Separate cards are sent if the wedding 
ceremony is to be followed by a reception .at 
the parents’ residence, the formula used be¬ 
ing M Mr. and Mrs. Smith at home, etc.” 






3o8 


BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


To avoid confusion at the church a small 
card is sometimes enclosed with the invita¬ 
tion, on which the name of the church and 
the hour for the ceremony are printed. 
Such cards must be presented at the door, in 
order that, to avoid a crowd, only such 
friends as have received invitations to the 
wedding may be comfortably seated. 

In case no reception is given, and the 
newly-married couple wish to announce to 
their friends their new abode, a card in the 
following form may accompany the invita¬ 
tion : 

At Home) 

Tuesdays in May. 

489 Green Street 
Philadelphia. 

In the case of house weddings, or when 
recent bereavements demand that the wed¬ 
ding shall be private, it is now customary 
to invite intimate friends by written invita¬ 
tions, and send simple announcements of 
the event to those not expected to be present. 
In such cases the stationery used should be 
of the same quality and style as for the 
invitations. The announcement may read 
as follows: 

Mr. and Mrs. Harvty Wellington 
Announce the Marriage 
of their Daughter 
Catharine 
to 

Mr. fames Howard, 

Saturday, September ninth. 

Philadelphia, 

1902. 

An invitation to an anniversary wedding 
may be couched in the following form. If 
no presents are desired, the invitation should 
explicitly say so, otherwise it will be taken 
for granted that they will be acceptable : 

1877 1902 

Mr. and Mrs. Andrew Lewis 
request your presence 
at the 

Twenty-fifth Anniversary of their Wedding 

Wednesday Evening, March eighth, 

194 Lombard Avenue, 

New York. 

No presents . 


General Invitations. 

In addition to the forms of invitation to 
more or less formal occasions above given, 
notes inviting to various informal meetings 
may take forms familiar or the reverse, in 
accordance with the degree of intimacy of 
the parties. A few forms will suffice as ex¬ 
amples : 

New York,fune 8, 1902. 
My dear Mr. Wilson : 

A few of us are arranging for an 
excursion to Bolton Springs on the 15th inst. 
We should be very glad to have you as one of 
the party. We shall be three days absent 
from town. If you can make it convenient to 
accompany us, we are sure you can count on 
an enjoyable time. Be ki?id enough to let me 
know within a day or two, and believe me 
Sincerely yours, 

A. B. 

10 Brown Street, 

New York, December 18,1901. 
Dear Mr. Wilson : 

Can you make it convenient to run 
over to New York on Christmas day, and drop 
in on our smallfamily party ? You can count 
071 a hearty welcome, aiid a fair allowance of 
the enjoyments of the season. 

Yours very truly, 

Henry Smith. 

As examples of more familiar notes of 
invitation, between intimate friends, the 
following will suffice : 

Dear Harry: 

Some of us are expecting to spend a few 
hours jovially, next Wednesday evening with 
a glass of wine aiid a cigar as enlive 7 iers. I 
hope you will make one of the party, a 7 id shall 
hold a chair for you. 

Yours as ever 

Will. 

Dear fohn: 

Our old friend Harvey Wilson has just 
got home from his Western trip. I have 
asked hi 77 i a?id his cousin fames to take a chop 
with me to-morrow at six p. m., and want 
you as a good fourth. Don't fail me. You 
know what a good fellow Wilson is. 

Yours faithfully, 

H. P. fones . 





BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


309 


My Dear Mary: 

A few friends will be with us on Friday 
evening, the 8th inst., to share a social cup of 
tea and have an hour*s chat. Can we count 
on the pleasure of your company f 

f. S. White. 

My Dear fennie: 

Your kind request is at hand. I shall be 
glad to accept it, and hope to.enjoy both the 
tea and the chat. 

Yours cordially, 

Mary Moore. 

My Dear Sir : 

We start next Tuesday for the Catskills, 
by private conveyance. There is room for one 
more in our carriage, and we should be glad 
to have you fill the vacant space. I trust no 
inconvenient engagement will hinder your 
acceptance. 

Yours socially, 
William Black. 

Mr. S. D. Henderson. 


Invitation to a Carriage Ride. 

Hillsdale , Ohio, October3, 1901. 
My dear Miss Barry : 

In these bracing Autumn days, when the 
foliage is so beautiful, I am sure you will 
enjoy a ride for an hour or more. It will 
give me great pleasure to have your company 
for a ride on Saturday afternoon next, and 
I hope you will have no previous engagement 
at that time. 

Sincerely yours, 

Francis Thorne. 

Reply of Lady to Invitation. 

“ The Cedars F 

Dear Mr. Thorne: 

It is, i?ideed, very kind of you to think of 
my pleasure. The prospect of a ride for Sat¬ 
urday afternoon is very attractive. 

I shall be pleased to go with you, arid shall 
await you at three 0* clock Saturday. 

Sincerely, 

Bertha Barry. 

October fourth, 1901. 


XII. ART OF LETTER-WRITING 


A correspondence between two persons 
is simply a conversation reduced to writing. 
We should write to an absent person as we 
would speak to the same party if present. 
To a superior, we ought to be respectful; to 
a parent, dutiful and affectionate; to a friend, 
frank and easy ; and clear and definite in our 
expressions to all. 

Conciseness is one of the charms of 
letter-writing. A letter should contain the 
desired facts, ideas, and feelings; but they 
ought to be expressed as briefly as per¬ 
spicuity and elegance will permit. 

Lengthened periods are as much out of 
place in a letter as they would be in conver¬ 
sation, for they tire the reader even more 
than they would the hearer. When written, 
their faults are also perceived with much 
less difficulty than when spoken. 

When the party to whom a letter is ad¬ 
dressed is uninterested in the subject on 
which it is written, the writer of it should 
display a brevity which will attract atten¬ 
tion and insure a perusal. No unnecessary 
ornament should be used, nor, in fact, any- ' 


thing introduced but what is important and 
bears strongly on the case stated, or the 
inquiry made. 

To an absent friend, on the contrary, a 
lengthy epistle, well filled with details of 
passing incidents, is likely to prove welcome 
and interesting, and one may venture even 
upon prolixity if sure that his correspondent 
has a strong interest in the subject, and is 
likely to desire minute details concerning it. 

Style in Correspondence. 

The style of the letter may rise with the 
subject, and with the character of the person 
written to. In a familiar epistle an effort 
at dignity of style is misplaced, but such is 
not the case where the person addressed is 
superior in position or character, or where 
the subject is one demanding seriousness 
and dignity. For instance, the death of a 
friend or relation, a calamity, or any cir¬ 
cumstance of grave importance, should not 
be communicated in the same manner as a 
trifling occurrence, or even a happy event: 




3 i® 


BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


brevity, in the latter case, is beauty ; in the 
former, it would be deemed unfeeling and 
abrupt. 

Express your thoughts in simple English 
and in legible writing. The latter should 
be clear and bold. Never write carelessly 
or hurriedly; read the letter over before 
sending ; and, if writing more than one let¬ 
ter at a time, be cautious that such are not 
put in the wrong envelopes. Great atten¬ 
tion should be paid to correct punctuation. 

As to writing material, the shape and 
size of paper and envelopes are not so im¬ 
portant as the quality. They should be 
plain white, with no colored border (except 
the black border when in mourning), and 
of substantial texture. The address of the 
writer, printed neatly at the head of the 
sheet, should take the place of any attempt 
at ornament. 

Fold all letters evenly, and put the stamp 
in the upper right-hand corner. Remember 
to enclose a stamp when writing to a stranger 
concerning your own affairs. Use postal 
cards only for ordinary business communi¬ 
cations ; never for friendly correspondence 
or in writing to any one who might be 
annoyed by having his or her occupation 
made public. 

Take the trouble to spell correctly. Be 
careful to write dates, numbers and proper 
names plainly. Date a note, at the conclu¬ 
sion, on the left-hand side of the page ; a 
letter at the beginning, on the right hand. 
Sign a letter with a full name, or with the 
last name and initials. In business corre¬ 
spondence sign “yoursrespectfully,” “your 
obedient servant, ” ‘ ‘yours truly, ” or ‘ ‘yours 
sincerely.” Place the name and address of 
your correspondent at the upper left-hand 
corner of the page. 

Let your signature suit the style of the 
letter—a business communication should 
bear a formal, a friendly note, a cordial con¬ 
clusion. Between intimate friends and rel¬ 
atives no formal rule is laid down for the 
beginning and ending of letters. The 
etiquette of letter-writing should only be 
considered between strangers or slight ac¬ 
quaintances. In these cases it is well to 
preserve a mean between cold formality and 
familiarity. 


Forms of Address. 

The conventional forms are ‘ ‘ Sir, ’ ’ 
“Dear Sir,” “My Dear Sir,” or “Ma¬ 
dam,” “Dear Madam,” or “My Dear 
Madam.” Either of these can be used, 
but to a total stranger ‘ ‘ My Dear Sir ’ ’ is 
rather too cordial, and to an acquaintance 
“ Sir ” is too formal, unless there is a pur¬ 
pose to convey coldness of feeling. When 
writing to persons of your own social class, 
though strangers, “ Dear Sir” or “ Dear 
Madam” are-used in preference to “ Sir ” 
or “ Madam.” 

A married lady should not sign herself 
“ Mrs.”, nor an unmarried one “ Miss,” 
except in writing to a stranger who will 
need to reply. In this case the full name 
should be signed, as “ Miss Susan Blake,” 
or “ Mrs. Mary Brown.” Mrs. and Miss 
may be enclosed in parenthesis. Tetters to 
married ladies are usually addressed with 
the initials or names of the husband, ‘ ‘ Mrs. 
John P. Smith,” etc. Widows and unmar¬ 
ried ladies should only be addressed with 
their Christian names, “ Mrs. Mary Smith ” 
or “Miss Fanny Jones.” The eldest 
daughter or unmarried lady of the family 
should be addressed “Miss” simply, the 
Christian name being omitted. “ Mr.” and 
‘ ‘ Esq. 5 ’ cannot be used simultaneously. A 
letter must be addressed either like the fol¬ 
lowing examples, to “ Mr. R. H. Smith” 
or to “ R. H. Smith, Esq.” When a letter 
is addressed to the Hon. James Blank, the 
‘ ‘ Esq. ’’ must not follow. 

Never use the husband’s title in direct¬ 
ing a letter to the wife, as “Mrs. Gen. 
James Bancroft,” or “ Mrs. Rev. John 
Pearl.” 

Do not cross a letter, put the most im¬ 
portant part of it in a postscript, or sign it 
in the first person, if it has been written in 
the third. Never fail to answer promptly, 
in case the communication requires an 
answer. 

When a note is commenced ‘ ‘ Sir ’ ’ or 
“Dear Sir,” it is usual to write the name 
of the person addressed at the end of the 
letter or note in the left-hand corner, or it 
may be put before the commencement; foi 
instance, “To R. H. Smith, Esq.,” but in 
this case it ir.ust not be repeated at the 
bottom. 





BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


i 


A son of the same name as his father 
is addressed in this way : “ R. H. Smith, 

Jr., Esq.” 

Eetters or notes to servants usually be¬ 
gin with the servant’s name, and then the 
directions follow in the third person ; ex¬ 
ample : “To Mary Smith: Mrs. Brown 
will return home on Saturday next, etc.” 

Address a clergyman ‘ ‘ Reverend Sir ’ ’ 
or “ Dear Sir,” and direct the envelope to 
“Rev. John Blank; ” or if the initial is 
not known, to “ Rev.-Blank.” 

Address a doctor of divinity ‘ ‘ To the 
Rev. John Hall, D.D.,” or the “ Rev. Dr. 
Hall.” 

Address a doctor of medicine “ J. B. 
Blank, M.D.,” or “ Dr. J. B. Blank,” or 
“ Dr. Blank.” 

Address a bishop “To the Right Rev. 

the Bishop of -,” or “To the Right 

Rev. H. C. Potter, D.D., Bishop of- 

and begin the letter “ Right Rev. Sir,” or 
“ Right Rev. and Dear Sir.” 

Address foreign ministers as “ His Ex¬ 
cellency and Honorable.” 

Eetters to the President should be ad¬ 
dressed “To His Excellency, the President 
of the United States,” or “ President of the 
Uniced States.” 

Cabinet officers should be addressed 
“To the Honorable J. C. Blank, Secretary 
of State,” “To the Hon. -, the Post¬ 

master-General,” etc. 

In writing to Senators or members of the 
House, address “ To the Hon.-.” 

Officers of the army or navy are ad¬ 
dressed by their titles, as “ General Wilson 
Earle,” “ Captain Paul Jones,” Admiral 
William Harvey,” etc. The members of a 
college faculty are addressed as “Profes¬ 
sor,” and their particular title may be ad¬ 
ded after the name, as “D.D.”, “ EE.D,” 
etc. This addition of titular abbreviations 
applies as well to scientists, physicians, and 
all others whose special college title may be 
known to the writer. 

Letters of Recommendation. 

A letter of recommendation should be 
composed with careful attention to its state¬ 
ments. It is a guarantee for the party 
recommended, and truth should never be 
sacrificed to condescension, false kindness 


or politeness. To write a letter of recom¬ 
mendation contrary to one’s own opinion 
and knowledge of the person recommended, 
is to be guilty of a great imprudence. 

To say all that is necessary, in a clear 
and distinct manner, and nothing more, is 
the grand merit of a letter on business of 
any kind. Pleasantry and pathos would be 
greatly misplaced in it, unless it embraced 
some other subject than the business one. 
Brilliant diction is a dress in which direc¬ 
tions on business should never be clothed. 
The style ought to be precise, sufficiently 
copious to leave no uncertainty, but not re¬ 
dundant. Every thing necessary should be 
stated, plainly and unequivocally ; so that 
the party addressed may be in full posses¬ 
sion of our desires and opinions on the sub¬ 
ject involved. Ambiguity is nowhere so 
unpardonable as in a letter on business. 

Letters of Introduction. 

Eetters of introduction are one of the 
common methods of establishing social rela¬ 
tions. The person who is not known to 
your friend can become known through 
your kind offices. In this way, very often, 
important services can be rendered. 

Never give a letter of introduction un¬ 
less you thoroughly understand the charac¬ 
ter and manners of the person to whom you 
write the letter and also of the person whom 
the letter introduces. 

You have no right, to avoid giving of¬ 
fence, or through sheer inability to say no 
to a request, to foist upon your distant 
friend some one for whose acquaintance he 
will not thank you and who may prove a 
very undesirable visitor. If one or the 
other of the two parties concerned must be 
offended, let it be the applicant. You can 
usually give some sufficient reason for de¬ 
clining—but decline in any event, if the 
person is likely to prove objectionable. 

As such a letter cannot well enter into 
particulars, it is customary and desirable to 
notify your friend by mail of the fact that 
you have given a letter of introduction to 
such a person, and tell him what further it 
is well for him to know concerning the 
character and purpose of his probable visi¬ 
tor. If you have given such a letter to a 
party of whom you do not approve, all that 








312 


BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


remains is to warn your friend privately, 
placing him on his guard against a possibly 
objectionable person. 

A letter of introduction (unless sent by 
mail) should be delivered, unsealed, by the 
writer of the letter to the bearer of the in¬ 
troduction, and should be closed by the 
latter before delivery to the party to whom 
it is addressed. If purely a business intro¬ 
duction and one which can be delivered 
personally, it may remain unsealed. 

The bearer of a letter of introduction 
should send it to the house of the person to 
whom it is addressed, together with a card 
on which should be written his address. It 
is not in order to deliver it in person, since 
this may force the party addressed into a 
position which he may prefer to decline. It 
does not follow, because a friend has chosen 
to introduce you to another, that this other 
may not have private reasons for declining 
your acquaintance, or may be prevented 
from seeing and entertaining you by stress 
of other engagements. If he lives in a large 
city, the letter may make him feel obliged 
to escort you to the various places of in¬ 
terest, or in any case to invite you to meals 
or other entertainments. We should not 
tax the time or the purse of a friend, except 
for a satisfactory reason. 

The letter delivered, there is nothing 
more to be done until the party receiving it 
calls upon you or sends you some card or 
note of invitation. Those who receive such 
letters should, within twenty-four hours, if 
possible, take some kindly notice of them by 
a call or an invitation. 

A letter of introduction must be care¬ 
fully worded, stating clearly the name of 
the person introduced, but with as few per¬ 
sonal remarks as possible. It suffices in 
most cases to say that the bearer is a friend 
of yours, whom you trust your other friend 
will receive with attention, or you may state 
his profession, object in traveling, etc. In 
traveling, one cannot have too many letters 
of introduction. It is the custom in foreign 
towns for the newcomer to call on the resi¬ 
dents first, a hint that may prove acceptable 
to persons contemplating a long or short 
residence abroad. 

A letter of introduction of a business 
nature may be delivered by the bearer in 


person, since it requires no social obliga¬ 
tions. In style it should resemble other 
business letters; that is, it should be brief 
and to the point. 

If a stranger sends you a letter of intro¬ 
duction, and his or her card (for the law of 
etiquette here holds good for both sexes), 
good form requires that you should not only 
call next day, but follow up that attention 
by others. If you are in a position to do so, 
the next correct proceeding is to send an 
invitation to dinner. Should circumstances 
not render this available, you can probably 
escort the stranger to some exhibition, con¬ 
cert, public building, museum, or other place 
likely to prove interesting to a foreigner or 
provincial visitor. In short, etiquette de¬ 
mands that you shall exert yourself to 
show kindness in some desirable way to the 
stranger, out of compliment to the friend 
who introduced him to you. 

If you invite strangers to dinner or tea, 
it is a higher compliment to ask others to 
meet them than to dine with them alone. 
You thereby afford them an opportunity of 
making other acquaintances, and are assist¬ 
ing your friend in still further promoting 
the purpose for which he gave the introduc¬ 
tion to yourself. Be careful at the same 
time only to ask such persons as you are 
quite sure are the stranger’s own social 
equals. 

Letters of Congratulation or Condolence. 

Epistles of this kind need to be very 
carefully written. Unless there is some 
actual sympathy in the mind of the writer, 
they had better, in many cases, be left un¬ 
written, since they may serve the opposite 
purpose to that designed. A verbal expres¬ 
sion of feeling, where there is no feeling, is 
apt to fail of its intention. If such a letter 
prove difficult to compose, it is likely to 
seem studied, cold, and formal. Simplicity 
and ease of expression are necessary ele¬ 
ments in a note of condolence or compli¬ 
ment. 

A letter of congratulation should avoid 
any indication of other than unselfish good 
feeling in the writer. The slightest show of 
envy or jealousy at the good fortune of those 
whom we felicitate is unpardonable. It 
should on no account contain a hint of any 



BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


3 r 3 


hope that the advancement, or change of 
situation, upon which the compliment is 
made, may afford the person addressed the 
means of conferring a benefit on the party 
writing. 

Such a letter should, in fact, be an un¬ 
mixed expression of pleasure and congratu¬ 
lation on the event that calls for its pro¬ 
duction. But care must be taken to keep 
within due bounds ; to exaggerate in our 
congratulations may be to seem satirical. 

In a letter of congratulation we should 
be cheerful; from an epistle of condolence 
all pleasantry should be banished. When 
addressing a person who is laboring under 
any grievous calamity, it is bad taste to 
make light of it; to treat that loss as a 
matter which might be endured calmly, by 
a little firmness on the part of the party 
who has suffered it, has the effect to irritate 
rather than soothe. One should seek to 
enter into the feelings of the mourner, to 
eulogize the departed relation, to rebuke 
the ingratitude of the false friend, to confess, 
the inconstancy of fortune, or otherwise, 
according to the circumstances ; and, with¬ 
out magnifying, to lament the affliction. 

Language like this is balm to the 
wounded mind, which rejects consolation 
from those who do not seem sensible of the 
extent of the sorrow under which it labors. 
But such a subject must be treated with a 
delicate hand, for an exaggerated expression 
of sympathy may give the appearance of 
insincerity, and of a strained endeavor to 
condole. In such a case it may aggravate 
the depression which it seeks to remove. 

Replying to Letters. 

Every letter, that is not insulting, merits 
a reply, if it be required or necessary. If 
the letter contains a request, it should 
either be acceded to gracefully and without 
ostentation, or refused without harshness. 
An answer to a letter of condolence or of 
congratulation should be grateful. The 
subjects should succeed each other in proper 
order, and the questions put be consecu¬ 
tively answered. In familiar correspond¬ 
ence a greater latitude of arrangement is 
allowed; but even in this no question 
should be left unanswered. In all replies it 


is usual to acknowledge the receipt, and to 
mention the date, of the last letter received: 
if this be neglected, your correspondent may 
be left in doubt, and may, through mis¬ 
understanding, hold you guilty of some 
offense. 

Punctuation. 

Punctuation is a matter of the utmost 
importance in every species of literary com¬ 
position ; without it there can be no clear¬ 
ness, strength, or accuracy. Its utility 
consists in separating the different portions 
of what is written in such a manner that 
the subjects may be properly classed and 
subdivided, so as to convey the precise 
meaning of the writer to the reader. It 
shows the relation which the various parts 
bear to each other, unites such as ought to 
be connected, and keeps apart such as have 
no mutual dependence. 

It is much to be lamented that so little 
attention is paid to this important subject. 
As there is no positive system of punctu¬ 
ation to direct the writer, the modern edi¬ 
tions of good authors should be carefully 
studied, in order to acquire the leading 
principles of the art. The construction of 
sentences may be examined, and the mode 
adopted of dividing them attended to with 
considerable advantage. 

One cannot expect, perhaps, in this 
manner to become an expert in punctua¬ 
tion, but may grow sufficiently familiar with 
its essential elements to make no serious 
errors. The mode of placing punctuation 
marks permits of considerable latitude, and 
it is advisable not to be too profuse in their 
employment. The use of the comma is fre¬ 
quently very faulty through carelessness 
in this particular, dividing parts of sen¬ 
tences which naturally cohere, and being 
dropped in the centre of a phrase in which 
it is absurdly out of place. The natural 
halting points for the reader, or slight 
breaks in the sense, should be duly consid¬ 
ered, and a mark placed in consonance with 
the degree of this break. The comma and 
the dash do duty with many as the only 
elements of punctuation, the latter being 
much over used, through a desire to escape 
the necessity of considering the proper 
mark required. 



3H 


BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


Postscripts. 

Lady writers have been accused, and 
perhaps with some reason, of often reserv¬ 
ing the most important part of a letter for 
the postscript. It is an accusation which 
they should avoid giving cause for. Post¬ 
scripts are, for the most part, needless, and 
in bad taste. It is best to pause a few mo¬ 
ments before concluding a letter, and reflect 
whether we have anything more to say. 
Above all things, none should defer civili¬ 
ties or kind inquiries to this justly-despised 
part of a letter. To do so is a proof of 
thoughtlessness or disrespect. “ My kind¬ 


est regards to my cousin Lucy,” added as a 
postscript, looks like what it really is—an 
after-thought; and is, therefore, not only 
without value, but, to persons of fine feel¬ 
ings, offensive. 

To all writers something will occasion¬ 
ally occur, after finishing the letter, which 
it is important to state. If to have for¬ 
gotten it implies no disrespect it may 
properly be added as a postscript. But if 
it should indicate a forgetfulness which 
may possibly offend the recipient, the whole 
letter had better be rewritten, and the 
after-thought put in its proper place. 


XIII. FORMS OF CORRESPONDENCE. 


Having given in the preceding sections 
some hints as to letter-writing and examples 
of notes of invitation, acceptance, and de¬ 
clination, it seems important to append some 
more diversified examples of letter-writing 
and correspondence, as brief guides to a 
broad domain of social duty and obligation. 
Letters of this kind are endlessly diversified 
in form and purpose, and a few examples, 
chosen largely at random, must suffice. 

Ordering Goods. 

In ordering goods be careful to state ex¬ 
actly what you want, and whether you wish 
goods delivered by freight or express. 

It is customary in writing orders to use 
abbreviations for mercantile terms which are 
known among business men. 

Should you wish to ask any questions or 
to make suggestions, write these upon a 
separate sheet from the order itself. 

Send your order some time before you 
need the goods, so that you may not suffer 
on account of any slight delay upon the 
sender's part. 

Danville , Va., Dec. 20 , 1903. 

Strawbridge & Clothier , 

Philadelphia , Pa. 

Dear Sirs: 

Enclosed find draft for $yy on First Na~ 
tiojial Bank of Danville , for which please for¬ 
ward by U. S. Express: 

6 pairs White Kid Gloves , No. 6. 

3 pairs Brown Kid Gloves , No. 6 . 


r dozen Linen Handkerchiefs lady's size. 

15 yards of Silk like sample enclosed. 

The amount overpaid in my remittance you 
may place to my credit subject to future orders. 

Respectfully , 

{Mrs.) Julia D. Brown. 

Application for a Situation as Teacher. 

Salma , Kansas, July 3 , 1902. 

Gentlemen : 

Understanding that a vacancy for the 
situation of teacher in your school has 
occurred , I beg to offer myself as a candidate , 
a?id to inclose my certificate a 7 id letters of rec¬ 
ommendation from persons you no doubt 
know. While I feel that these can better 
speak for me than I can for myself \ I venture 
to assure you that , should you appoint me to 
the position , I shall' strive to discharge my 
duties earnestly a 7 id steadily , a 7 id shall ever 
remain , 

Your grateful a7id obedient serva7it , 

Jeanette Wilson. 

To the Trustees or Principal of School. 

Introducing a Young Lady Seeking 
Employment. 

Brooklyn , May 2 , 1903. 
Dear Mr. Martin: 

This will introduce to you my friend Miss 
Mabel Beechem , who is desirous of obtainmg 
employme 7 it in yoiir city. I use oiir old 
acquainta 7 iceship to interest you hi her behalf. 
She has 7'eceived a very liberal education , and 
would prove of great value to a family whose 




BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


3i5 


young children need careful and judicious 
teaching. She is gentle, amiable, and willing. 
I trust you will be able to serve her, and I 
shall greatly appreciate the atte?ition you may 
give her. 

Very truly, 

Barclay Jones. 

To Mr. Joseph Martin, 

21 75 Pine Street Philadelphia, Pa. 

Introducing a Friend. 

St. Louis, Mo., Jan. 3, 1901. 
Dear James B.: 

This letter will introduce to you my dear 
friend William White, who is to be in your 
city for a Jew days on business and pleasure. 
I desire him to meet you and trust it will be 
convenient for you to give him a Jew moments 
of your time. 

Any attention you give him during his 
stay in Chicago will be greatly appreciated by 
Your friend, 

Charles F. Jenkins. 

Mr. James B. Smith, 

141 Wabash Avenue, Chicago. 

Short Form of Introduction. 

Chicago, III., June 11, 1900. 
My Dear Sir : 

I have the honor of introducing to your 
acquaintance Mr. Frank Ward, whom I com¬ 
mend to your kind attention. 

Very truly yours, 

William S. French. 

Mr. Benj. F. Strong, 

Detroit, Mich. 

Congratulating a Gentleman Upon His 
Marriage. 

Wilmington, Ohio, Sept. 12, 1900. 
Dear Frank: 

I have just received the welcome message 
informing me of your new happiness. I 
hasten to offer you my most sincere congratu- 
lations and hearty good wishes. May every 
year of your married life find you happier 
than the last, and may Mrs. Cranston find 
you as loyal a husband as you have been a 
friend. 

From my inmost heart, dear Frank, I 


say, God bless you and your bride with His 
choicest blessings. 

Ever your friend, 

George Maris. 

Mr. Frank Cranston, 

Newport, Del. 

Congratulating a Lady Upon Her 

Marriage. 

179 D St., N. W. 
Washington, D. C., Nov. 4, 1903 
Dear Emma: 

Your cards have just reached me, and I 
write at once to try to express my heartfelt 
pleasure at your happy prospects. It is a 
great pleasure to your loving friends to be 
able to feel so much esteem and affection for 
the gentleman to whom you have confided your 
life's happiness, and to hope, as I do, that 
every year will unite your hearts more closely. 

That Heaven may bless you both, dear 
Emma, is the earnest prayer of 

Your loving 

Laura Shipley. 

Mrs. J. Barrie Brown. 

A Letter Sent with a Gift (a Book). 

977 President St., 

Brooklyn N, Y., Dec. 20, 190 -. 

My Dear Friend:—I hope the accompany¬ 
ing volume, of which I ask your acceptance as 
a slight toke 7 i of my regard, will suit your 
taste. Books are hi themselves frie7ids, and 
are therefore, I thhik, the most appropri¬ 
ate souvenirs of frie 7 idship. hi fact the cur 
rent phrase, ‘ ‘ I know you like a book, ’ ’ al¬ 
though a vulgarism, seems to imply the same 
intimate relation between reader and author 
that should exist betiveen friend and friend. 
Please apprise me of the receipt of the package, 
and believe me, 

Ever yours sincerely 

John Clark. 

To Miss Julia Thomas, Brandywine, Del. 

The Reply. 

Brandywine, Del., Dec. 23, 190-. 

My Dear Mr. Clark :—Accept my thanks 
for your handsome present. You could not 



316 


BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


have selected a book that would have pleased 
me better. I think with you that books (of the 
right kind ) should be looked upon as agreea¬ 
ble and useful friends; but nevertheless the 
frie?id whom neither time ?ior distance can 
estrange, is a treasure of more value thayi all , 
the volumes that ever were printed. Permit 1 
me to regard you in that light, and again 
thanking you for your prese?it, to remain, 
Sincerely yours, 

Julia Thomas. 

To Mr. John Clark, Brooklyn , N. Y. 

Soliciting a Loan from a Friend. 

2790 N. Broad St., 

Philadelphia, Sept. 9, 1903. 

My Dear Sir:—A disappohitme7it i?i the 
receipt of some money due has exposed me to a 
teinporary embarrassment. The sum which 
would extricate me from this pai?iful diffiadty 
is not large, as $4.00 would be amply sufficient 
to release me from my present pressure. I 
have so great an aversion to borrowing money 
from professiorial lenders, that I prefer the 
course of solicithig the aid of some well-know?i 
friend. I have thought of several, but of none 
with a greater degree of cojiftdence than your¬ 
self. Can you gra7it ?ne, then, the accommo¬ 
dation of the above sum, without hi any way 
intrenching on your own co7ive7iie7ice ? If you 
can, I believe I may rely 071 your readhiess to 
do so; and you may hi turn depeiid being 
reimbursed with the strictest punctuality by 
the 5th of April. A speedy reply to this re¬ 
quest will extremely oblige, 

My dear sir, 

Yours most shicerely, 

Joseph Howard. 

To Mr. Frank Thomson. 

In Answer Declining, on Account of 
Incapability. 

1783 Mulberry Street, 
Philadelphia, Sept. 10, 1903. 

My Dear Sir :—I truly regret that my 
circumstances will not permit me to oblige a 
friend so dear to me as yourself; but at 
present I am in great need of money, and last 
Friday I was compelled to borrow, to meet a 
pressing obligation ; I therefore do not have it 
within my power to comply with your request. 

Trusting that you may be more successful 


in some other quarter, and with feelings of 
regret at my owii inability to render you a 
service which you 7 nigbt otherwise readily 
comma 7 id, 

Believe me to remain, 

Ever your sincere friend, 

Charles Hall. 

To Mr. Joseph Howard, 

No. — Lexhigton Ave., N. Y. 

A Letter to a Friend (on the Anni¬ 
versary of his Birthday. 

1917 Green Stree , 

Philadelphia, July 3, 190-. 

My Dear Walter:—Birthdays may be called 
the milesto 7 ies hi life''s journey, aiid as you 
reach a 7 iother of these aiuiiversary land-marks 
to-day, permit me to congratulate you 071 hav- 
hig traveled thei 7 i thus far hi safety, and to 
wish you, with all my heart, many similar 
opportunities of receiving the good wishes of 
your friends. That your future years may 
glide happily away, without care or sorrow, is 
the sincere prayer of, 

Yours most sincerely, 

Thomas Meek. 

To Mr. Walter Dewey, 

Crestline, Ohio. 

Reply to the Above. 

Crestline, Ohio, July 10, 190-. 

Dear Tom :—Congratulations that come 
froin the heart, as I am sure yours do, are 
always welcome. I scarcely know, however, 
whether we ought to be complhnented on grow¬ 
ing older, unless we grow wiser and better as 
well . Nevertheless, the custom of receiving 
the felicitations of one's friends and acquaint¬ 
ances, on havhig made another step toward 
the goal, is decidedly a71 agreeable one, and I 
thank you most cordially for your khid note. 

Your obliged friend, 

Walter Dewey. 

To Mr. Thomas Meek, 

Philadelphia, Pa. 

Requesting a Friend to execute a 
Commission. 

Santiago, Cuba, 

April 13, 1902. 

My Dear Emma :—Will you kindly exe¬ 
cute the following little commissions for 7ne } as 




BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


3i7 


soon as you can make it convenient ? Pur¬ 
chase for me at Macy's the following articles ; 
— (here state ribbons, muslins, &c., as 
wanted .) Will you also call at Doubleday's 
and inquire when Bacheller's new novel will 
be out, as I am all anxiety to know. 

Please give them my address at Macy's, 
and tell them to pack the parcel carefully and 
send it by express. 

The weather down here is delightful; but 
I wish I had the pleasure of your company to 
render it more so. Pray write a line and let 
me know-how soon you can make me a visit, 
and thus afford me an opportunity to thank 
you personally for your khidness. 

Lois C. Pharmcm. 

To Miss Mary White, 

No. — Washington Square, New York. 

Application for Subscription to a 
Charity. 

Duane Street, 

Louisville, Ky., 

fajiuary iy, 190-. 

Sir —I take the liberty of inclosmg a pros¬ 
pectus of a?i institution which is likely to have 
a most beneficial effect upon the condition of 
the poor in our neighborhood. \Here state 
particulars .) On account of your well-known 
liberality, I trust you will excuse this appeal 
in furtherance of an act of benevolence, and 
remain, 

Sir, your most obedient servant, 

Harry R. Jones. 

To Pliney Earle, Esq., 

No. — West 18th Street, City. 

Letters of Application. 

BOY WANTED for Transportation Office; 
must be good penman ; $15 per month. Address, 
in own handwriting, H, 236 Ledger Office. 

Philadelphia, Pa., fan. 3, 1901. 

H, 236 Ledger Office. 

Sir:—I would respectfully apply for the 
position advertised in to-day's Ledger. I am 
fifteen years old, reside with my parents at 
79 Jayne Street, Camden, and refer you to 
Mr. S. L. Thomas, 814. Market Street, this 
city, from whom I received the enclosed testi¬ 
monial. 

Very truly, 

Albert Jenkins . 


Application for Position of Salesman 
and Collector. 

100 D St. N. W. 

Was king ton, D. C., 
March 21, 1901. 
Messrs. S. H. Smith & Co., 

Wheeling, W. Va. 

Gentlemen: 

I am recommended by Mr. Frank Stuart 
to apply to you Jor the position of salesman 
and collector, recently occupied by him in your 
warehouse. 

I am twenty-eight years of age, and re¬ 
side with my father in this city, who will give 
bonds for me if required. I have had some 
experience in your line of business, and should 
be pleased to have a trial with you, if prefer¬ 
able, previous to a permanent e 7 igage 7 nent. I 
am at liberty to refer to Messrs. W. H. 
Fletcher & Co., Lace Curtains, 198 Broad¬ 
way, New York, also to Messrs. Simpso7i & 
Jones, Upholstery Goods, 166 Arch Street, 
Philadelphia, Pa. 

Very respectfully, 

Edward Murphy. 

Requesting the Settlement of an Account. 

Newark, N.J., Dec. 2 3, 1900. 
Mr. James Jones, 

Burlington, N.J. 

Dear Sir: 

I call your attentio 7 i to the f^ct that your 
account, which I enclose, has not bee 7 i settled. 
I am reluctant to press you, but as I have 
some heavy payments to make in the early part 
of next month, I 7 nust request that you pay 
the amount before the close oj the present 
7 no 7 ith. 

Respectfully yours, 

John Adams. 

A Demand for Payment of Rent, 

1409 North Ninth Si ., 

Philadelphia, Pa. 

June 3, 1904. 

Mr. Thomas F. Smith. 

Dear Sir: 

Ifeel obliged to remind you of the fact that 
you owe me $120 for three months' re 7 it. 

I You will remember that, accordhig to the 
] agreement, you were to make monthly 



318 


BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


payments ; therefore, if the account is not settled 
within a week , I shall be obliged to place the 
matter in the ha?ids of my lawyer for collection, 
as I cannot allow it to run any longer. 

Truly yours, 

Henry S. Holmes. 

Introducing a Young Man Seeking a 
Position. 

Akron, Ohio, fune i, 1900. 

My Dear Sir: 

Recognizing your well-merited and ex¬ 
tensive influence in the commercial circles in 
your city, I beg to introduce to you Charles F. 
Pogle, who is desirous of obtaming a position 
with a mercantile house. He is a gentleman 
of capacity and ability. His character stands 
A 1, a?id he is as industrious as he is ener¬ 
getic. He considers Hew York a better field 
than this place, and prefers to try his chances 
there to remaining here. He can refer to me. 
Trusting that you will lend him a helping 
hand, I am, Yours, very truly, 

fames B. Marvel. 

Mr. Edward Fetter, 

19 Park Row, New York 

Social Letters. 

Let these be original and not be like the 
epistles of some one else ; write as you would 
talk, but always exercise care in the use of 
pure, simple language and avoid a stilted or 
artificial style. Especially in the long let¬ 
ters of friendship and love—those missives 
that reveal the heart—the language should 
show that the h^art is pure. Let your letter 
be the record of the fancies and mood of the 
hour; the reflex of your aspirations, your 
joys, your disappointments. 

Write cheerfully. It is unkind to your 
friend to fill your letter with complainings 
and accounts of your troubles, though there 
are occasions when one may confide all his 
sorrows to the near friend, and receive in re¬ 
turn a letter of sympathy, containing all the 
comfort it is possible for a letter to convey. 

The length of social letters must depend 
upon circumstances and degree of intimacy. 
To members of your family real chatty 
letters telling of all the little incidents of 
your life, its pleasures and adventures are 
always proper. In fact, these need be limited 
only by your time and paper. To others 
you must not write such long letters. 


The following is a feeling letter of con¬ 
dolence, written by Frances Ridley Haver- 
gal to a lady friend : 

Leamington, Dec. 10, 187o. 
Dear, Dear Mrs. Smith : 

What ca7i I do but just weep with you ! 1 
can only guess what this sorrow is. Only I 
know it must be the greatest, except one, which 
could come to you. That dear little, beautiful 
thing ! He looked so sweet and happy when I 
saw him; no baby face ever haunted me as, 
somehow, his did. If you could o?ily see him 
now, how beautiful he must be now that he has 
seen Jesus, and shines in the light of God. It 
is even more wonderful to think of that great 
transition for a baby than for a grown per¬ 
son ; one camiot imagine the sudden expansion 
into such knowledge and conscious joy. 

I was looking back this morning upon long 
memories of soul-trials, years of groping and 
stumbling and longing, sinning and sorrow- 
ing, of heart weariness and faintness, temp¬ 
tation and failure; all these things which 1 
suppose every Christian must pass through, 
more or less, at some stage or other on the 
way home ; and the first distinct thought which 
came through the surprise and sorrow at the 
sad news was, “ That dear little redeemed one 
is spared all this, taken home without any of 
these roughest roughnesses of the way ; he will 
never fear doubt or sin, never grieve his 
Saviour.” Is it not the very best and kindest 
thing thoA tender Saviour could do for him ? 
Only it is not zvhat you meant when you 
prayed that he might be his ow?i. 

But better he is with him at once and for¬ 
ever, and waiting for you to come home. 1 
am only writing all this because my heart is 
full, and must pour out a little. I know we 
cannot comfort,—only Jesus can ; and I shall 
go and plead long and intensely for this as 
soon as I have closed my letter. He must be 
specially ‘ ‘ touched * ’ in such a sorrow, for he 
knows by actual experience what human love 
is. Three S2ich great sorrows in one year! 
How specially he must be watching you in this 
furnace ! 

Yours with deepest sympathy , 

Frances R. Haver gal. 

This may fitly be followed by a letter of 
congratulation, of which we give a manu¬ 
factured example. Too often it is the case 



BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


3i9 


that friends forget to congratulate those they 
are interested in when good fortune of any 
kind comes upon them, or to commiserate 
with them in cases of disaster or misfortune. 
These letters not only are proper but very 
acceptable. The one receiving such letters 
should not fail to acknowledge them. They 
properly should not be very long or very 
effusive. 

New York, May 8, 1903. 
My Dear Mr. Williams: 

It is with deep satisfaction that I learn of 
your good fortune. I have lo?ig hoped that 
the clouds which lowered over you would be 
lifted, and sincerely hope that you have fairly 
eritered upon a tide of prosperity. In orie 
who, like you, have been true and honorable in 
all your actions, and have suffered in meaiis 
through honesty hi dealing, the coming of a 
measure of success like this should be especially 
gratifying. 

May you continue to prosper, and if in any 
way I can advance your interests in this quar¬ 
ter do not fail to make use of me. Present my 
best wishes to Mrs. Williams, and believe me 
Sincerely yours, 

fames Dobson. 

From Charles Dickens to James T. Fields. 

As an excellent example of a reply to a 
letter conveying pleasant wishes, we present 
the following from Dickens : 

Gad's Hill, f une 10, 1867. 
My Dear Fields : 

Your letter of May 27th comes to me like 
a breath from your own world beyond the sea. 
Believe me, I reciprocate all your good wishes, 
and take this occasion to renew those sentiments 
of respect and affection for yourself which it 
has been my privilege to entertain for so long 
a time . In the busy hours of exacting labors, 
I recall with pleasure the choice friends whom 
it has been my happy lot to meet. Time does 
not rust, but brightens, the links of the golden 
chain. With every good wish for your per¬ 
sonal health and enjoyment, I ayn, as ever, 
Yours most sincerely, 

Charles Dickens. 

Mr. James T. Fields, 

Boston, Mass. 


From Charles Sumner on Leaving for 
Europe to his Ten=year Old Sister. 

As tor Honse, 

New York, Dec. 7, 1837 

My Dear Julia: 

I don't remember that I ever wrote you a 
letter. I feel confident, however, that your 
correspondence is not very extensive; and 
therefore Iflatter my self that what I write you 
will be read with attention, a 7 id I trust, also, 
deposited in your heart. Before trustmg my¬ 
self to the sea, let 7 ne say a few words to you 
which shall be my good-by. I have often 
spoken to you of certain habits of perso 7 ial 
care, which I will not here more particularly 
refer to tha 7 i by asking you to remember all I 
have told you. 

I am very glad, my dear, to remember 
your cheerful counte 7 iance. I shall keep it in 
my muid as I travel over sea and land, and 
hope that when I return I may still fi 7 id its 
pleasant smile ready to greet me. Try 7iever_ 
to cry. But above all things never be obstinate 
or passionate. If y021 find your temper mas 
tering you, always stop till you count sixty 
before you say or do ayiy thing. Let it be said 
of you that you are always amiable. Love your 
father and mother and brothers and sisters, 
and all your friends ; cultivate a 7 i affectionate 
disposition. 

If you fiyid that you ca7i do anything 
which will add to the pleasure of your parents, 
or a?iybody else, be sure to do it. Consider 
every opportunity of adding to the pleasure of 
others as of the highest ii 7 iportance, and do not 
be unwilling to sacrifice some enjoyment of 
your owyi, even some dear plaything, if by 
doing so you can promote the happiness of 
others. If you follow this advice you will never 
be selfish or ungenerous, and everybody will 
love you. 

Study all the lessons you have at school, 
and wheyi at home, in the time when you are 
tired of play, read some good books which will 
help to hnprove your mind. . . . If you will 
let Horace read this letter it will do the same, 
perhaps, as 07 ie addressed to hi77i. Give my 
love to mother, and Mary, and the rest. 

Your affectionate brother, 

Charles . 



320 


BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


ETIQUETTE 

During all civilized ages the art of 
beauty has been sedulously studied and 
practiced by the fair sex, women in all 
periods since the days of barbarism having 
sought to preserve and increase the charms 
bestowed by nature and carry the freshness 
of youth as far forward as possible into the 
domain of middle life and even of old age. 
Experience extended through many cen¬ 
turies has yielded numerous ‘ ‘ rules of con¬ 
duct ’ ’ in relation to physical hygiene and 
the care of the body, while physicians have 
learned much in respect to the preservation 
of health and beauty. How to keep a clean 
soul in a clean body is the first law of health. 
In the study of the fine arts there is nothing 
of more importance than the art of making 
a beautiful woman. It is this art with 
which we are at present concerned. Though 
no one can be taught how to convert ugli¬ 
ness into beauty, or to stay the footsteps of 
age, yet what share of attractiveness nature 
has given can in great measure be retained 
and enhanced, while, if the advance of age 
cannot be checked, its ravages may be alle¬ 
viated and its harshness softened by the 
employment of physical hygiene and refined 
care of the body which God has given us. 

How to Grow Old Gracefully. 

A charming old lady revealed the secret 
of her fair and rosy complexion to a group 
of young women as follows : ‘ ‘ Late hours, ’ ’ 
said she, “and oversleeping ruin the com¬ 
plexion. Go to bed early, arise early, and 
you will grow old slowly, and retain your 
good looks to an advanced age. If, how¬ 
ever, your position forces you into society 
and you are obliged to be up late at night, 
sleep an hour every afternoon. Before 
going to bed take a hot bath and remain in 
the water only a few moments. Then drink 
a cup of bouillon, and a small glass of 
Malaga wine. Sleep will soon follow, and 
last until the natural time of awakening, 
which is about ten o’clock in the morning 
under these circumstances. Take a cold 
plunge or sponge bath, a light breakfast of 
cafi au lait , and bread without any butter.” 

She continued : ‘ ‘ Out-of-door exercise 


OF BEAUTY 

is an absolute necessity, but must not be 
carried to excess. A daily walk is excellent, 
and it is scarcely necessary to say that 
whole days of lawn tennis, croquet, etc., 
are not favorable to the complexion.” 

Care of the Body. 

Wear warm, light garments, to secure 
an even temperature. In winter it is even 
more important to protect the spine than 
the chest. Wear a silk sleeveless jacket 
next the skin, if you do not wish to wear 
a flannel one. At any rate, if you are deli¬ 
cate, young or old, cover the spine with a 
strip of flannel tied by a ribbon, and extend¬ 
ing to the hips. There will be no need to 
fear colds, bronchitis, or phthisis, if this pre¬ 
caution is taken, and it does not prevent 
wearing a decollette gown. 

Never wear tight clothing. It is in¬ 
jurious to health and beauty. The face be¬ 
comes congested when the organs are com¬ 
pressed, the hands swell, and get red, and 
the carriage awkward. Wear easy corsets, 
gloves, and shoes. 

To keep the pores of the skin open, one 
should bathe daily in cold or warm water ; 
ill health and age are thus retarded. The 
result of uncleanliness is a flabby and un¬ 
wholesome condition. The well cleansed 
skin is soft, smooth, fresh ; a skin on which 
perspiration and dust have accumulated in 
layers becomes dry and feverish. But it 
may be said that it is not possible for the 
greater number of people to take a daily 
bath, as they lack the facilities and the 
time. The sponge bath—which is all suffi¬ 
cient for the purposes of cleanliness—re¬ 
quires only a few minutes each day. Once 
or twice a week at least, one should take 
the time necessary for a full bath. This is 
the very least attention our bodies require. 

Immersions and baths, with the aid of 
soap, lotions, etc., will render the body 
strong and flexible, and give it a power of 
resistance. Water has the virtue of dispell¬ 
ing fatigue and destroying the germs of dis¬ 
ease. While cleansing the body it purifies 
our souls and gives us “ a sound mind in a 
sound body.” 



BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


321 


The Bath-Room. 

The furnishing of the bath-room depends 
largely upon the means and taste of its 
owner. It is no difficult matter to furnish a 
simple bath-room, in which comfort may be 
preserved while the unattainable elegancies 
of the rich are banished. The walls of this 
room may be painted in oils—in imitation 
of marble, if desired. Over the floor of 
wood or tiles a carpet of linoleum should be 
spread. In front of the bath-tub should be 
laid an India-rubber mat, on which to step 
on leaving the bath. On the walls may be 
placed shelves for soap, sponges, etc., within 
easy reach of the hand while in the water. 
On racks or in a wardrobe should be hung 
the bathing linen, towels, dressing sacks, 
and other necessaries of the bath. 

The human skin is a complicated net, 
whose meshes must be kept open and un¬ 
clogged, in order that through them the 
body may throw off its impure secretions. 
The healthy action of the skin is stimulated 
by the opening of the pores in the bath, es¬ 
pecially if it is followed by friction with a 
brush or rough towel. 

Instead of the bath-tub and its acces¬ 
sories, the needs of cleanliness may be met 
with a large zinc tub, a pail, and a small 
basin of water, with a suitable sponge. In 
this method of bathing first use warm water; 
then, if in good health, lower the tempera¬ 
ture of the water until, finally, the bath can 
be taken cold. In all cases the temperature 
of the room must be moderately warm. Peo¬ 
ple whose lungs are weak should always 
bathe in warm water. 

Partial baths, of any kind, are almost 
always taken warm. It is unwise to bathe 
immediately after eating, as it seriously in¬ 
terferes with digestion. There should be at 
least three or four hours between a full repast 
and a bath. 

In the springtime, when one is more 
susceptible to cold than at any other season 
of the year, it is best to bathe at night, just 
before going to bed, in order that the skin 
may profit by the warm moisture which it 
retains for several hours after leaving the 
bath. 

The practice of massage, by the hands of 
an experienced operator, is of great value in 
21 C 


certain states of the health. But, fortu 
nately, ordinary friction can replace this 
practice without assistance, thanks to the 
various appliances for the purpose of rub¬ 
bing one’s self over the shoulders and back, 
which the hands cannot reach easily. The 
friction is produced either with the bare 
hand, or by means of gloves or bands of 
horse hair, or of rough woolen or linen 
cloth. When no liquid is employed, such 
friction is called dry. 

The Dressing-Room. 

A woman’s dressing-room should be as 
tasteful and comfortable as her social posi¬ 
tion and fortune permit: simply comfort¬ 
able if she cannot afford luxury, but sup¬ 
plied at least with all things necessary and 
useful to a careful toilet. 

Where convenient, two dressing-tables 
should be provided, facing each other, dif¬ 
ferent in dimensions, but identical in form. 

The larger serves for the minor ablu¬ 
tions. It is provided with a water pitcher 
and bowl of porcelain, crystal, or silver, 
selected with the taste which distinguishes 
us in these days. Above it fasten a little 
shelf on which to place perfumes, smelling 
salts, dentrifices, elixirs, etc. Beside the 
bowl place a soap-dish, a box for brushes, 
etc. 

The smaller dressing-table should be 
surmounted by an adjustable mirror, framed 
in silk and muslin. The hair is dressed be¬ 
fore this table. It must be supplied with 
all needful accessories—brushes and combs, 
perfumes, creams and lotions, powder-boxes, 
powder-puffs, manicure set, etc. Projecting 
brackets for lights should be on each side of 
this table. 

The dressing-room may be far more 
simple than here described. If it lack all 
luxury, a woman of taste may give it an 
attractive appearance. Select a tasteful wall¬ 
paper. Cover the floor with a pretty rug. 
Tables of pine may be draped with cretonne 
bordered with a ruffle. Over your dressing- 
table spread a linen scarf trimmed with 
inexpensive lace. Above it hang small 
brackets covered like the table, on which 
place the boxes, bottles, jewel vases, etc., 
which may be graceful and elegant despite 
their small cost. If the mirror is ordinary, 




3 22 


BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


conceal the frame by a drapery to correspond 
with the table. This is easily arranged by 
means of hidden tacks. Secure a very sim¬ 
ple wardrobe, which you can greatly im¬ 
prove by painting and varnishing. Conceal 
the water jugs and pails under the valance 
of the table. 

Some shelves at the end of the room, 
with hooks beneath them to hold articles of 
clothing, the whole concealed behind cur¬ 
tains in harmony with the drapery of the 
table, will answer the purpose of a ward¬ 
robe. The curtain should hang freely from 
the ceiling, so as not to expose the outlines 
of the objects behind it. Beneath it the 
zinc bathing tub may be hidden. 

The Complexion. 

It is generally thought that the color and 
texture of the skin may be improved by ex¬ 
ternal means. This is partially the truth, 
but is largely an error, since the complexion 
depends to a great degree on the health and 
temperament. We must look to hygiene 
rather than to cosmetics to supply the de¬ 
fects of color. 

A complexion which is too highly col¬ 
ored, especially if the color is deep and ex¬ 
tends over nearly the whole surface, is 
neither desirable from an aesthetic nor from a 
hygienic standpoint. It indicates plethora. 
It will be noticed that those persons who are 
afflicted with high color, whose eyes even 
are veined in red, are usually large eaters, 
lovers of ease, and averse to fatiguing exer¬ 
cises. In order to tone down their color, 
they should restrain the appetite, select less 
succulent food, and take less ease. Their 
health w T ill be improved by the directions 
here given ; headaches, confusion of thought, 
dizziness, will disappear ; from violent, the 
color will become merely brilliant, which is 
a very different thing, for a bright color is 
not objectionable if confined to the cheek, as 
it makes the rest of the face fairer by contrast. 

When the complexion is muddy, wan, 
pasty, too white, greenish, yellow, or pur¬ 
ple, it is always a sign of bad health. A 
muddy skin is sometimes natural, but fre¬ 
quently indicates dyspepsia, feeble circula¬ 
tion, etc. 

A pale skin is usually due to a life spent 
within doors, lack of exercise, the habit or 


necessity of avoiding sunlight and daylight. 
A pasty skin is the result of a lymphatic 
temperament. An olive skin does not 
always indicate disease; it may have been 
inherited from some creole ancestor. A too 
white skin, without proper admixture of 
color, shows a person in serious ill health, 
although sometimes there are no other indi¬ 
cations. A purplish complexion may come 
from some affection of the heart. A yellow 
skin requires especial attention.. It is plain 
that care and precaution should be taken 
when the complexion is defective. 

Hygiene is in many cases sufficient, and 
we shall try to trace the prominent outlines 
of this preventive treatment, at least so far 
as women are concerned. 

Facial Ablutions. 

It is well known that the pores of the 
skin should be kept open in order to perform 
thoroughly their functions, and that wash¬ 
ing is an excellent means to relieve them of 
the secretions, or accumulations which ob¬ 
struct and close them. There are, however, 
precautions to be taken when washing the 
face. If there is any eruption on the face, 
warm water should be used. By this means 
the blood is driven away and the congestion 
relieved. 

When the weather is very warm, or 
when the face is heated, do not wash in cold 
water. Bathe in warm water with pure 
soap. Take care to rinse thoroughly, so as 
to remove every particle of soap. Powder 
lightly, allowing the powder to dry on the 
face. 

The face should be then carefully wiped 
on a piece of soft linen. Rough friction, 
with a coarse towel, has the effect of thick¬ 
ening some skins. It is well to remember 
that the skin requires the same delicate care 
that we bestow on fine porcelain or other 
rare treasures. 

It is said that one of our society beauties 
every night on going to bed saturates a toilet 
towel in very hot water, wrings it, and ap¬ 
plies it to her face, keeping it there for half 
an hour. This woman has no wrinkles. 

A woman, fifty years old, whose skin is 
as smooth as that of a young girl, has never 
used anything on her face but hot water, 
which she believes prevents the skin from 



BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


323 


becoming flaccid and wrinkled. One of her 
friends does the same, but immediately after 
washes her face in cold water, and her sister 
uses hot water at night and cold in the 
morning. 

All these apparent contradictions depend 
doubtless on different conditions of the skin. 
A well-known physician advises washing 
the face in cold water in the winter, and in 
warm or hot water in summer, thus establish¬ 
ing harmony with the existing temperature. 

Hard water, which does not dissolve the 
soap, should not be used for washing or 
bathing. If no other is to be had, the 
water for face-washing may be softened with 
a little borax or a few drops of ammonia. 

Lemon juice cleanses the skin very well, 
and sometimes serves the purpose better 
than soap. Strawberry juice has the same 
effect, besides being very improving to the 
skin. 

Dr. Kingsford believes that, in many 
cases, the skin of the face may be kept 
smooth to an advanced age by the follow¬ 
ing mechanical process : The fingers being 
slightly oiled, the skin of the face should be 
rubbed, gently but firmly, in a direction 
opposite to that in which wrinkles threaten 
to form. This should be done at least once 
daily, and for five minutes at a time. The 
pressure must be even, firm, and gentle, 
and the oil on the fingers occasionally re¬ 
newed. In this process the effect may be 
much augmented by the use of wool fat, 
a substance which is extracted from sheep’s 
wool. Its value consists in the fact that it 
is readily absorbed by the skin, and thus 
serves to replace the subcutaneous fatty 
tissue, where deficient, and give a full, 
smooth, and rounded outline to the skin. 
Cold-cream prepared from this wool fat and 
cucumber juice is a very valuable cosmetic, 
from the readiness of its absorption by the 
skin, ordinary oils and fats lying on the 
surface, without absorption, and forming a 
greasy film. 

To Remove Sunburn. 

Bathe your face at night with a cold in¬ 
fusion of fresh cucumbers sliced in milk. A 
decoction of tansy in buttermilk is still 
more efficacious. Buttermilk alone is ex¬ 
cellent. 


Another means of overcoming the effects 
of sea or wind is to wash the face with the 
juice of green grapes prepared in the follow¬ 
ing manner : Wet the grapes and powder 
lightly with alum ; wrap in a white paper 
and cook under hot ashes. When the grapes 
become tender they are sufficiently cooked. 
Remove them from their covering and 
squeeze into a cup. Wash your face in the 
liquid three times within twenty-four hours. 
This remedy is said to be infallible. 

Another treatment, practiced in Italy, 
is to bathe the face with the white of an egg, 
well beaten. Let it dry on the skin, and 
rinse it off in soft water after fifteen minutes. 
This treatment * is repeated three or four 
times, always at night, just before retiring. 

Lastly, good results may be had from 
the use of a mixture of equal parts of gly¬ 
cerine and lemon juice. If glycerine does 
not agree with the skin, use rose-water. 

Freckles. 

Freckles are the despair of blondes, and 
even of brunettes with fair skins. Some 
physicians attribute them to too much iron 
in the blood, and think that they may arise 
from the abuse of iron tonics. Others say 
that they indicate a delicate constitution and 
feeble circulation. 

They may sometimes be prevented by a 
few very simple precautions. The follow¬ 
ing mixture has been used with success: 
One part of tincture of iodine to three parts 
of glycerine, applied to the freckles before 
going to bed. 

Another remedy is the following : Take 
one-half pint of oil of turpentine ; dissolve 
in it seven grammes of pulverized camphor ; 
add two grammes of oil of sweet almonds. 

The following is another excellent rem¬ 
edy : Twenty-eight grammes of crushed cam¬ 
phor and 112 grammes of pure olive oil. 
Let the camphor dissolve slowly in the oil. 

Applications of buttermilk are also ex¬ 
cellent here, as in the case of sunburn. 

The following remedies are also recom¬ 
mended : In twenty centigrammes of rose 
water dissolve sixteen centigrammes of 
borax : 

Fresh beans, boiled in water, crushed and 
applied as a poultice on the freckles, will 
produce excellent effects. 




324 


BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


Make a mixture of vinegar, lemon juice, 
alcohol, oil of lavender, oil of rose, oil of 
cedar, and distilled water. Apply to the 
freckles on retiring, and wash the face in 
soft water next morning. 

Two parts of sugar of watercress to one 
of honey is highly recommended for remov¬ 
ing both large and small freckles. Strain 
through a cloth and apply morning and 
night. 

Depilatories. 

The growth of hair which so often ap¬ 
pears on the chin at middle age, and the 
down which imparts a masculine appear¬ 
ance to the rosy lips of some young girls 
of twenty, form causes of annoyance from 
which some suffer distress of mind. There 
are, fortunately, remedies for this affliction. 

Removing these hairs with a small 
tweezer of steel is one of the common meth¬ 
ods. But the hair must be carefully pulled 
and not broken ; it should be removed by a 
sudden jerk. Recently an operation by elec¬ 
tricity, to which the name of electrolysis is 
given, has been highly recommended. It 
is, however, often unsuccessful, and always 
painful. 

Make a wash of the leaves and roots of 
celandine distilled. Make a compress, apply 
to the hairy spot, allowing it to remain on 
all night. Continue until the hairs disap¬ 
pear. 

Use polypode of oak ; slit and cut into 
pieces, place in a cucurbite (vessel resem¬ 
bling a gourd used in distillation) and pour 
over it some white wine, which should cover 
the polypode a finger’s width. Let it stand 
for twenty-four hours. Then distil in boil¬ 
ing water until no more evaporates. Apply 
in compresses on the afflicted parts, keeping 
it on all night. Renew until the desired 
effect is produced. 

Face Washes and Cosmetics. 

Never use any kind of paint on the face. 
All rouges injure the skin. Blanc de perle 
is dangerous. 

Greasy skins are benefited by washing 
in the juice of fresh cucumbers. Equally 
good is the water in which spinach flowers 
have been boiled. The juice of strawberries 
is still better. 


During the sixteenth century the water 
in which beans had been boiled was in vogue 
for the complexion. This farinaceous water 
is entitled to the fame which it possessed. 
Belladonna (beautiful lady) derives its name 
from the use which the Italians of the Re¬ 
naissance made of its juice to improve their 
complexions. 

The following lotion is excellent: A 
wineglassful of lemon juice, a pint of rain 
water, five drops of essence of rose, well 
corked. Wash the face occasionally with 
this mixture, which often prevents the dis¬ 
coloration of the skin. 

Soft and relaxed skins will be improved 
by the use of the following cosmetic (at«in- 
tervals of eight days) : One part milk, one 
part whisky. Moisten a soft towel with the 
mixture, after having first washed the face. 
The results do not follow immediately, but 
within a year the skin will frequently con¬ 
tract, become firm, fine, and soft. 

An excellent cleansing wash, used by 
our grandmothers, and known as “ virginal 
milk,” is prepared as follows: Take one 
quart of rose, orange, or elder-flower water, 
and add to it, drop by drop, stirring con¬ 
stantly, an ounce of simple tincture of ben¬ 
zoin. (Be careful not to use compound 
tincture). A few drops of glycerine and 
twelve or fifteen minims of tincture of myrrh 
may be added. 

For greasiness of the skin the use of 
stimulating and astringent washes is neces¬ 
sary. The following is an excellent recipe : 
One ounce of dried rose leaves, one-half 
pint of white-wine vinegar, one half-pint of 
rose water. Pour the vinegar on the rose- 
leaves and let it stand for a week; then 
strain and add the rose-water. Bathe the 
face morning and evening by wetting the 
corner of a soft towel with the lotion. 

Where the oiliness is considerable, use 
the following lotion, applying it two or 
three times a day : 

Sulphate of zinc, two grains ; compound 
tincture of lavender, eight minims ; dis¬ 
tilled water, one ounce. Mix thoroughly. 

Toilet vinegars are frequently made with 
diluted acetic acid, into which are infused 
rose-leaves, lavender, verbena, or some 
other perfume. All toilet vinegars should 
be much diluted. The best time to use 



BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


325 


them is in the morning after bathing, in or¬ 
der to cool the skin, remove any appear¬ 
ance of greasiness, and give tone to the 
epidermis. But they must on no account 
be used soon after soap has been applied, 
because the acid of the vinegar will de¬ 
compose the soap and seriously injure the 
skin. 

The Use of Rice Powder. 

It is sometimes necessary to powder the 
face, but powder should be applied lightly 
and artistically in order to impart to the 
skin the velvety softness of the peach. 
Powder on the face should be impercepti¬ 
ble, and, if used with discretion, is not to 
be condemned. 

Take up but a small quantity of powder 
on the puff, and pass lightly over the face. 
Care should be taken not to powder the eye¬ 
brows, and the lips must be carefully wiped 
to remove any powder which may have 
fallen, The whole face, except the eyes, 
the eyebrows, and lips, should receive a 
touch of powder. 

Acne or Blackheads. 

Acne is the commonest form of facial 
eruption, it appearing as small black points 
on the nose, cheeks, and chin. Each speck 
marks an obstructed outlet of the sebaceous 
glands, and if pressure be made on either 
side, the oily secretion may be pressed out 
in the form of a small white worm. With 
care in softening the skin before pressing, 
blackheads may be removed without leaving 
a scar, and through proper treatment, their 
return may be prevented. 

For three weeks, or until the skin is 
thoroughly softened, apply Recamier cream 
every night before retiring. Let the cream 
remain on the face during the night. In 
the morning wash it off with water, as hot 
as can pleasantly be borne, and a little 
pure soap. Rinse the face thoroughly with 
cooler water. At the end of three weeks 
the blackheads will, in most cases, have 
been expelled by the treatment. In obsti¬ 
nate cases proceed as follows : 

Before attempting the removal of these 
blemishes, apply a little Recamier cream. 
Press on either side of the clogged pore un¬ 
til the so-called “worm” is forced out. 
Be careful not to be rough and injure the 


skin by sharp finger nails or any steel in¬ 
strument ; if the sebaceous matter will not 
come out, it is because the skin is not prop¬ 
erly softened, and you must patiently con¬ 
tinue the first part of the treatment. Oper¬ 
ate on the blackheads at night, if possible, 
before retiring, and do not attempt to get 
rid of all at one time. After the matter is 
forced out, bathe the face in warm water, 
in which put a little pulverized borax, and 
also use a little pure soap, that the ‘now 
emptied folicle maybe thoroughly cleansed. 
Continue this treatment until the black¬ 
heads are all gone. 

Do not imagine, however, that these 
troublesome imperfections will not return if 
the skin is neglected. Nothing but care and 
great cleanliness will effectually banish these 
obnoxious visitors. 

Redness of the Nose. 

If this affliction is due to the dryness of 
the nasal passage or the delicacy of the 
capillary vessels, the inflamed condition 
may easily be removed. The following 
wash can be recommended : Powdered 
borax, ten grammes; one teaspoonful co¬ 
logne ; soft water, 150 grammes. Melt the 
borax in the water, then add the cologne. 
It is sufficient to moisten the nose with 
the wash and let it dry without wiping. 
When it begins to burn again, the treat¬ 
ment should be renewed. 

Here is another ai:d similar wash : Dis¬ 
solve two grammes of borax in fifteen 
grammes of rose-water, and as much 
orange-flower water. Moisten the nose 
three times each day with this refreshing 
wash. 

Cleansing of the Hair. 

The frequent use of a fine comb is fatal 
to hair, especially when it is falling out. 
However, it is necessary to cleanse the hair 
and the downy scalp. 

The Chinese, who have abundant, but 
coarse, hair, use a mixture of honey and 
flour. 

The following is an English recipe : Add 
a teacupful of salt to a quart of rain-water. 
After twelve hours this brine is ready for use. 
To one cupful of the mixture add one cup¬ 
ful of hot rain water. Wash the hair and 
scalp, rub well, rinse, and dry with a towel. 



326 


BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


The creoles of Cuba make a decoction of 
the leaves of rosemary. This water, they 
maintain, cleanses, strengthens, and softens 
the hair. 

This also is excellent: Take fifty 
grammes of the roots of soap-wood boiled 
in a pint and a half of water. Wash with 
the hot preparation, then dry the hair and 
''calp with warm cloths. 

The yolk of an egg cleans the head thor¬ 
oughly and causes the hair to grow. Only 
the scalp should be rubbed with the yolk, 
and the head rinsed in hot water. The 
beaten white of eggs is also recommended 
as a simple and efficacious preparation for 
cleansing the hair. Rub the scalp, and rinse 
in hot water. 

The custom of shampooing originated in 
England. Take one quart of cold or hot 
water into which is melted thirty grammes 
of carbonate of soda and fifteen grammes of 
soap, cut into small pieces. Add a few 
drops of perfume and thirty grammes of 
spirits of wine. After washing with this 
preparation, rinse the hair in warm water. 
Afterward rub the hair and scalp until dry 
with warm towels. 

The hair should always be thoroughly 
and rapidly dried. After drying, let it hang 
loosely on the shoulders for an hour or two 
if necessary. 

Hair, especially gray, may be cleansed 
with powder. Afterward, it should be care¬ 
fully brushed. This is an excellent method, 
though it is difficult to remove the traces of 
powder from dark hair. 

Diseases of the Hair. 

Dandruff is not only very disagreeable, 
but produces baldness. Before resorting to 
medical treatment for this disease, which is 
sometimes obstinate, because it depends on 
a bad state of health, try one of the following 
simple remedies : First, melt sixty grammes 
of crystallized soda in a quart of water ; add 
thirty grammes of cologne water. Moisten 
the hairbrush in the liquid and pass it each 
day over the affected part. Second, a phy¬ 
sician recommends the application of lemon 
juice to the scalp. Keep the juice as much 
as possible from the hair. Third, take ten 
grammes of Panama wood ; boil in a pint of 
rain-water. Wash the affected parts with 


this decoction two or three times each 
week. 

When the hair falls out without apparent 
cause, it is diseased. This is the case when 
the ends split. Sorrow causes the hair to 
fall out. For this there is no remedy save 
time and forgetfulness, and happier days. 

An animal is known to be unhealthy if 
its hair is not soft and shiny. It is the same 
with men and women, and if this is the case 
it is important to consider the sffite of the 
health. A good treatment for hair under 
these circumstances is to rub the scalp with 
soap and a mixture of castor-oil, sweet 
almond, and tannin. 

When, after cases of short and severe ill¬ 
ness or long-continued ill-health, the hair 
falls out, as the saying goes, “ by the hand¬ 
ful,” it should be cut quite short and kept 
clipped for at least a twelvemonth, rubbing 
the scalp regularly with some wash possess¬ 
ing tonic qualities. 

Another point to be carefully noted is the 
manner of cutting the hair. The weakest 
and thinnest growth, when the hair has a 
marked tendency to fall out, is almost invari¬ 
ably along the central parting and about the 
crown. At these parts, therefore, the hair 
should be clipped more frequently than any¬ 
where else, and the utmost care should be 
used to keep the hairs on the top of the head 
shorter than at the sides and back, -where the 
growth is stronger. Unfortunately, how¬ 
ever, the opposite course is generally pur¬ 
sued, the locks at the sides and back being 
oftep. very closely clipped, while the hair on 
the crown and along the parting is left quite 
long. 

Grease must never be used ; it will fill 
the pores of the skin and injure the delicate 
new growth. A weak solution of the essen¬ 
tial oils of thyme or rosemary, strong rose¬ 
mary tea, or ammonia, very much diluted 
with water, may be rubbed in to stimulate 
the growth. 

Baldness. 

Baldness is not so serious a matter to a 
man as to a woman, for he has the comfort 
of knowing that he has many companions in 
his misery. 

But a bald woman is really to be pitied. 
It is impossible to accept such a misfortune 
with resignation; she must conceal it by 



BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


327 


every means in her power. She is often 
compelled to resort to a wig, or to caps such 
as are worn by dowagers. 

The growing tendency to baldness among 
women has been attributed to the use of hot 
irons for crimping ; to false hair ; to over¬ 
heating the scalp by head-dresses. It is, 
perhaps, still more due to the use of dyes. 

We no longer wait for gray hairs, but 
vary the color of the hair to suit our caprices, 
and quite frequently the brunette of to-day 
may appear to-morrow with golden or even 
red hair. Those who have black hair some¬ 
times stain it mahogany color. Blondes 
whose hair is growing darker lighten it by 
the use of oxygenated water, which removes 
the color. Many woman will resort to any 
means rather than allow the hair to grow 
gray naturally. Such practices are much to 
be condemned. Let us remain as we are, 
content to grow old gracefully. 

Remedies for Falling Hair. 

The juice of a lemon applied to the scalp 
is said to be a remedy for the falling out of 
dark hair. 

The following recipe has been used suc¬ 
cessfully : Wash the head each night, rub¬ 
bing in carefully the following mixture : 
one teaspoonful of salt and one gramme 
and a half of quinine, added to a pint of 
brandy; mix well. 

The following remedy has also been used 
with good results: Steep three common 
onions in a quart of rum for twenty-four 
hours; remove the onions and apply the 
liquor to the scalp every second day. The 
slight odor of onions soon disappears. 

The English medical j ournal, The Lancet , 
recommends the following pomatum : Tinc¬ 
ture of jaborandi, fifteen grammes; lan- 
oline, nine grammes; glycerine, sixty 
grammes. Mix with a little soft soap, and 
apply to the scalp every night. 

Good results have been also obtained by 
using walnut leaves steeped in water. Dip 
a small sponge into the liquid, and moisten 
the scalp each night. In the morning use 
the following prescription : Perfumed soft 
animal fat, sixty grammes; tannin, two 
grammes ; tincture benzoin, six grammes. 

After an illness it is unwise to shave the 
bead. The hair will not fall out if cut at 


intervals of three weeks. Each time a cer¬ 
tain quantity must be cut, proportionate to 
the whole length of the hair ; the last cut¬ 
ting should be about to the lobe of the ear. 
False hair should not be worn, as it some¬ 
times causes total baldness. From the day 
on which the hair is first cut, the head must 
be rubbed with a mixture of equal parts of 
rum and castor-oil. Hot sage tea is also 
recommended, provided the head is well 
dried with a warm towel. 

Cleansing of Combs and Brushes. 

Nothing is better for cleansing brushes 
than ammonia; it does not soften the bristles, 
as soap and soda do. Put a teaspoonful of 
ammonia into a quart of water, and soak 
the bristles in the solution (keeping the 
ivory, bone, or varnished back out of the 
water). The brush must then be rinsed in 
fresh water and dried in the air, but not in 
the sun. 

Combs should never be washed. They 
may be cleansed by passing a coarse thread 
or card between the teeth. There is also a 
small brush which is used for cleaning 
combs. 

The greatest cleanliness is necessary for 
all articles used for dressing the hair. 

If you use ammonia in your bath, avoid 
wetting the hair except when necessary, 
because ammonia fades the hair. 

Care of the Eyes. 

Never rub the eyes, for this practice 
causes inflammation of the lids, and how¬ 
ever beautiful the expression, if the eyes 
are red or without lashes, they lose their 
charm. 

Avoid all ointments, washes, etc., not 
prescribed by a good physician or oculist. 
It is impossible too strongly to denounce 
the use of so-called “ eye-beautifiers,. *■ 
Many women have ruined their eyes froni 
just such folly. 

If the eyelids are inflamed, wash them 
in rose-water and plantain. The juice of 
the strawberry strained through a piece of 
linen is very efficacious. 

An old physician has advised the use of 
elderberry-water for the painful itching 
sometimes felt in the eyes. 




328 


BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


A physician recommends the following 
prescription : One quart of soft water, a 
pinch of common salt, a spoonful of brandy. 
Allow it to dissolve. Shake well before 
using. This wash will strengthen the sight 
and restore its powers. 

A skillful oculist says that the eyes 
should be bathed night and morning. Cold 
water will serve while young, but after 
middle age use water as hot as the hands 
can bear ; rinse with cold water afterward. 
This is recommended as a great preservative 
of the strength of the eyes. 

However strong the eyes may be, give 
them a little rest after a few hours’ continu¬ 
ous use. Never force them to gaze at minute 
objects when they are weak ; never read, 
write, or sew with too dim a light. During 
all continuous work close the eyes at inter¬ 
vals for a short time. The light should fall 
from the side or over the shoulder, not full 
in the face. Never read or write while 
lying down. Do not read while traveling 
or walking, or while physically tired. 
Hygienic conditions, sobriety, the avoid¬ 
ance of all excesses, are rewarded by good 
eyesight. 

Care of the Teeth. 

Cleanliness is one of the surest means 
for overcoming the causes which lead to the 
destruction of the teeth. They should be 
carefully brushed night and morning ; it is 
a good practice to rinse the mouth after 
each meal, if possible ; the particles of food 
which lodge between the teeth decompose 
and cause, sooner or later, the abominable 
tartar which is so fatal to teeth. 

Some persons use cold water in cleans¬ 
ing the teeth and rinsing the mouth. I ad¬ 
vise warm water for both purposes. One 
should use an infusion of mint or the fol¬ 
lowing mixture : Three grammes of borax 
and nine grammes of pure glycerine, in a 
quart of warm water. The first and more 
simple wash is the better. 

It is sufficient to brush the teeth with 
soap two or three times each week (without 
interfering with the daily cleansing). For 
this a very pure soap should be used. It is 
not an agreeable process, but one soon be¬ 
comes used to it, and the results are very 
desirable. Soap contains alkali, and alkalies 


are highly recommended foi the teeth. 
They are antiseptic, and. therefore, very 
useful for the mouth. Soap removes the 
deposits on the teeth, which many of the 
most famous powders do not, except by 
destroying the enamel which protects them. 

Teeth should not be brushed too long at 
a time. Doing this injures the gums, and 
in this way the teeth may be loosened. 
The upper teeth should be brushed from 
above downwards (from the gums toward 
the edges), the lower teeth from below up¬ 
wards. The inside of the teeth should be 
as carefully brushed as the outside. 

The gums must be well cared for, for 
when they are healthy there is a better 
chance that the teeth will be healthy also. 

When they are soft the following pow¬ 
der will harden them : Peruvian bark, fif¬ 
teen grammes; powdered ratanhia, six 
grammes; chlorate of potassa, five 
grammes. These powders should be well 
mixed so as to form but one, with which 
the gums should be rubbed three or four 
times daily. 

The gums must be gradually accustomed 
to vigorous friction. When soft, gums 
bleed easily. They should be washed in 
an infusion of gentian or blackberry leaves, 
into which are put a few drops of the 
tincture of Peruvian bark, or cologne. 
Lemon juice also has excellent effects on 
gums which are soft, or even where there is 
ulceration. Dip a little soft brush in the 
juice, and carefully pass over the sore 
places without touching the teeth. Paint¬ 
ing the gums with a tincture of ratanhia 
and the tincture of pyrethrum in equal 
parts is often recommended. Apply at 
night. 

A decoction of myrrh, tannin, and oak 
bark is an excellent astringent for tender or 
bleeding gums. 

There are foods which injure the teeth— 
sugar, sweets, pastry, etc. The abuse of 
acids destroys the enamel of the teeth. 
Figs, like sugar, relax and soften the 
gums ; oils, natural fat, or grease, do them 
no good. 

Be careful not to drink anything very 
cold immediately after swallowing soup. 
The teeth will suffer from the violeu': 
change of temperature. 



BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


329 


Care of the Hands. 

In doing housework or gardening, old 
gloves which have lost their freshness and 
grown large by use may be worn. They 
will protect the hands from the effects of 
the air, and keep them clean. Too frequent 
washing is open to objection, but there are 
many labors which cannot be performed 
with covered hands, and in that case they 
must be washed as often as necessary. A 
perfectly pure soap should be used. A little 
almond meal may be put into the warm 
water in which the hands are washed, and 
if they are much soiled a little borax or 
ammonia may be added. 

The roughest hands will be softened if 
care is given them before retiring at night. 
It scarcely requires five minutes to efface 
the traces which the rudest labor may have 
left on the hands. And the necessary 
articles are not expensive. A nail brush, a 
box of rose paste, a box of nail powder, a 
vial of ammonia, almond meal, and French 
amandine and a lemon are useful. 

If a callous spot forms on the inside of the 
hand it must be rubbed, as patiently and for 
as long a time as may be necessary, with 
pumice stone. The operation preserves the 
softness of the hand and the delicacy of touch. 

Stains may be removed by lemon, borax, 
or ammonia, according to their nature. 
When the hands have been perfectly 
cleansed, rub them with French amandine. 
Wear gloves while sweeping. 

If glycerine were not injurious to many 
skins it would be excellent. The following 
mixture will be acceptable to those who can 
use glycerine: The yolk of an egg, six 
grammes of glycerine, seven grammes of 
borax. Mix .well. Rub the hands with 
this salve, and cover them with gloves. 
Almond meal will do as well. 

If the hands are very rough, and have 
been much used, cold-cream may be em¬ 
ployed with great advantage at the begin¬ 
ning of the daily treatment which has been 
suggested. After using for one month the 
hands will be sufficiently improved to need 
only almond meal. 

Women who do no domestic work may 
keep their hands white by simply washing 
them night and morning in bran-water. 


Washing the Hands During the Day. 

Never have soiled hands, but do not wash 
oftener than necessary. Temon juice will 
remove many stains. If a little salt is added 
to this juice it is still more efficacious. 

A bit of orange or lemon skin removes 
tar stains. Care must be taken to wipe the 
hands dry immediately. Fresh tomatoes 
and strawberries, a leaf of sorrel, a little 
milk, are excellent for removing ink stains. 

Before peeling Irish potatoes, the hands 
should be well dried, and should not be 
washed immediately after. Bj this slight 
precaution they will not be stained with the 
juice of the tuber. After pating certain 
fruits and vegetables a little lemon juice re¬ 
moves all stain. The hands must first be 
moistened in water. 

To cleanse the hands after very rough 
work use a good emollient or cream. Rub 
the hands with a small quantity of the emol¬ 
lient, which will penetrate well into the 
pores of the skin and become incorporated 
with the greasy substances. Wash the 
hands in hot water and soap. This treat¬ 
ment make them very soft. 

Hands which are ‘ ‘ sanctified by labor 5 ’ 
may thus retain an agreeable appearance, 
which is not to be disdained, especially 
when it is so easily obtained. 

Moist hands are unfit for certain kinds 
of work, and are unpleasant to the touch. 

To keep the hands agreeably dry, rub 
the palms several times each day with a 
cloth soaked in the following preparation : 
Cologne water, seventy grammes ; tincture 
of belladonna, fifteen grammes. 

Hands which have a tendency to per¬ 
spire too freely when exposed to the slight¬ 
est heat may be washed in water in which a 
little powdered alum has been dissolved. 

Sunburned Hands. 

At the close of summer, hands which 
have been kissed too often by the sun are a 
source of annoyance. The present rage for 
out-of-door sports, such as croquet, lawn 
tennis, sailing and rowing, has played havoc 
with many fair hands. The sunburned 
hand is in harmony with the life led in 
summer. On returning to town and re¬ 
suming laces and silks the contrast is not 



330 


BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


pleasing. One is tempted too late to regret 
not having worn gloves. 

Time is a certain cure for sunburn. 
When it is impossible to wait, there are 
other remedies which it may be well to try ; 
lemon juice and glycerine mixed, or a paste 
made of corn starch and glycerine, or simply 
buttermilk. The acidity of the latter is said 
to remove freckles and sunburn, and the oil 
contained in it is beneficial and softening to 
the skin. 

Chapped Hands. 

For children, and even for many grown 
persons, winter is the time for chapped 
hands. It requires but little care to avoid 
the suffering which results from chapped 
skin. It is essential that the hands should 
be thoroughly dried each time they are 
washed, and never exposed, when moist, 
either to cold or to the heat of the fire. 

Women who are occupied with house¬ 
hold cares, who paint, or are engaged in 
similar occupations, are obliged to wash 
their hands frequently, and in order to save 
time they are often careless about drying 
them ; the result is a rough, red skin. 
Never neglect to dry your hands as thor¬ 
oughly as possible. They may also be 
manipulated before the fire until soft and 
flexible. 

Rubbing the hands with amandine before 
retiring preserves them from the disastrous 
effects of cold or heat to which they may 
have been subjected. They must not be 
washed in cold water, as this predisposes 
them to chapping, but very hot water is not 
good for them either. People who have not 
moist skins should be especially careful to 
dry the hands thoroughly after washing. 
They may afterward be covered with cold- 
cream or amandine, which should be wiped 
off with a soft towel. 

Where these precautions are not taken 
and the hands are neglected, a cure may be 
effected by the following treatment: Wash 
the hands in hot water and anoint them well 
with amandine, honey paste, or cold-cream. 
Rub the hands together, interlacing the fin¬ 
gers, until they become soft and are no 
longer easily hurt when struck against any 
hard substance. Afterward it will be neces¬ 
sary to remove the grease by washing them 


in warm water with a few drops of ammonia 
and a pure soap. Change the water several 
times. Then apply to the hands the follow¬ 
ing mixture : Glycerine, cologne, soft water, 
equal parts. After this process the hands 
will be soft and not at all greasy or sticky, 
as might be supposed. 

Chilblains. 

Chilblains are still more to be feared than 
chapping. A feeble temperament and bad 
nourishment are often the causes of this 
affection. One should walk a great deal, 
use the hands freely, rub the chilblain parts 
which are not bleeding with alcoholic prepa¬ 
rations, and keep hands and feet very warm. 

One would suppose the hands less deli¬ 
cate and less in need of covering than the 
face. However, everyone knows the neces¬ 
sity of protecting them from the biting cold 
of frost or wind. 

In damp and mild winters chilblains are 
most painful. There are many remedies for 
this trouble, which is not dangerous, but 
the cause of great suffering, and which will 
deform the prettiest hands in the world. 

First .—Pound the bulbs of lilies and 
place them in a vase containing nut oil. 
Apply this liniment on the sore places, and 
cover with a soft cloth. (This is excellent.) 

Second .—Honey will cicatrize open chil¬ 
blains. Anoint the parts affected, and cover 
with a soft white cloth. 

Third .—Poultice the hands at night; 
rub with the following mixture in the morn¬ 
ing : Tincture benzoin, sixty grammes; 
honey, thirty grammes; water, 210grammes. 
Mix well. 

Fourth .—Wash ulcerated chilblains with 
tincture of myrrh diluted with warm water. 

Fifth .—Anoint cracked chilblains with 
Sultana pomatum, and cover with a soft, 
fine cloth. Cracked chilblains are difficult 
to cure in winter. 

Care of the Nails. 

The nails should be cut in a curve which 
follows the shape of the end of the finger. 
Their surface should also be polished. One 
hour a week spent in caring for them is 
sufficient to keep them in good order, if 
they are rubbed and cleaned carefully each 
day. 




BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


331 


Never use a steel instrument in cleaning 
the nails, as it hardens them and causes the 
dust to accumulate beneath. Nothing is 
better than the juice of a lemon, which 
keeps the skin at the base from encroaching 
on the nail, and also prevents white spots, 
often caused by lack of care. Cold-cream 
at night, or French amandine, is excellent 
for softening the nails, and also prevents 
them from breaking off and becoming dull. 

A manicure set is indispensable for the 
proper care of the nails. It should consist 
of an ordinary nail-brush, a still smaller one 
to go under the nail, a file, a polishing¬ 
brush, curved scissors—a pair for each 
hand ; the nails of the right hand cannot be 
easily cut with scissors made for cutting the 
nails of the left hand. 

Good Taste in Dressing. 

The question of dress is one of leading 
importance in modern society, and the 
woman who affects indifference to it lacks 
judgment. A woman who presses badly 
loses half her opportunities, that is, if the 
defects in her toilet are the result of her in¬ 
difference on the subject. Mme. de Main- 
tenon asserted that good taste indicated 
good sense. 

It was also she who justly blamed 
women for overtrimming heavy stuffs and 
wearing ill-chosen ornaments. Nothing 
can be more ridiculous than ornaments out 
of place. A gown of cheap material, if 
well made, is often pretty, though simple 
and unpretentious. 

Short, stout women should never wear 
gowns of rough, shaggy materials. Skirts 
made of them fall in stiff and ungraceful 
folds, and the bodies are equally unbe¬ 
coming. 

Dress fabrics in woolen goods should 
always be soft to the eye and to the touch. 
China crepes, colored silks of medium 
weight, make charming costumes, and are 
to be preferred to the stiff silks ; but a black 
silk gown should be of good quality, as an 
inferior grade does not wear well and soon 
grows shabby. 

Beautiful feathers are durable and grace¬ 
ful ornaments for bonnets; cheap ones are 
poor economy. Tow-priced finery is not 
worth buying. One should never econo¬ 


mize in this way. It is never wise to buy 
one article of dress noticeably richer than 
the rest of the wardrobe. For example, a 
velvet dress is serviceable, but unless one 
can afford other costumes as elegant, it is 
out of place. 

Mixed cotton and wool goods are usually 
almost worthless. One all-woolen gown is 
worth two of them. 

Pale-blue is apt to make blondes look 
ashen. Dark-blue, on the contrary, is very 
becoming to them, and a blue velvet gown 
brings out all their delicate coloring. Neu¬ 
tral tints are very unbecoming to them. 
Brunettes with an inclination to be sallow 
will do well to avoid blue, as it makes them 
appear greenish or tawny. Green is trying 
to them unless they are very fair. It suits 
blondes perfectly, especially those who have 
color. 

Pale brunettes should affect shades of 
red, which increase their beauty. Crimson 
may be worn by blondes. Yellow is a su¬ 
perb contrast for a pale brunette, especially 
under artificial light, when it is more sub¬ 
dued than in the sunlight. This color soft¬ 
ens an olive skin, and borrows from it a 
creamy tint, harmonizing wonderfully well 
with dark hair and brilliant eyes. On the 
contrary, yellow is unbecoming to most 
blondes. 

Concerning /Esthetics. 

One must be a pretty and agreeable 
woman as well as a good wife and mother 
to keep the husband and father fond of his 
home. It is often possible to become pretty 
and agreeable by taking a little pains. 
Choose for the toilet colors which harmonize 
with the skin and hair, and wear well-fitting 
boots and gloves, also pretty home gowns, 
with sleeves arranged to show to advantage 
the white and rounded arm. 

Do not neglect a daily walk in the fresh 
air. Without this wholesome exercise it is 
impossible to retain health and beauty. Use 
your intelligence to remain pretty or to be¬ 
come so. Add physical to moral and in¬ 
tellectual culture. Superintend your house 
and busy yourself with your children. This 
activity of the body, the heart, and the 
mind, is necessary to those who desire to 
remain beautiful and beloved, 




332 


BOOK OF ETIQUETTE 


The Art of Appearing Always Young. 

As a charming old lady once said, “ To 
remain always young one must be always 
amiable.” 

A, melancholy face, a sullen or evil look, 
is like coming in contact with winter; 
whereas a serene face, a gracious air, a kind 
and good expression, are like a spring day, 
and a smile on the lips like its sunshine. 

Bulky people, you may have remarked, 
always appear to be ten years older than 
they really are. The face grows wrinkled 
from contracting the brows; the mouth 
projects disagreeably when sulking. 

Behold beside the portrait of the sullen 
woman the picture of a sweet and gracious 
woman : all her features are in repose, her 
lips form an adorable Cupid’s bow, kind¬ 
ness softens her glance, a^d goodness illu¬ 
minates her brow. 

Perhaps she is the elder, but she will 
always appear young and charming. 

Grace of Movement. 

To be graceful, harmony must govern 
our movements. 

There are women who possess in a su¬ 
perior degree the intuition of harmony, who 
select unconsciously their seats, their poses, 
according to the toilets which they wear. 
Dressed in a simple costume, they lean 
against a piece of furniture of severe style, 
or sit erect upon vu oaken chair, which is in 
complete harmony with the appearance they 
present in their tailor-made gowns. In the 
evening, robed in silks and laces, they as 
naturally select luxurious sofas, ottomans, 
and easy-chairs, which are in perfect accord 
with their costumes. This is not possible 
for the stiff, angular woman, whose move¬ 
ments are brusque and awkward. 

Those who know how to walk and carry 
themselves possess equilibrium. Perhaps 
this gift of nature has never been lost by ac¬ 
quiring bad habits, or they have recon¬ 
quered it by means of study. 

If you are inclined to stoop, walk to and 
fro with your hands behind your back when 
you are alone in the garden or house, 

Children should be taught to throw their 
shoulders back by being made to walk with 
elbows close to the body. This will natur¬ 
ally keep the chin free and the chest thrown 


' forward. The back will curve in, the 
shoulder-blades be kept in their places in¬ 
stead of projecting, the bust will arch itself, 
and the entire weight of the body be thrown 
on the hips, which is necessary for a perfect 
equilibrium. 

One should practice touching the ground 
first with the Dali of the foot, to avoid 
walking on the heels with toes in the air, 
which is ugly, clumsy, and ungraceful, ex¬ 
posing the whole system to the useless jolt¬ 
ing Nature tried to spare us when she 
formed the ball of the foot. 

When mounting a stairway or climbing 
a hill, for the sake of the lungs as well as 
to obtain a graceful carriage, both back and 
head should be held erect. 

Grace of Form. 

To retain your graceful form, then, learn 
how to carry yourself. If women would 
be more careful about this while young, 
they would have finer figures and more 
slender hips when older. The woman who 
holds herself straight, who does not draw 
her chin to the collar of her garment, who 
keeps back her shoulder-blades, and thus 
rounds out her bust, without an apparent 
effort keeps her muscles firm and flexible 
and the desired curve in place of flatness. 
Thus the heaviness which is so much 
dreaded, and which destroys all youthful¬ 
ness and grace, may be avoided. 

The woman who holds herself well, who 
throws the weight of her body on her hips 
(this cannot be too often repeated), instead 
of allowing it to be supported by the abdo¬ 
men, has the carriage of a queen, the walk 
of a nymph. Do not fear that you will ac¬ 
quire a haughty expression. On the con¬ 
trary, if your eyes are tender and your 
smile is amiable, your proud grace will not 
make you unsympathetic. 

I do not mean by this that you should 
carry your head like a peacock, or stiffen 
yourself, or strut; but hold the bust in the 
firm and straight position which nature de¬ 
signed, whether you walk, or sit, or stand. 

By following this advice you will stoop 
or lean with a thousand times more grace 
and flexibility than a woman who relaxes, 
bends, rounds her back from a mere habit 
of indifference. 




BOOK VI 


AN ENCYCLOPEDIC 
DICTIONARY 
OF COMMON THINGS 

ALPHABETICALLY arranged, telling just the things about 
EVERY-DAY SUBJECTS IN SCIENCE, ART, MECHANICS AND ABOUT COM¬ 
MON OBJECTS EVERYONE NEEDS TO KNOW, GIVING DERIVATIONS 
OF FOREIGN WORDS, ETC. AN INDISPENSABLE HELP FOR YOUNG AND 
OLD, AND ESPECIALLY FOR THE WRITER OF ESSAYS AND ARTICLES. 

A READY REFERENCE ON A THOUSAND SUBJECTS 

By 

CHARLES MORRIS, LL.D., 

Editor of Revised Edition of “ Thomas’ Biographical Dictionary,” " Handy Dictionary of Biography ” 
and Author of Numerous Works of History, Biography and Science. 


333 







4^ ‘ 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY 


OF 

COMMON THINGS 

AND OTHER USEFUL INFORMATION 


Abdomen. [U. abdomen .] In the human body 
the trunk is divided by the diaphragm into two 
cavities—the upper being the thorax or chest, 
and the lower the abdomen or belly. The abdo- 
< men contains the stomach, liver, intestines, 
spleen, pancreas, kidneys, etc. It is lined by a 
serous membrane, which is folded over the or¬ 
gans, and allows them a certain freedom of move¬ 
ment, but keeps them in their proper relations 
to each other. (See Bozuels.) 

Aca'cia. A genus of plants of the Pulse family, 
the catechu and gum-arabic trees. The 
species are numer¬ 
ous, are frequently 
thorny, and grow 
mostly in warm 
countries. Nearly 
300 species are Aus¬ 
tralian or Polynesian 
and have vertically 
compressed 1 e a f- 
stalks, instead of the 
bipinnate leaves of 
the much fewer spe¬ 
cies of Africa, etc. 
Very few are found 
in temperate cli¬ 
mates, but many are 
cultivated in green¬ 
houses for the sake of 
their flowers, which 
are of great beauty 
and often fragrant. 
The North American 
locust tree and other species of robinia are often 
called acacia in the United States and Europe, 
but wrongly. 

Accord / ion. A small musical instrument, with 
keys and bellows, the tones of which are prod¬ 
uced by the vibration of metallic springs, occas¬ 
ioned by a current of air rushing from the bel¬ 
lows through valves attached to the keys, and 
opened by the fingers of the player. 


Ace'tic Acid. [L,. acetum, vinegar; acidus,sow.r 
The most common of the vegetable acids, famil¬ 
iar to all as the sour principle in vinegar. It 
occurs in the juice of many plants, and in some 
animal secretions; but on the large scale it is 
prepared from damaged wines, by the fermenta- - 
tion of malt, or by the destructive distillation of 
wood. Pure acetic acid is prepared by the dry 
distillation of wood. The pure acid has a sour 
taste and a pungent smell, is poisonous, and burns 
the skin. In the arts it is used asa mordant in 
calico-printing, and in the preparation of certain 
varnishes. It is also used as a condiment and in 
medicine. The salts of acetic acid are called 
acetates, the most important of them being ace¬ 
tate or sugar of lead. 

Acet/ylene. [U. acetum , vinegar.] A substance 
composed of carbon and hydrogen and of remark¬ 
able powers. It is not a new discovery but has 
only lately been produced in large quantities 
from carbide of calcium, a product of the electric 
furnace. When water is thrown on this sub¬ 
stance it gives off acetylene gas. It was found 
about 1895, that this gas, when burned in a suit¬ 
able burner, would give the brightest light of 
any known gas. When placed under strong 
pressure acetylene becomes a liquid, and the gas 
which arises from this is burned in suitable lamps, 
yielding a light twelve times as bright as that of 
ordinary coal gas. But this new light has not 
come into much use, for there is danger of ex¬ 
plosion. Acetylene has other uses, for a great 
many chemical substances can be made from it, 
belonging to what are called the hydrocarbons. 

Achromat/ic. [Gk. achroniatos , colorless.] Free 
from color (applied to lenses, telescopes and 
microscopes); transmitting light without decom¬ 
posing it into its primary colors .—Achromatic 
lens , a combination of two dissimilar substances, 
as crown and flint glass, so arranged that the 
chromatic aberration produced by the one i9 
corrected by the other, and light passes unde¬ 
composed. 



335 







33 6 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


Ac'id. [L. acidus , sour.] A general term used 
in chemistry to designate a special group of sub¬ 
stances, mostly, but not always, oxygen com¬ 
pounds. The chief distinguishing property of 
acids, and one which is common to all of them, 
is that of combining with bases to form salts. 
They are also distinguished by their sour or acid 
taste, and by the power of turning blue vegetable 
colors into red. These blue colors are litmus, 
syrup of violets or of radishes. When these 
blues have been changed into green by an alkali, 
their color is restored by an acid. 

A'corn. [AS. cecern , from cecer , a field.] The 

seed or fruit of the oak, growing in a woody cup. 
Acorns contain starch and oil, and generally have 
a bitter taste. They are eaten freely by swine, 
while the fruit of some species are sweet and 
nutritious and are eaten by man. The oil has 
been used in cookery and for other purposes. 

Ad'der. [AS.] A name often applied to the com¬ 
mon viper, as well as to other kinds of venomous* 
reptiles or serpents. In North America the term 
adder is commonly applied to several harmless 
snakes. 

Adulteration. [T. adulteratio, corruption.] The 
mixing of foreign substances with articles of food 
and drugs, of water with milk, etc., for the pur¬ 
pose of defrauding customers. This is a very 
common practice, and often renders drugs use¬ 
less and food injurious, if not poisonous. Many 
laws have been passed to check it, but not with 
full effect. 

Aeo / Iian Harp. [T. sEolus, the god of the wind.] 
A box of very thin wood, with strings of catgut 
or other vibratory material stretched across it, 
and sounding holes cut in the top. When placed 
in a current of air, as in a window between the 
raised sash and the sill, it yields a music sweet in 
tone, but usually sad in character. 

Aerolite. [Gk. aer, air, and lithos , a stone.] A 
meteoric stone that comes into the atmosphere 

from space and falls 
to the earth. It is 
of the same nature 
as the shooting stars, 
small particles, which 
become so hot from 
friction with the at¬ 
mosphere that they 
are burned up. Aero¬ 
lites are very hot 
when they first fall. 
They are largely 
- made up of pure iron, 

but contain also nickel, silicon, and other ele¬ 
ments. Some very large ones have been found 
weighing many hundreds of pounds. 

Afterglow. The brilliant twilight colors often 
seen after sunset. These are of red and yellow 
tints and sometimes are very lasting. If seen 
before sunset they are called Toreglows. 

Ag'ate. [T. achates; so called from the name of 
the river Achates in Sicily, where it was first 
found.] A variety of quartz, found in loose 
rounded pieces in rocks, or as loose pebbles in 
beds of rivers or gravel. Wood may be converted 



into agate by infiltration with waters carrying 
silica in solution, as in the celebrated petrified 
forest of Arizona. Agates show various tints in 
the same specimen, and the colors are delicately 
arranged in stripes or bands, or blended in clouds. 
They take a fine polish, and are much used in the 
manufacture of rings, seals, beads, handles of 
knives and forks, cups, smelling bottles, and 
many other ornamental articles. Burnishers for 
polishing, used by bookbinders, are made of agate. 

Aga've. The name of a genus of plants growing 
in tropical America. The principal species is 
known as the American Aloe, or century plant, 
under the idea that it blooms but once in a hun¬ 
dred years. This is a mistake, its period of 
blooming being about ten years. It is called 
maguey by the Mexicans, who distil from its sap 
an intoxicating drink. The coarse thread called 
sisal hemp is made from the fibres of its leaves. 

A'gue. [T. aculus , sharp.] An intermittent fever, 
consisting of hot and cold stages in succession, 
with an intermediate period. It comes on at 
fixed periods, one, two, three, or more days 
apart. It is now generally known as malarial 
fever. Tong supposed to be due to marsh miasma, 
it is now traced to a bacterial germ, and there 
is much reason to believe that the mosquito is 
the carrier of this germ, which it injects into 
man with its bite. 

Air. [Fr., from Gk. aer, air \ aein, to blow.] The 
gaseous fluid which we breathe and which sur¬ 
rounds the earth. It is a mixture of oxygen and 
nitrogen, with a small amount of carbon dioxide, 
the average proportions being, by volume : oxy¬ 
gen, 20.96 percent.; nitrogen, 79.00 per cent.; 
carbon dioxide, 0.04 percent. (See Atmosphere; 
Compressed Air ; Liquid Air.) 

Air Bladder or Swim Bladder. A membranous 
sac found in most fish, which contains a quantity 
of gas, and is thought to help the fish to rise and 
sink in the water. It is very small in some fish, 
quite large in others, and wanting in sharks and 
some other fish. In some cases it is converted 
into a sort of lung and is used as a breathing 
organ. 

Air=brake. A brake now used on railroad cars 
and engines, invented in 1869, by George West- 
inghouse, of Pittsburg. Air is compressed by 
the steam of the engine boiler, and carried in 
tubes to the car wheels, where it exerts its pres¬ 
sure on the brakes when it is desired to stop the 
train. (See Brake.) 

Air=gun. A gun which uses compressed air in¬ 
stead of gunpowder to drive out the bullet. 
There is a piston to force the air into a cavity, 
and a valve opened by the trigger, which lets the 
air out against the bullet. This is driven out 
with some force. Air guns are of little use. 

Air=pump. An instrument for the withdrawal of 
air from a closed vessel, producing an empty 
space or vacuum ; in ordinary air-pumps the 
vacuum is very far from complete, and in the 
most perfect of them some air remains. Many 
interesting experiments may be performed in 
the exhausted receiver of an air-pump, such as 
the boiling of water at a much lower than the 




ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


337 


usual temperature, and the extinguishing of a 
candle, a proof that air is necessary to com¬ 
bustion. 

Alabaster. [Gk. alabastros .] A fine grained 
whitish limestone or marble. It is of two kinds, 
one of which is a carbonate of lime, the other a 
sulphate of lime or gypsum, and to the latter the 
term is now generally applied. It is carved into 
vases, mantel ornaments, statuettes, etc. 

Al batross. [Span.] A genus of large, web¬ 
footed, aquatic birds, allied to the gulls. They 
are the largest of sea-birds, capable of long-con¬ 
tinued flight, and are often seen hundreds of 
miles from land. They are found chiefly in the 
southern hemisphere. 

Albu'men or Albumin. [h. albus, white.] A 
nutritive substance found in animals; also a sup¬ 
ply of nourishing matter within the integuments 
of the seed in many plants, external to the em¬ 
bryo or germ in some, and within it in others. 
It is the floury part in wheat and other grains, 
and is a very important part of food. Albumen 
exists in many of the solids and fluids of the ani¬ 
mal body, also in many plants. It occurs in its 
purest form in the white of an egg, and in the 
serous or liquid portion of the blood. It is a yel¬ 
lowish, transparent, gum-like substance, soluble 
in cold water. One of the most characteristic 
properties of a solution of albumen is its power 
of coagulation. If a solution be heated to about 
70°, it becomes solid and opaque, aud in this 
state it is insoluble in water, but dissolves in 
dilute alkalies. 

Al'cherny. [Ar. Alkimia.'] A pretended art 
arising from chemistry, by which it is sought to 
make gold or silver out of baser materials, or to 
produce a universal medicine. The conversion 
into gold was to be effected by what was called 
the philosophers' stone. Alchemy was practiced 
for many centuries, but its only important re¬ 
sult was the discovery of various chemical ele¬ 
ments, such as sulphuric, nitric and muriatic 
acids. 

Al'cohol. [Fr., from Arab.] A volatile organic 
substance produced during the fermentation of 
vegetable juices which contain sugar. It is a 
colorless, limpid liquid, possessing an agreeable 
smell and burning taste; is very inflammable, 
and burns with a bluish flame. It is used for 
thermometers in measuring low temperatures, 
and can be employed down to -39 F. It is pre¬ 
pared from spirituous liquors by successive dis¬ 
tillations. The alcohol being more volatile than 
water, comes off first; but it cannot be entirely 
separated from water by this process, since the 
strongest spirit so obtained contains 10 per cent, 
of water. To obtain pure alcohol, this water has 
to be removed by distilling the spirit with some 
substance capable of combining with water, such 
as quicklime or potassium carbonate. To the 
chemist alcohol is very useful as a solvent, and 
in medicine as a solvent and antiseptic agent. It 
is the alcohol in spirits, wines, and malt liquors 
to which the intoxicating effects of these bever¬ 
ages are due. I11 chemistry the term alcohols is 
applied to a considerable number of liquids 

22 C 


which resemble ordinary alcohol in certain 
chemical reactions, aud include methyl, propyl, 
and various other compounds. 

AFder. [AS. air or aler, L. alnusl\ A genus 
of plants, consisting of trees aud shrubs, grow¬ 
ing chiefly in moist soils. The wood is used 
by turners, and is very valuable for mill-wheels 
aud other wood-work under water. It affords the 
best kinds of charcoal for making gunpowder, 
aud its bark is used by dyers and tanners. 

Ale. [AS.] A liquor made from an infusion of 
pale malted barley by fermentation with a bitter, 
usually hops. (See Beer.) 

AFgebra. [Arab, al-jebr , reduction of parts 
to a whole.] A sort of universal arithmetic, 
in which the unknown terms are expressed by 
letters of the alphabet, and dealt with as if 
known. By this means very intricate problems 
can be solved, which would be impossible with 
ordinary figures. In the higher mathematics 
algebra is of extreme importance. 

Alizarine. [Fr. alizarine.~\ A peculiar coloring 
principle obtained from madder, and now pro¬ 
duced artificially from the coal-tar product an¬ 
thracene. It is the coloring matter used in the 
dyeing of Turkey red. 

AFkali. [Arab.] The name applied in chemistry 
to a class of bodies possessing the following 
common properties:—(1) They have the power 
of turning vegetable blue colors green, aud 
vegetable yellows brown ; (2) they restore the 
color to a blue solution which has been reddened 
by an acid ; (3) they have a strong affinity for 
acids, combining with them to form salts which 
possess neither acid nor alkaline properties— 
hence an acid and an alkali are said to neutralize 
one another ; (4) they are all soluble in water. 
The alkalies proper are four in number—potash, 
soda, lithia and ammonia. They exert a power¬ 
fully corrosive action on animal and vegetable 
substances. As bicarbonates they are often used 
along with carbonic acid to correct acidity of the 
stomach. 



AFligator. [Span, el legarto, the lizard.] A large 
American reptile of the Crocodile family. It has 
a shorter and broader snout than the crocodile, 
and the large teeth of the lower jaw fit into pits 





33 * 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY 01 COMMON THINGS 


in the edge of the upper jaw, which has no 
notches. Alligators vary in length from 2 to 20 
feet, the head being about one-seventh of the 
entire length. They embrace three genera, the 
alligator, abundant in Florida, and the caiman 
and jacare, found in tropical South America. 
The caiman is also found in Mexico. Their 
principal food is fish, but they catch and devour 
land animals, as the sheep and pig, and some¬ 
times even men. An alligator lays from 50 to 60 
large eggs in a hollow in the mud, covered over 
with grass and reeds, and leaves them to be 
hatched by the sun. The young take to the 
water as soon as hatched, being carefully tended 
by the mother alligator. The skin when tanned 
makes good leather for boots and shoes. 

Alloys'. [Fr. a loi , from R. ad legem , according 
to rule.] The name given to the mixtures which 
result from fusing different metals with each 
other. Both gold and silver when pure are too 
soft for the manufacture of plate, coin, or jewelry; 
but when mixed with a small percentage of 
copper, they are rendered harder and more 
durable, without suffering any loss in color. 
One of the most useful alloys in the arts is brass. 
It consists of zinc and copper, and the proportion 
of each metal in the compound is regulated to 
suit the quality of the brass required. Among 
the important alloys of copper and tin are (1) 
bronze, containing 90 parts of copper and 10 of 
tin ; (2) bell-metal, containing 80 parts of copper 
and 20 of tin ; (3) speculum-metal, containing 67 
parts of copper and 33 of tin. Type-metal varies 
somewhat in its composition ; one variety con¬ 
sists of 80 parts of lead and 20 of antimony. 
Aluminium-bronze and nickel-steel are important 
recent alloys. The alloys of other metals with 
mercury are termed amalgams , and the process of 
amalgamation has long been employed in separ¬ 
ating fine gold from other materials. 

AIFspice. From a tree of the Myrtle tribe, a 
native of the West Indies, allspice, or Jamaica 
pepper, is obtained. Allspice is the dried berry; 
it is so called because it is considered to have the 
flavorof cloves, cinnamon, andnutmeg combined. 
It is mildly pungent and agreeably aromatic. 

AF manac. A book or pamphlet telling the 
divisions of the year into months, weeks, and 
days, the times of rising and setting of the sun 
and moon, movements of the tides, eclipses, and 
other information about the earth and the stars. 
Almanacs formerly pretended to foretell the 
weather, but only ignorant persons beleived 
this. Almanacs are now published giving many 
facts of official and other kinds. ‘ ‘ Poor Richard’s 
Almanack,” published by Benjamin Franklin in 
1732, is a well-known and interesting almanac. 
It was published for 25 years and was filled with 
wise and pithy sayings, inculcating industry and 
frugality as helps to virtue. 

AFmond. [Fr., from Gk. amygdalon.\ The fruit 
of the almond tree, a native of the East and of 
Africa, grown in the countries around the Med¬ 
iterranean, and of late years produced in large 
quantities in California. The fruit or nut is 
covered with a hard green shell, which dries as it 


ripens, and finally bursts open and lets the 
almond drop out. The principal varieties in 
cultivation are the sweet, bitter, thin-shelled, 
thick-shelled, and Jordan almonds. Sweet 
almonds are used in confectionery and for dessert. 
They contain a large quantity of a bland fixed 
oil, are of a very agreeable taste, and very nutri¬ 
tious. Bitter almonds contain a substance called 
amygdalin, from which a peculiar volatile oil is 
obtained. The Jordan almonds, brought from 
Malaga, are the finest. Almond wood is a very 
hard, dense wood, something like lignum vitae. 
It is used for the teeth and bearings of wooden 
cog-wheels. 

AFoe. [R. aloe.'] A genus of succulent trees and 
shrubs of many species, but the greater number 
having the habit and appearance of evergreen 
herbaceous plants. They are natives of warm 
climates, and flower only once, after a growth of 
from fifty to one hundred years. The fibres of 
the leaves are manufactured into thread, cords, 
and nets, and stockings are woven from the fibres 
of a species found in Jamaica. But aloes are 
chiefly valuable for their medicinal properties, 
the drug called aloes being obtained from the 
juice of several species. 

Alpac'a. An animal of Peru, having long, fine, 
woolly hair; a species of llama ( q. v.). The 
thin cloth called alpaca is woven out of alpaca 
wool, mixed with silk or cotton. 

AFphabet. [Gk. Alpha and Beta , the first two 
letters of the Greek alphabet.] The name given 
to the series of letters of which the words of any 
language are made up. Alphabets are very 
ancient, and every civilized nation has one of its 
own. In the Hebrew there are letters for the 
consonants only. Some alphabets have a letter 
for each syllable, and the Chinese have a character 
for every word. The English alphabet has 
twenty-six letters. Some have fewer and some 
more, the Russian having thirty-six. 

AFom. [R. alumen.] A white saline compound 
used in dyeing and many other industrial 
processes. Chemically it is known as a double 
sulphate of potassium and aluminium. It 
has an astringent and sweetish taste, turns 
vegetable blue colors red, dissolves in water and 
melts when heated. When more strongly heated 
it loses its water of crystallization, leaving the 
white substance known as burnt alum, which is 
used as a caustic. It has many highly important 
uses in the 'arts, as a mordant in dyeing, etc., and 
in medicine it is of great use as an astringent in 
stopping bleeding. Wood and paper which have 
been dipped in a solution of alum are less liable 
to catch fire. 

Alumin'ium. [R. alumen.] A white metal, 
somewhat like silver in appearance. It occurs 
chemically combined in all the older rocks and 
in clay. It is very malleable, and therefore 
capable of being hammered into thin sheets or 
drawn into fine wire. Being highly sonorous, it 
is a suitable substance for bells. It is very light, 
being only 2j£ times heavier than water, and 
therefore 4 times lighter than silver. It melts 



ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


339 


when heated to redness, and has no action on 
water at ordinary temperatures. On account of 
its bright lustre, hardness, and malleability, it is 
largely used for jewelry, for balance beams, and 
in making sextants and other astronomical in¬ 
struments, and on account of its lightness for 
many other purposes. It forms alloys with most 
of the metals. It was first discovered in 1828, 
and was not produced in commercial quantities 
until 1855. It is now cheaply produced by elec¬ 
tricity. 

AmaFgam. [Fr., from Gk. malagma , a plaster.] 
An alloy of mercury with another metal or 
metals. Amalgams are largely made use of in 
the arts. Metals are sometimes gilded by wash¬ 
ing them with an amalgam of gold and mercury; 
the mercury is then driven off by heat, leaving 
the gold on the metal. 

ArrFber, [Arab]. A hard, yellow, translucent 
resin, found as a fossil in beds of lignite, in 
alluvial soils, and on sea-coasts, especially the 
Prussian coast of the Baltic. It takes a fine 
polish, and is much used for making ornaments, 
such as necklaces, earrings, pendants, and beads; 
for the mouth-pieces of pipes and cigar-holders, 
and for burning for perfume. It is also used as 
a basis for a fine varnish. By friction it becomes 
strongly electric. 

ArrFbergris. [Fr. ambre gris , gray amber.] A 
substance found floating in the sea or thrown 
upon the coasts in warm climates, and also in the 
intestines of the sperm whale, which is believed 
to be in all cases its true origin. The floating 
masses are sometimes from 60 to 250 lbs. in 
weight. In color it is gray, yellow, white, or 
black, and often variegated like marble. It is 
much used in perfumery, and to improve the 
flavor of wines and cordials. In Asia and Africa 
it is used as a medicine, also as a condiment in 
cooking. 

AnFethyst. [F. amethystus, from Gk. amethys- 
ios, without drunkenness, because the ancients 
believed that liquor drunk out of cups made 
of amethyst would not intoxicate.] A variety 
of rock-crystal or quartz, of a purple or bluish- 
violet color, much used as a precious stone for 
rings, seals and other ornaments. 

Ammo / nia. [Gk. Ammon, a name of Jupiter.] A 
chemical compound of hydrogen and nitrogen, 
containing three atoms of the former to one of 
the latter. It is an alkaline substance ; but as it 
differs from the other alkalies (see Alkali) in 
being gaseous, it is often called the volatile 
alkali. The gas is colorless, and has a very 
strong and pungent smell, by which it is easily 
recognized. It is found in minute quantities in 
the air, being evolved during the putrefaction 
of animal and vegetable substances. Traces of it 
are also found in rain-water and in the breath. 
Water absorbs it readily, hence ammonia is said 
to be very soluble in water. The solution is 
known to chemists as liquor ammonia , and in 
shops it is sometimes sold under the name of 
hartshorn. Fiquor ammonite is sometimes used 
in medicine ; it has a stimulating action on the 
breathing*, and is useful in alleviating spasms, 


and to some extent in counteracting the effects 
arising from the bites of snakes and poisonous 
insects. By the evaporation of liquid ammonia 
great cold is produced, and this fact is utilized 
in the manufacture of ice in ice-machines. 

AnFuIet. [F. amuletum. ] An ornament or any 
object which is worn as a safeguard against 
enchantment, disease, or ill fortune. It is gener¬ 
ally inscribed with mystical characters. Amulets 
were greatly used in the past, and are still in use 
among undeveloped peoples. 

Anafomy, Comparative. [Gk. anatome , dis¬ 
section.] The study of the structure of ani¬ 
mals, and comparison of their various organs 
with one another and with those of man. 
It is by this study that animals are separated 
into families, genera, species, and other divisions. 
Human anatomy is confined to the study of the 
bony skeleton, muscles, nerves, and other organs 
of man. 

Anaesthetic. [Gk. an , in-; aislhesis, sensibility.] 
A chemical substance capable of producing 
insensibility, much used to prevent pain in 
surgical operations. Nitrous oxide was first 
used in tooth drawing in 1844. Ether was used 
for the same purpose in 1846, and chloroform 
and other substances later. Now no important 
surgical operation is performed without an anaes¬ 
thetic. Focal anaesthesia can be produced by 
cocaine, by freezing the surface with a spray of 
ether or chloride of ethel, and in other ways. 

Ancho / vy. [Span, anchova. ] A small fish of the 
Herring family, but not more than three inches 
long, caught in vast numbers in the Mediterra¬ 
nean, and pickled for exportation. The fisher¬ 
men go out during the night, carrying torches 
in their boats. The fish see the light, and swim 
up to the boats in great numbers, when they are 
scooped up with nets. 

AnemonFeter. [Gk. anemos , wind ; and inetron, 
a measure.] A wind-measurer, to show both the 

pressure and the 



the 

pres- 


velocity of 

wind. A 
sure anemometer 
measures the 
force of the wind 
on a plate one 
foot square attached to one 
end of a spiral spring placed 
I horizontally. The plate, 

by the action of the wind, 
is pressed against the 
spring, which yields, and 
by a pencil traces a curve 
on a strip of paper placed 
below it. Another pencil 
connected with the vane 
records the changes in the direction of the wind. 
Thervelocity of the wind is indicated by the 
revolution of wheels, the number of whose turns 
is recorded automatically. 

AnenFonei [Gk. anemos , the wind.] So named 
because the flower was thought to open only 
when the wind blows. A genus of plants belong¬ 
ing to the Buttercup family. There are several 











34 ° 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS > 


species, one of which has a flower, white inter¬ 
nally, more or less purple externally. Sea 
Anemone is the name given to certain ocean 
animals, of the Polyp family, which bear some 
resemblance to flowers. 

An'eroid. (See Barometer.) [Gk. a y not; neros , 
wet; and eidos , form.] A barometer whose 

action depends on 
the varying pres¬ 
sure of the atmos¬ 
phere upon the 
elastic top of a 
metallic box from 
which the air has 
been exhausted. 
By a system of 
levers connected 
with the box, and 
an internal spring, 
motion is given 
to an index, 
which registers 
the variation of 
atmospheric pres¬ 
sure. 

An'iline. [Ar. annil , for alnil , the indigo plant.] 
Aniline was first prepared from indigo in 1826, 
and takes its name from anil , the Portuguese 
word for indigo. It is now derived from the dis¬ 
tillation of coal-tar. It is a colorless liquid, 
possessing a peculiar smell, and slightly heavier 
than water, and boils at a temperature of 36o°F. 
The aniline of commerce was first obtained in 
1858 by a Mr. Perkin, in the preparation of a 
dye-stuff derived from aniline. This was known 
as mauve or Perkin’s blue. Every shade and tint 
of color are produced by the aniline dyes, which 
are used not only in dyeing, but in preparing 
colored inks, in manufacturing colored papers, 
in printing wall-paper, and in coloring soaps, 
perfumer and cosmetics. 

An'imal. [L,. animal a living being; anima , 
breath.] A living being with an organized ma¬ 
terial body, and endowed with the powers of sen¬ 
sation and voluntary motion. All animals are 
classed together in one great body called the 
Animal Kingdom, which is separated into a num¬ 
ber of sub kingdoms or grand divisions, of which 
the highest is the vertebrata, or animals with an 
internal skeleton. 

Ant. [Contracted from the Saxon word emmet .] 
An insect of the family Formicidce , which em¬ 
braces between two and three thousand different 
forms, widely distributed in temperate and tropi¬ 
cal countries. Ants usually live together in 
swarms, sometimes many thousands in number, 
and are distinguished from insects generally by 
their extraordinary intelligence. Among them, 
as among bees, there are workers, besides the 
males and females. The females are the largest, 
the males next in size, and the workers the 
smallest and without wings. Ants are very 
active and strong for their size, and among the 
most industrious of all animals. Their dwellings 
usually consist of hillocks of earth, most wonder¬ 
fully constructed, and containing many little 


v rooms, in which they store their provisions, and 
nurture their young. The food of ants consists 
chiefly either of animal matter, or of sweet vege¬ 
table substances, such as honey, sugar, and fruit. 
There are many species of ants, differing con¬ 
siderably in their habits—as the agricultural, 
carpenter, foraging, honey, amazon, etc. They 
have many remarkable habits, fighting battles 
in which large armies take part, keeping and 
milking the aphis, or ant-cow, cultivating cer¬ 
tain grasses with palatable seeds by the destruc¬ 
tion of other species, and displaying other evi¬ 
dences of high intelligence. The insects known 
as termites, or white ants, are not properly ants, 
but belong to a different class of insects, yet re¬ 
semble the ants in intelligence. They live in hot 
countries, and sometimes gnaw out all the inside 
of the beams of houses, leaving only a thin cas¬ 
ing. In Africa white ants live together in vast 
colonies, some living in houses which they dig 
underground, some burrowing in wood, while 
others build up large mounds, ten or twelve feet 
high, with smaller mounds around them. 

Antelope. [Gk. anthein , to flower or shine ; and 
ops , the eye.] A genus of ruminating animals, 
intermed iate between the deer and the goat. Their 
horns are hollow and permanent, not annually re¬ 
newed ; those of the deer are solid, and shed every 
year. Their horns are also round and curved, with 
rings running round them, and are always black. 
There are many species in Africa, about fifteen 
in Asia, two, the chamois and the saiga, in Eu¬ 
rope, and two, the pronghorn and the Rocky 
Mountain goat, in North America. In Africa, 
particularly in South Africa, antelopes are very 
abundant, some of the species congregating in 
immense herds. Their sizes vary from the 
Guavy, or Pigmy Antelope of Africa, only eight 
or nine inches high, to forms which are five or 
six feet high. Most of them yield palatable food, 
and they are much hunted 

AnterFnas. [L. antenna , sail-yard.] Slender ar¬ 
ticulated organs on the head of insects and Crus¬ 
tacea. There are two in the former, and usually 
four in the latter. They are used as organs of 
touch, and in insects are called horns or feelers. 

Anthrax. [Gk. coal.] This was the name for¬ 
merly given to the painful swelling or eruption 
now called carbuncle. It is now used for a dis¬ 
ease often fatal to sheep and cattle, and occasion¬ 
ally attacking man. It is also destructive to 
horses and camels and many of the smaller ani¬ 
mals. When acute, the animal falls and goes 
into convulsions, and soon dies. The disease 
has been known by many names. In man it is 
called Malignant. Pustule, Wool-sorters’ Disease, 
etc. It is believed to be due to a minute germ, 
named bacillus ant hr acis, which enters the system 
and multiplies in the blood with great rapidity. 

Anthracite. [Gk. anthrax , coal.] A species of 
hard mineral coal or carbon, of a metallic lus¬ 
tre, containing little or no bitumen. It is diffi¬ 
cult to ignite, but burns with intense heat, and ' 
nearly without smell, smoke, or flame. It is 
principally found in Eastern Pennsylvania, and 
is said also to be abundant in China. 










ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


34i 


Anthropology. [Gk. anthropos , man ; logos , a 
discourse.} The science of man. It includes 
the study of man as an animal and as a thinking 
being, and ethnology, or the study of race 
divisions. It includes, in short, all that can be 
learned about man in any direction. 

An'timony. [L,. antimonium.] A metal of a bright 
bluish-white color and crystalline structure. 
When strongly heated it burns with a white 
flame, giving off the fumes of “ flowers of anti¬ 
mony,” a compound with oxygen. It is a bad 
conductor of heat and electricity. It does not 
rust or tarnish when exposed to the air at ordi¬ 
nary temperatures. This property, combined 
with its hardness, renders it of great service in 
the arts in the formation of alloys. Pewter, 
type metal, Britannia metal, are all alloys of 
antimony. The metal is generally prepared from 
the mineral stibuite, a compound of antimony 
and sulphur. This ore is found in France, Spain, 
Italy, Canada, Borneo, and Australia. It has 
been long used in Eastern countries for darken¬ 
ing the eyebrows. Tartar-emetic contains anti¬ 
mony, tartaric acid and potash. 

Antisep'tics. [Gk. anti , against, septikos , 
putrefying.] Substances which act to prevent 
decay or putrefaction of organic materials. 
Among the many antiseptics may be named 
sugar, alcohol, carbolic acid, charcoal, nitre, 
alum, and chloride of zinc. They are used for 
the preservation of food substances. Cold has a 
powerful antiseptic action, and cold storage is 



one of the best and cheapest of food preservers. 
Antiseptic surgery or Eisterisni is a mode of 
treating surgical wounds, introduced by Sir 
Joseph Lister. In this the wound and the 
instruments are treated with carbolic acid or 
other antiseptics to prevent dangerous germs 
from entering. This has proved wonderfully 
successful, and has enabled surgeons to perform 
operations successfully which would have led to 
certain death under the old system of treatment. 


Anvil. [AS. on; and fyllan, to strike.] An iron 
block, usually with a steel face and a pointed 
end, upon which metals are hammered and 
shaped. Anvils are of various sizes, from the 
small steel ones used by goldsmiths to the im¬ 
mense cast-iron ones used under steam-hammers. 

Ape. [AS. apa.] A term generally applied to 
the monkeys, though by some the Anthropoids, 
or highest forms, are not included in the apes. 
Others consider these the only apes. They usu¬ 
ally dwell in trees, where their power of grasping 
with both hands and hand-like feet enables them 
to grasp the limbs with great ease, and to jump 
from branch to branch without danger of falling. 
They closely approach the human species in ana¬ 
tomical structure, and the higher forms, the 
gorilla, chimpanzee, and orang outang, are often 
called anthropoids, or man like apes. 

A / phis. The plant louse ; a kind of insect which 
is parasitic upon plants, injuringthem by sucking 
their juices. They are extremely prolific and 
very injurious. They exude a sweet, viscid fluid 
known as honeydew of which ants and bees are 
very fond, and ants often take care of and seem 
to milk the aphides. These are therefore known 
as ant cows. 

Appendicitis. [L,. appendix.'] This is a name 
given of late years to inflammation of the vermi¬ 
form appendix, a small, finger-shaped tube, 
depending from the large intestine. Many deaths 
in the past whose cause was unknown, may have 
been due to it. If severe, it is now often healed 
surgically, the abdomen being opened and the 
inflamed appendix removed, or otherwise treated. 

Ap / ple, [AS.] One of the most widely diffused 
of fruit-trees, growing best in the colder parts of 
the temperate zone ; also its fruit. The tree at¬ 
tains a moderate height, w r ith spreading branches 
bearing beautiful flowers that have a delicate 
fragrance. T~e fruit is roundish in shape, with 
a depression at each end. The original of the 
cultivated apple is the wild apple or crab-tree, 
found in most of the countries of Europe. 
Though there were no apples in America when 
it was first settled, trees were introduced, and 
some of the finest apples, such as greenings, 
bald wins, Newtown pippins, etc., are now grown, 
and sent in large quantities to Europe, China 
and India. The number of varieties of the ap¬ 
ple produced by cultivation is very large, and it 
is perhaps the most useful to man of all the 
fruits. The wood of the apple tree is hard, close- 
grained, and often richly colored, and is used by- 
turners and cabinet-makers. 

A / pricot. [Fr. abricot , from L. prczcox> early 
ripe.] A stone fruit, belonging to the same 
genus as the plum, but resembling a peach, 
being of an orange color, oval shape and 
delicious taste. The tree grows wild in Ar¬ 
menia and the countries eastward to China 
and Japan, and by cultivation it has been intro¬ 
duced throughout the temperate zone. It was 
brought into Europe in the time of Alexander 
the Great, and into England about the middle of 
the 16th century. The dried apricots of Italy are 
sent to foreign countries, those of Bokhara and 








ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


3+ 2 

other parts of the East to Russia, while the pre¬ 
served apricots of Damascus are famous. Many 
apricots are now raised iu California. 

Aqua'rium. [L,. aqua, water.] An artificial 
pond, or a globe or tank (usually with glass 
sides), for containing and showing aquatic ani¬ 
mals and plants and their modes of living. 
Small aquariums are now ofteu kept in houses 
for study and amusement. 

Aqueduct. [I,. Aqua, water, and ductus , pas¬ 
sage.] Au artificial channel to convey water for 

city supply 
and other pur- 
poses. The 
Romans had 
great stone 
aqueducts, in 
some places 
raised on high 
arches, in 
others cut 
through the 
hills. Some 
of these are 
still in use. 
Some of the 
largest of modern aqueducts are the Croton 
Aqueduct, which conveys water to New York 
City, aud the Cochituate Aqueduct, of Boston, 
which is fifteen miles long. 

Arch. [E. arcus. Fr. arche .] A self-sustaining 
structure, usually of a curved form, made up of 
separate wedge-shaped solids, with the joints 
between them disposed in the direction of the 
radii of the curve, used to support the wall or 
other weight above an opening. The beginning 
of the arch is called the spring, the two bottom 
stones being the springers, the middle the crown 
or kejstone, and the parts between the crown and 
the spring the haunches. A fiat arch is con¬ 
structed of stones cut into wedges or other 
shapes, so as to support each other without rising 
into a curve. 

ArchseoFcgy. [Gk. archaios, ancient.] The study 
of the ancient relics of human art. These are 
very numerous, and are found in all parts of the 
earth, advancing from the rough tools and 
weapons of the stone-age to the splendid 
examples of the five arts found in the mines of 
ancient Greece. 

Archery. [L. arcus , bow.] The art of shooting 
with a bow and arrow. This was in very common 
use before the invention of firearms, and archery 
is still practiced as an amusement. The bow is 
usually made of yew or ash, and the arrows of 
ash. A good archer can send an arrow from 200 
to 250 yards. In the Middle Ages the fate of 
battles was often decided by the skill of the 
archers. 

Ar'gon. A gas existing in the atmosphere, first 
discovered in 1895 by Ford Ragleigh and William 
Ramsay. It is heavier than nitrogen and occurs 
in a very minute quantity. The discoverers 
were rewarded by the Smithsonian Institution 
with a prize of $10,000, offered for the most 
important new fact concerning the atmosphere. 




20 inches thick. 


Armor, A protection worn in ancient time con¬ 
sisting of helmet, body armor, and limb aimor, 
though varying at different periods in the 
amount of the body covered. The shield served 

as a move- 
able piece of 
armor. Since 
the inven¬ 
tion of gun¬ 
powder ar¬ 
mor has been 
of little use 
and hence 
has been 
discarded. 

Armor- 
plate. The 
larger and 
more power¬ 
ful warships 
are in these 
times cover¬ 
ed with a 
strong armor 
made of 
thick plates 
of steel, in 
some cases 
from 16 to 
more than 
The steel is often alloyed with 
nickel to make it harder, and its surface is speci¬ 
ally hardened, so as to enable it to resist the blows 
of the great shot from modern rifled cannon. The 
armor-plate is carried below the water-line, and 
covers the gun turrets, while thinner plate is laid 
on the decks. Not only battle ships, but forts, are 
now made strong by armor-plate, which shields 
the men, and behind which the guns are drawn 
down after firing. 

Arrowroot. A kind of starch used as food, 
obtained principally from the root of a West 
India plant now cultivated in many warm 
countries, and from some other plants. It is said 
that the Indians used the root to cure the wounds 
made by poisoned arrows, hence the name. 

Arsenic. [Gk. arsen , a male (on account of its 
strength).] A metallic element, seldom found 
free in nature, but frequently found in combina¬ 
tion with other elements, such as sulphur, iron, 
cobalt, and nickel. The metal is generally 
prepared from arsen ious oxide, or white arsenic, 
one of its compounds w r ith oxygen. It has a 
bright-gray lustie ; it tarnishes in the air by 
oxidation ; its weight is about five and a half 
times greater than water; when heated to dull 
redness it rises into vapor without first fusing, 
and its vapor emits a strong odor of garlic. 
Metallic arsenic is not of great importance iu 
the arts. An alloy of copper and arsenic 
produces a brilliant gray metal used in the 
manufacture of buttons. A compound of arsenic 
and copper forms a bright substance largely used 
as a pigment under the name of Scheele's green . 
It was formerly much employed by paper-stainers 
iu the manufacture of wall paper. Sheep-dipping 




























ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


fixtures consist of a compound of arsenic and 
soda dissolved in a large quantity of water, 
together with soap and sulphur. Arsenic has 
long been used as a medicine, and is used in 
some countries with the belief that it improves 
the complexion, but it is a dangerous poison, 
being fatal to adults in doses of from 2 to 3 
grains. No effective antidote to it is known. 

Art. An art is something performed by man 
through the instigation of the mind. In use 
the word is divided into the Common and the 
Fine Arts. A common art is something done 
for the benefit of man, such as the arts of manu¬ 
facture. A fine art is something done for the 
enjoyment of man, as the art of painting. 

Ar'tery. [Gk. arteria, the windpipe ; a blood¬ 
vessel.] One of the vessels or tubes which 
carry arterial blood from the heart throughout 
the body, and venous blood from the heart to 
the lungs. They have thicker and more muscular 
walls than veins, and are connected with them 
by capillaries. In man and other mammals the 
arteries which contain arterialized blood receive 
it from the left ventricle of the heart through 
the aorta. The pulmonary artery conveys the 
venous blood from the right ventricle to the 
lungs, whence the arterialized blood is returned 
through the pulmonary veins. 

Artesian Wells. In nature it often happens 
that a layer of water collects between two strata, 
such as clay, through which water cannot pene¬ 
trate. If the ground from which the water 
has been gathered is high, the pressure at 
the bottom of the layer will sometimes be 
very great; and on boring through the re¬ 
taining bed, the pressure of the water will be 
sufficient to force it up the shaft to the surface 
of the ground, and in some cases to cause it to 
spring into the air from the mouth of the well. 
This is in accordance with the hydrostatic law 
that water rises to its own level. In Europe, 
this method of boring was first practiced in the 
ancient French province of Artois (hence the 
name Artesian); but it is now extensively 
applied in all parts of Europe, in America, and 
in other parts of the world. The artesian well 
at Grenelle, near Paris, is 1,798 feet deep ; 
another at Passy, near Paris, is 1,923 feet deep. 
In America the borings reach a depth of from 
2,000 to 3,000 feet. The water from these deep 
wells being always warmer than surface water, 
maintains a constant temperature in hospitals 
and manufactories, warms greenhouses, and 
reduces variations of cold in fish-ponds. 

Artichoke. [Ital.] A plant like the thistle, but 
having large, scaly heads like the cone of the 
pine tree. It is cultivated in the south of Eu¬ 
rope, and is much esteemed as an article of food. 
The unripe flower-heads are boiled, and the fleshy 
lower part of the scales or leaves eaten, dipped 
in olive oil or butter, with a little salt and pepper. 

ArtiFIery. [Fr., from Low E. , artillare , to make 
machines.] Weapons of war; large ordnance, 
including guns, howitzers, mortars, rockets, and 
engines of war of all kinds, with their carriages, 
ammunition, and apparatus. A !so the meji and 


officers of that branch of the army to which the 
care and management of artillery are confided. 

Asbestos. [Gk. asbestos , that cannot be 
quenched.] A mineral substance, unaffected by 
fire, occurring in long and delicate fibres, or in 
fibrous masses or seams, usually of a white, gray, 
or green-gray color. The finer varieties have 

been wrought 
into gloves and 
cloth which are 
incombustible. 
The cloth has 
been recom¬ 
mended for fire¬ 
men’s clothes. 
Asbestos is abo 
employed in 
the manufac- 
ure of iron 
safes, fireproof roofing, and lamp-wicks, and 
is used, as a poor conductor of heat, for packing 
around steam pipes, valves, etc. The largest 
mines are in the province of Quebec, Canada. 

Ash. [AS.] A genus of trees of the Olive family, 
mostly natives of Europe and of North America. 
There are about fifty species. The common ash 
is a beautiful and umbrageous tree, highly orna¬ 
mental in parks, growing generally with a smooth 
stem to a height of from 100 to 150 feet, its wood 
being white, tough, and hard, in value next to 
that of the oak, and much used by wheelwrights, 
coachmakers, joiners, and turners. Among other 
varieties, the weeping ash, the curl-leaved ash, 
and the entire-leaved ash may be mentioned. 
The most important ones in the United States 
are the white ash, the black ash, the red ash, the 
blue ash, and the swamp ash. The white ash 
has the best wood, and is used for the same pur¬ 
poses as that of the common ash. The manna 
of commerce is a sugar from the sap of the 
manna ash, a kind of ash tree growing in South¬ 
ern Europe, especially in Sicily, whence the 
finest manna is obtained. 

Asp. [Fr., from Gk. aspis, an asp.] A small, 
hooded, poisonous serpent of Egypt and Libya, 
whose bite is often fatal. 

Aspar'agus. [Gk. asparagos.~\ A plant grown in 
gardens for the sake of its young and tender 
shoots, which form a valuable and well-known 
article of food. The plants have erect, many- 
branched stems, and very slender branchlets, 
which are sometimes mistaken for leaves. 

As pen. [AS. Bot. name Papulus trernula .] A 
species of poplar tree growing in Europe and 
in Siberia. It has received the specific name 
trernula , from the trembling of its leaves, 
which move with the slightest impulse of the 
air. The wood is white, soft, light, and smooth. 
It is not good for fuel, but is much in use for the 
turning lathe, in making troughs, trays, and pails. 
The bark contains a bitter, alkaloid called salicin, 
and charcoal made front the aspen tree can be 
used in the manufacture of gunpowder. 

As / pha!t or Asphalt/um. [Gk. asphaltos , bitu¬ 
men ] A kind of mineral pitch or compact 
native bitumen, found on the surface and shores 









ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


344 

of the Dead Sea, which is therefore called As- 
phaltites, or the Asphaltic Lake. It is found also 
in Asia, Europe, and America, there being a 
very extensive lake-like deposit of it in the 
island of Trinidad, West Indies. It is brittle, and 
of a black or brown color ; melts and burns when 
heated, leaving no residue.— Asphaltic cement 
is a composition of bitumen, pitch, lime, and 
gravel, used for forming pavements, and as a 
waterproof cement for bridges, roofs, etc. It 
has been of late years very largely used as a 
paving material in the United States and Eu¬ 
rope.— Artificial asphalt is prepared from coal- 
tar, lime, and sand. 

Ass. [L. asinus.~\ An animal closely allied to the 
horse, inhabiting the mountainous deserts of 
Tartary and other parts of Asia. It is smaller 
than the horse, and has long ears, an upright 
mane, a tufted tail, a streak along the back and 
across the shoulders, and gives a peculiarly 
harsh bray. The tame or domestic ass is remark¬ 
ably hardy, patient, slow, and sure-footed, and 
tias become the type of obstinacy and stupidity. 
The skin is hard and elastic, and is used for 
covering drums, making pocket-books, parch¬ 
ment, etc. It is of asses’ skin that the Orientals 
make a kind of grained leather called shagreen. 

As'teroid. [Gk. aster , a star, and eidos , form.] 
The asteroids are a group of very small planets 
between the planets Jupiter and Mars. Ceres, 
the first known of these, was discovered on 
Janaary i, 1801, the first day of the nineteenth 
century. Before the last day about 450 had been 
discovered. Nearly all of these are very small. 
Ceres is about 1200 miles in diameter, but many 
of them are only a few miles through. They 
may be fragments of a former planet, for they 
occupy the place in the solar system where, by 
the calculations of the astronomers, a planet 
should be. 

AstroLogy. [Gk. aster , a star, and logos , a dis¬ 
course.] The name of a system based on the 
science of astronomy, in which it is claimed that 
future events, and the coming fortune of any man, 
can be told from a study of the planets. The 
early astronomers were all astrologers, and 
watched the stars in order to predict the future 
from their movements. Astrology was widely 
believed only a few centuries ago, but now none 
but the ignorant have any faith in it, and it is 
professed only by rogues or fools. 

AstrorPomy. [Gk. astrou, a star; and nomos, a 
law.] In its widest sense, it includes everything 
that is known concerning the heavenly bodies. 
It treats of their motions, relative positions, dis¬ 
tances, magnitudes, mutual influence, constitu¬ 
tion, and physical condition. The history of 
astronomy dates back to very remote ages. The 
Chinese, Hindus, Babylonians, and Egyptians 
each possessed some knowledge of the science, 
and had made some progress in astronomical ob¬ 
servation many centuries before the commence¬ 
ment of the Christian era. It was first raised to 
the dignity of a science among the Greeks. The 
Ejost eminent among ancient astronomers was 


Hipparchus, who discovered the precession of 
the equinoxes and other facts of importance. 
Ptolemy, the next astronomer of note, founded 
the system which makes the earth the centre of 
the universe, around which the mighty circle 
of the heavens revolves once in twenty-four 
hours. Copernicus (1473-1543) showed the error 
of this theory, and made the sun the centre of 
the solar system, the earth and the other planets 
revolving around it. The science has been much 
advanced by Tycho Brahe, Kepler, Galileo, New¬ 
ton, Herschell, and many others of note, while 
the instruments of observation have increased 
in power until the universe has been explored to 
remote depths and hundreds of facts concerning 
its constitution discovered. Most marvelous 
among these are the vast number and immense 
distances asunder of the stars, and the wonderful 
discovery, which we owe to spectrum analysis, 
that our sun, and the fixed stars, which are the 
suns of other solar systems, are largely or wholly 
made up of the chemical elements found in the 
earth—such as hydrogen, iron, and others. 

At/mosphere. [Gk. atmos , vapor , and sphaira, 
sphere.] The name of the great body of gaseous 
substance which surrounds the earth. The atmo¬ 
sphere consists essentially of two gases, oxygen 
and nitrogen, with a small quantity of carbonic 
acid and some aqueous vapor, with minute pro¬ 
portions of a few other substances. The vapor of 
water is of much importance in relation to the 
weather of any locality. The atmosphere being 
gaseous, obeys the same laws as gases under 
varying conditions of pressure and temperature. 
There is reason to believe that its extreme height 
may be not less than 500 miles, this result having 
been found by observations on the flight of mete¬ 
orites. Air being a fluid, exerts pressure equally in 
all directions. This pressure, or the weight of the 
atmosphere, at sea-level, is equal to 15 pounds 
on every square inch of surface. It has been 
found that the average height of a column of 
mercury which will balance the pressure of the 
atmosphere is about 30 inches. (See Barometer.) 

Af/om. [L- atomus .] The smallest particle into 
which matter is considered to be divided. Atoms 
are inconceivably small, and are supposed to com¬ 
bine into molecules—containing two or more—- 
which form the smallest chemical particles. The 
atom of each chemical element has a fixed 
weight, and tables of their weights, as compared 
with the hydrogen atom, are commonly given. 

AiEger. [AS.] A tool for boring holes, larger 
than those made by a gimlet. It has a handle 
placed crosswise, by which it is turned with both 
hands. The pod-auger and the screiv-auger are 
the two principal kinds. The former has a 
straight channel or groove, while the latter has 
a twisted blade, by the spiral groove of which 
the chips are discharged. 

Auro'ra Borealis, [L ] or Northern Lights. 

Luminous appearances which are seen in the 
northern quarter of the heavens. A muddy 
appearance of the sky in the direction of the 
north is the first indication of the approach of 
the aurora. This gradually resolves itself into a 



ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY 01 COMMON THINGS 


345 


band of a dusky hue, in shape like part of a 
circle, stretching from the north towards the 
west, with its ends resting on the horizon, and 
surrounded by a continuous luminous arch of 
transparent white tinged with green. The arch 
is in a state of continual movement, either rising 
and falling or swaying from east to west, and 
starting from it, streams of light of brilliant and 

variegated colors 
shoot up towards 
the zenith. The 
most reliable 
m easurements 
place the height 
of the aurora at 
from 45 to ioo 
miles above the 
earth. It is now 
regarded as cer¬ 
tain that there 
is an intimate 
connection be¬ 
tween the aurora 
and the magnetism of the earth, this being 
shown by the fluctuation of the magnetic needle 
during an auroral display, and also by the fact 
that the top of the luminous arch is found to be 
near the magnetic meridian. The aurora has 
been frequently observed to occur at both 
inaguetic poles of the earth simultaneously. 
Aurorae are more frequent in North America 


than in the same latitudes in Europe. Thunder¬ 
storms and aurorae are connected with each other 
—the former being characteristic of the tropics, 
and the latter of the polar regions. In Norway, 
Siberia, and Tapland auroras enliven to some 
extent the snowy landscapes and brighten the 
long winter evenings, and they furnish much light 
during the protracted nights at the Arctic region. 

Automobile. [Gk. autos , self; L. mobilis , 
movable.] A self-moving carriage, distinguished 
at first as a horseless carriage. Steam aud 
gasoline engines and electric storage batteries 
are used as propelling powers, and automobiles 
came rapidly into use near the end of the nine¬ 
teenth century. A great development of them 
seems probable in the twentieth century. 

Avalanche. [Fr. from L- ad valient , to the 
valley.] A vast body of snow, ice, earth, rocks, 
etc., sliding swiftly down a mountain side or 
falling down a precipice. 

Axe. [AS.] An instrument of steel or iron, 
with a steel edge or blade, for felling trees, hew¬ 
ing timber, chopping and splitting wood, etc. 
The handle of an axe is called the helve, the 
thick metal part the head, and the hole for the 
handle the eye, and the handle is so fixed in the 
eye as to be in the same plane with the blade. 
The carpenter’s axe for hewing timber is heavier 
than the chopping axe, and has a broader and 
thinner blade and a shorter handle. 



B 


Baboon'. [Fr. babouin , and babines, large lips.] 
A kind of monkey with a short tail, very fierce 
and dangerous, and not so often tamed as others 



of the Monkey tribe. It is found in the hottest 
parts of Africa and in Siam. Its long snout or 
lips give its head somewhat the shape of a dog’s 


head. It lives chiefly on fruits, corn, and roots 
and has large cheek pouches iu which its food is 
kept until needed. The baboons are quadrupeds 
living on the ground, and running swiftly on all 
fours, while many of them live in herds, and 
are formidable to animals and property. The 
troops are led by patriarchs and guarded by 
sentinels, and fight fiercely when attacked. 
There are many kinds of baboon, but the best 
known are the pig-tailed, the dog-faced, and the 
mandrill. The nose and cheeks of the mandrill 
are ornamented with red and blue stripes, and its 
appearance is made remarkable by other patches 
of gaudy color. 

Backgam'mon. [AS. or Dan.] A game of 
chance and skill played by two persons on a 
board with dice and fifteen pieces or “men” 
each. The board is divided into tables, each 
table being marked with six points colored 
alternately white and black. The moves of men 
are determined by throws of the dice ; and if a 
point is occupied partially or fully by the 
opponent, the man is set back. 

Ba'con. [Fr.] The back and sides of a pig salted. 
The hair is singed instead of being scalded, and 
the meat is separated from the shoulder-blade 
and bones, and cured by salting and drying. 

Bacte'ria. [Gk. baktron, a rod or stick.] The 
name of a family of extremely minute plants, 
consisting of a single cell, and only visible under 
a high power of the microscope. They are found 
almost everywhere, and all fermentation and 






3+6 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


putrefaction are due to them. While the most 
of them are harmless, and very useful in remov¬ 
ing decaying substances, others are highly dan¬ 
gerous to life, forming the “germs” or “mi¬ 
crobes” of contagious diseases. This fact was 
first discovered by Louis Pasteur, and gave rise t<> 
the science of Bacteriology. The harmful bacteria 
enter the body of animals, multiply with extreme 
rapidity, and give off poisonous products or tox¬ 
ins which cause vio¬ 
lent and often deadly 
diseases. Among 
these are yellow 
fever, cholera, small¬ 
pox, diphtheria, ma¬ 
larial and typhoid 
fevers, and various 
others, also anthrax 
and other diseases c f 
the lower animals. 
In the treatment, tl:e 
use of anti toxins, 
prepared by inocu¬ 
lating animals with 
weakened bacteria, 
has proved of much 
service, but the sci¬ 
ence of bacteriology 
is so recent that 
much remains to be 
learned. 

Badg 7 er. [Probably from badge and ard, in refer¬ 
ence to the white spot on its forehead.] A car- 
uiverous quadruped of the Weasel family. It 
has a broad, flat body, short tail, and long taper¬ 
ing head. It is a quiet, harmless animal ; but 
when attacked by clogs, turns on its back and 
defends itself with its teeth and claws. It bur¬ 
rows in the ground with its nose and fore paws, 
and forms a nest lined with grass and moss, from 
which it goes forth at night in search of food, 
which consists of roots, fruits, and small animals. 
It is found in Asia, Europe, and North America. 

Bag'pipe. A musical instrument made of a leather 
bag, filled w T ith wind by a tube blown by the 
player. There are other three or four tubes, one 
a chanter with eight holes. G-clef is the only 
scale used. It is an ancient instrument, and was 
known to the Greeks and Romans. It is the 
national musical instrument of the Scottish 
Highlanders, and is used in the Tyrol and in 
other parts of Europe. 

Baking=Powders. Chemical substances used in¬ 
stead of yeast in bread-making, their action being 
to give off carbonic acid gas, which puffs up the 
dough, or causes the effect called “rising.” 
They are usually composed of tartaric acid and 
bicarbonate of soda. A chemical action takes 
place in these in contact with the wet dough, 
and the gas is given off. Other substances are 
used, alum being common, though it is thought 
to be injurious ; also acid phosphate of calcium. 
The use cf baking-powders has grown enormously 
in recent years, and yeast is little used. 


Balance. [L. bis, double ; and lanx , a dish.] A 
machine used for weighing. The common bal¬ 
ance consists of a beam supported at its middle 
point, having two scale-pans of equal weight hung 
from its extremities. The object aimed at in its 
construction is to secure delicacy and rapidity in 
weighing. Of other forms of lever, the Roman 
balance, or steelyard , consists of a rod suspended 
from a fulcrum, so that the two armsare of un¬ 
equal length. The substance to be weighed issus- 

pended from 
the shorter 

.. ' ' ' ~ L ~ J arm,andamov- 

eable weight 
slides along 
1 J the longer arm, 
which is graduated to indicate quantities. This 
form of balance is in use at railway stations for 
weighing luggage and loaded caits. The spring 
balance shows the weight of a body by the extent 
to which it stretches a spiral spring. 

Balloon 7 . [Fr. ballon .] A large bag made of silk, 
and filled with light gas, coal gas being now gen¬ 
erally used. It rises in the atmosphere, because 
its weight is less than the weight of air which it 
displaces. A car, supported by a network at¬ 
tached to the balloon, carries the aeronauts; 
when they wish to ascend more quickly, they 
throw out some of the ballast, which consists of 
bags of sand ; when they wish to descend, they 
open a valve at the top, which allows some of 
the gas to escape. Ascents have been made to 
determine the pressure and temperature of the 
air at different heights. In some cases balloons 
have risen to a height of five miles, and in one 
instance to seven miles. Balloons have been 
used as aids in war, and are now being applied 
in flying machines. 

BaFsam [Arab.] or Balm [Gk.] A liquid aromatic 
substance, of resinous character, which under 
the name of Balm of Gilead has long been 
famous in the East for its fragrance and medicinal 
virtues. It is the product of a shrub growing in 
Arabia and Egypt. The word balsam, when used 
alone, new signifies the balsams of Peru and 
Tolu, a viscid and very fragrant liquid, obtained 
from two species of South American trees. They 
are used to flavor confectionery, also in per¬ 
fumery, and as stimulants and tonics in medicine. 
Balsam of Canada is the liquid resin of Abies 
balsamea , a species of fir. There is also a genus 
of trees in the East Indies and Japan known as 
balsam, of which some species are of great 
beauty and are wddely grown elsewhere. (See 
Gums , Resins.) 

Bamboo 7 . [Malay.] This is the giant of grasses. 
It is a most useful and graceful plant. Its stem 
is hollow, and at intervals it forms joints or knots; 
and its flower is enclosed in scales, as in the 
common grass. It grows everywhere in the 
tropics—in China, India, and the valleys of the 
Andes. There are many kinds—the most com¬ 
mon being from 40 to 80 feet long, and of any 
thickness up to 20 inches. Many stems rise 
from the same root or from the higher joints. 





















ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


347 


Young shoots contain a sweet pith, and are eaten 
as asparagus. With the stein the Malay builds 
his house, and furnishes it with chairs, tables, 
beds and bedding of the same material. It is 
made into sails, cables, hats, paper, fishing-rods, 
pipes, bridges, flutes, handles of tools and wea¬ 
pons, buckets and bottles. 

Bana / na. [Span.] The fruit of a tree of the 
same name, belonging to the same family 
as the plantain. Its leaves are about 6 feet 
long, and its fruit grows in great bunches 
and is a most important food in hot countries. 
Its fibre is used for shoe-strings and for ropes of 
all kinds. The banana was probably first grown 
in the East Indies, but is now much cultivated 
in the West Indies and in tropical America. Its 
produce is enormous, being estimated on an 
acre as 133 to 1 of wheat. A plant of the same 
genus, in the Phillipine Islands, yields the well- 
known and very useful fibre named Manila 
hemp. 

BandarEa. [Hind.] A red or colored silk or 
calico handkerchief with patterns or white spots. 
The handkerchiefs are pressed between hydraulic 
plates with holes or patterns, and the bleaching 
fluid poured into these holes passes through and 
produces the spots or patterns. 

Ban / yan. [Bot. name, Ficus Inclica.\ The sacred 
tree of Itidia, and one of the wonders of the 
vegetable world. It is of the Fig family, and is 
called the Indian fig. Its seeds carried by the 
wind or dropped by birds are often deposited in 
the crowns of palms, and send down roots which 
become stems, in time taking the place of the 
palm. These grow to trunks from 60 to 100 feet 
in height, from whose branches in time, pendu¬ 
lous adventitious roots descend to the ground 
and in their turn become stems. This process 
continues until a single tree spreads over acres 
of ground and becomes a wood in itself. At 
Nerbudda, India, there is a tree with 354 large 
trunks and 3,000 small ones, which is inhabited 
by great numbers of birds, fruit-bats and mon¬ 
keys, the latter eating the leaves as well as the 
fruit. 'J he Brahmins of India hold the tree in 
great reverence, and build their temples in its 
vicinity. 

Ba / obab. A tree of tropical Africa ; known also 
as the monkey-bread tree. Its size is gigantic, 
and it lives to a great age. Its trunk does not 
usually exceed 40 feet in height, but its girth 
sometimes reaches 75 feet. Its branches are 
from 50 to 75 feet long, and touch the ground. 
The fruit is abundant, and of the size of a citron, 
its pulp being pleasant and slightly acid. The 
juice sweeteued with sugar, makes a cooling and 
refreshing beverage. The bark yields a very 
strong fibre. 

Bar'berry. [E. berberis.\ A shrub which grows 
wild in northern Europe and Asia and in parts 
of the United States. In Italy it grows to the 
height of a plum tree, and is very ornamental 
when covered with its bright red berries. These 
are very sour, but make a pleasant drink, and 
good preserves and jelly. A fine yellow dye for 
leather is made from the bark and roots. 


Ba / rium. [Gk. barys, heavy.] One of the 
metallic elements, first isolated by Sir H. Davy, 
from whom it received its name. It occurs in 
heavy spar (sulphate of barium) and in baryta 
(a compound with oxygen). Some of its com¬ 
pounds are used in the preparation of fire-works. 

Bark. [Dan.] The exterior covering of the trunk 
and branches of exogenous trees, the endogens 
and the ferns having no true bark. Some barks 
are very thin and others thick ; those of the 
giant trees of California are two feet thick. The 
outer bark protects an inner bark. In many 
trees the outer bark is coarse, and has no life in 
it. The inner bark is fresh and full of sap. The 
sap which goes up through the wood of the tree 
from the roots to the branches conies down 
through the inner bark. Bark is useful for dye¬ 
ing and tanning leather, and certain kinds are 
made into corks. Quinine is made from Peruvian 
bark. (See Cinnamon, Cork , Exogen.) 

BarTey. [AS.] A plant of the Grass family, 
cultivated for its seeds, which are a valuable 
grain used for food. It is hardier than wheat, 
maize, or oats, and is grown in northern countries 
like Russia, Norway, Denmark, Scotland, ete., 
being found as far north as latitude 70°. Barley 
is a shallow-rooted plant, drawing its plant-food 
mainly from the surface layer by curious root- 
hairs. Barley-meal is used for fattening pigs 
and cattle, and when boiled, horses also. Barley 
is mostly used in brewing beer and ale, and in 
distilling spirits. 

Bar / nacle. A genus of ocean animals, called also 
acorn shells. These belong to the order of the 
crustacese, swim when young, but afterwards 
attach themselves to rocks, ships, sea plants, 
etc., develop a shell, and become fixed for life. 
They gather thickly on the bottoms of vessels in 
the tropics and much impede their speed. 

BaronEeter. [Gk. baros , weight; and metron , 
measure.] An instrument for measuring the 
pressure of the atmosphere. Barometers are di¬ 
vided into two 
classes, cistern 
and siphon; and 
in each of these 
classes there are 
several forms. 
The simplest 
form of the cis¬ 
tern barometer 
consists of the 
Torricellian 
tube, with the 
addition of a 
graduated scale 
to show the 
height of the 
mercury col¬ 
umn. In ordin- 
a r y weather- 
glasses, the 
tube is bent 
the cistern is 
At the upper 


fortin£ 

barometer 


js 


aJJ 



round at the bottom, and 
an expansion of 'the tube, 
end of the tube is a fixed scale of inches, and 































343 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


tenths of inches, beginning with 27 and end¬ 
ing at 31 inches. A vernier slides along the 
fixed scale for measuring fractional divisions. 
In the siphon barometer the tube, which is 
generally of uniform bore, is bent into the 
form of a siphon, the longer leg of which is 
closed and the shorter opened. Of the various 
forms of this class, that known as the wheel 
barometer is the most common for household 
use. In this the rise and fall of the mercury 
turns a small wheel, which moves a pointer and 
dial. The wide sweep of the pointer makes small 
changes in the height of the mercury very evi¬ 
dent. One of the important uses of the barom¬ 
eter is that of measuring the heights of moun¬ 
tains. The pressure of the air on the top of a 
mountain is less than that at the bottom by the 
weight of the column of air intervening between 
the top and the bottom. The difference between 
the readings of the barometer at the foot of the 
mountain and the readings on the top gives the 
means of calculating its height. The most im¬ 
portant of all the uses of the barometer is its 
employment for meteorological observations.— 
Aneroid Barometer. (See Aneroid.) 

Barque, or Bark. Any small ship, but especially 
a vessel, small or large, with three masts, the 



fore and main of which are rigged as in a ship, 
but the mizzen is rigged fore and aft. 

Bar'rel. A cylindrical receptacle made of grooved 
staves bound together by hoops, and with heads 
fastened by dowels. The staves are planed, bent, 
and grooved by machinery. The name barrel 
includes keg, cask, pipe, hogshead, and butt. 
Over 1,300 millions of staves are made annually 
in the United States, chiefly of red and white 
oak and elm. 

Basalt'. [L,. basaltes.~\ A rock of igneous origin, 
occurring chiefly in the ancient trap series of 
rocks. Basaltic rocks are composed of feldspar, 
augite, and magnetic iron, and other minerals, 
such as olivine. In color they are blue, brown, 
and black. They occur both as lava-flows and 
as sheets or dikes intruded between other strata, 
and are sometimes found in columns, which may 
be perpendicular or inclined, and of regular or 
irregular structure, as at the Giants’ Causeway 
in Ireland. 


Base=ball. An athletic game, which takes the 
place in the United States that cricket holds in 
England. It is played 011 a square area, wlio»e 
corners are called bases. The ball is struck by a 
bat, and the batsman seeks to run from his sta¬ 
tion to one or more bases before it can be re¬ 
turned by the opposing players in the field. The 
party making the greatest number of runs round 
the complete square wins the game. There are 
nine players on each side, including the pitcher, 
batsman, catcher and fieldmen. 

Bask'et. The weaving of wicker work is one of 
the oldest arts known to man. The shoots of the 
willow or osier are mostly used. Ash, elm, and 
birch shoots are also used. Baskets are made of 
a great variety of shapes and sizes, and basket 
work is used for various other purposes, such as 
screens, chairs and pony carriages. Boats have 
been made of basket-work covered by skins, and 
the ancient Britons used basket shields. 

Bass. [A corruption of barse.~\ A spiny-finned 
kind of perch used for food. There are many 
kinds, including the black and rock bass and sea 
bass of America, the common European bass, the 
striped bass, the white or silver bass of the 
American lakes, and the brasse or yellow bass. 
The black bass builds on the bottom a saucer¬ 
like nest, where it deposits its eggs, and where, 
when hatched, the fry are carefully protected. 

Bat. [O. E.] An animal with wings of a thin 
membrane of skin. The finger bones are very 
long and slender, and the membrane is stretched 
between them and extends from the arms to the 
legs. It is filled with nerves, so that blind bats 
can fly with as much confidence as those that 
have the use of their eyes. The Bat family is 
called Cheiroptera, or w r ing-handed animals. 
They feed on minute insects, and sleep during 
the day in old ivy-covered buildings, hollow 
trees or caves. When sleeeping the bat suspends 
itself with its head downwards, and hangs by 
the curved claws of its hind feet. If it alights on 
the ground, it has difficulty in taking to the 
wing; but when hanging it unhooks itself, and 
its wings are at once free to strike the air. The 
collared fruit bat of India is from its size and 
color named the flying-fox, and feeds on fruit. 
Fruit bats suspend themselves by one foot when 
sleeping, tucking the other foot under the wing. 
Vampire or blood-sucking bats inhabit tropical 
America. They bore little holes in the skin of 
their sleeping victim, or shave off a piece of 
skin. (See Guano.) 

Baths. [AS.] Places for washing in, either for 
cleansing the skin or strengthening the body. 
For cleansing, tepid or warm baths are most 
effective ; but being relaxing, they should not 
be used too often. The cold morning bath, 
either plunge, or sponge, is very beneficial to 
healthy persons. Sea-bathing is preferable to 
bathing in spring water. Turkish baths and 
electric baths are now in favor among rheumatic 
patients. Roman baths embraced swimming- 
baths, warm baths, baths of hot air, and vapor- 
baths. Other baths, as Russian, mud, douche, 
etc., are medicinal or of the nature of luxuries. 






ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


349 


Battleship. This term refers to a heavily armored 
ship of war, carrying immense guns, which are 
placed in revolving armor turrets. One of these 
ships is like a floating fortress. They differ 
from the cruiser, which has thinner armor and 
lighter guns, and is built for greater speed. 

Battery, Ley / den. An electric battery, consist¬ 
ing of a number of 
jars joined together in 
such a manner that 
they act like a single 
large jar. The jars 
are placed side by side 
in a box or tray lined 
with tin-foil, which 
thus unites their outer 
coatings with each 
other and with the 
ground, while their 
inner coatings arc 
connected by brass 
rods, joining together 
the knots of the jars. 
They are used to ac¬ 
cumulate a strong 
charge of static elec¬ 
tricity. The parts of 
ajar are : TT tin-foil ; 
SS sulphuric acid ; L 
leaden rod, with upper 
part I of iron ; W wooden cover, closed by the 
cork C, to keep out the dust when not in use. 

Bay / onet. [Fr. bayonnette.] A sharp, straight, 
tapering steel pike or sword, capable of being 
fastened to the muzzle of a musket or rifle. It 
is named from Bayonne in France, where the 
first was made about 1640. 

Beads. [AS.] Perforated balls of glass, porce¬ 
lain, or gems worn for ornament; also a small 
ball for counting prayers. The glass houses of 
the island of Murano, near Venice, have been, 
from a remote period, a centre of the manufac¬ 
ture of glass beads. Upwards of five thousand 
people are there employed in this industry. 
Beads are much used for fancy work. “ Bugles,” 
or long beads, were formerly used, but now jet 
beads are common for trimming ladies’ dresses. 

Bea'con. A signal fire, or an erection at the 
entrance of a river or harbor, to give warning of 
dangerous navigation. Beacon fires are of great 
antiquity, and by their use news were quickly 
flashed from hill to hill across a wile area. Iron 
pots to hold the beacon fuel were often placed in 
church towers. 

Beak. The point of anything ; the bill of a bird. 
The beak is a conspicuous feature in all birds, and 
consists of an upper and lower half. The upper 
half is commonly articulated with the skull in a 
more or less immovable manner. The parrot 
possesses this feature in its greatest perfection, 
but it exists in a less complete form in many 
birds. In no recent birds are teeth ever devel¬ 
oped, though rudiments of teeth have been 
recognized in some parrots, and fossil birds have 


been found with well-developed teeth. The beak 
of each bird is beautifully adapted to its habits. 
Beaks of land-birds are hard and horny—in the 
woodpecker like ivory. In many water-birds the 
beak is rather of a leathery texture. The beaks 
of birds of prey which feed on flesh are strong, 
hooked, and pointed, those of herons and storks, 
which feed on fish, are long, pointed, and sharp ; 
the beak of the parrot, which feeds on nuts, is 
adapted to crushing the shell and picking out 
the kernel; the beak of the duck is flat and 
broad, with comb-like fringes on the upper jaw 
which fit into the lower jaw. In the puffin and 
similar birds part or the whole of the horny 
sheath is annually shed. 

Bean. [AS.] The seed of various pod-bearing 
plants used for food. The two principal field 
beans are the Scotch or horse bean, and the tick 
bean. There are also many varieties of garden 
beans, such as the long pod and broad Windsor. 
The beau is a valuable source of food for men 
and the domestic animals and is grown in most 
of the temperate climates of the globe, being 
used as human food in its unripe state and as 
food for animals when ripe. French or kidney 
beans are grown for the green pods. Haricot 
beans, which are almost the same as French beans, 
are largely grown in France and Italy. The 
Tima bean is a variety of the pole-bean. 

Bear. [AS.] A large carnivorous animal, with 
a rough, shaggy coat and a peculiar gait. It 

walks on the 
sole of the foot 
(plantigrade.) It 
lias five toes on 
each foot, and 
when fighting 
stands nearly 
erect on its hind 
feet, and strikes 
with the fore 
paws or clasps 
its antagon¬ 
ist forcibly. 
Though a flesh- 
eater the bear 
prefers vegetable food, and is fond of the fruit and 
roots of trees. Most bears are good climbers of 
trees. The bear partially hibernates, the female 
shutting herself up when with young, and being 
without food until the following spring. The 
brown bear of Europe and Asia is sometimes 
exhibited as a performing animal. There are 
also the black bear and grizzly bear of North 
America, the sloth bear of India, the Syrian bear 
of Scripture, and the polar or white bear, which, 
with its yellowish fur, lives among ice, and is a 
good swimmer, and preys on the seal and walrus. 
The ant-bear, the sea-bear, etc., are not real 
bears, but belong to quite different orders of 
animals. 

Bea / ver. [AS. L. fiber.'] An interesting rodent 
animal, valued for its fur. Formerly abundant 
in North America, it is now scarce, and found 
















































35o 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


only inhabiting the banks of rivers in wild parts. 
The hind feet are webbed for swimming, and it 
has a curious broad tail, flattened like a paddle, 
which is used as a rudder. It builds lodges of 
branches and mud about 3 feet high and 7 feet in 
diameter, and is very sagacious in making a 
dam or artificial bank of wood, stones and clay, to 
protect the lodges. The entrances are at all times 
beneath the water, so that the animal can enter 
or leave its home in safety. Its powerful teeth 
are its chief tools, and it cuts down trees of great 
size by gnawing a groove all round, so that they 
fall as it desires, and it then cuts them into 
lengths. The food of the beaver is the bark of 
trees, and it lays up a store for winter by cutting 
branches and sinking them under water, placing 
stones on them. The fur of the beaver was 
formerly used for hat-making, but is now used 
for trimming ladies’ cloaks and for gloves ; and 
the material called castor is obtained from two 
small bags in the groin of the animal. 

Bed. [AS.] Something to rest or sleep on. 
Many substances have been used for this pur¬ 
pose, such as skins, heath and rushes, straw, etc. 
Feathers have long been used. The East Indians 
lie on the floor on light mattresses, the Japanese 
on matting, the Chinese on low bedsteads. In 
Europe, bedsteads are used with two mattresses 
—the upper being made of hair or down, and the 
lower of cotton. The best beds are made with 
steel springs, covered with a hair mattress. 
These are coming largely into use, for hygienic 
reasons, the feather bed not being conducive 
to health, while the close bed-curtain has been 
generally discarded. Folding beds, which by 
day look like a desk or other article of furniture, 
are now much used. 

Bee. [AS.] A family of membrane-winged in¬ 
sects, of which the best known are the honey or 
hive bee and the humble or bumble bee. "The 
hive bee is a busy and curious honey-gatherer, 
which lives in communities or colonies. A 
colony consists of males or drones, females or 
queen bees, and workers. A hive of forty or fifty 
thousand busy workers is all under one queen 
bee. She lays all the eggs, and the workers keep 
close guard over her. They also are females, but 
as a rule lay no eggs. The drones have no sting, 
and neither work nor defend their nest. They 
number about one-thirtietli part of a hive, and 
are all slaughtered by the workers during the 
latter part of summer. When well kept, bees 
collect more honey than is necessary for them-. 

s cl v e s 
and their 
young, 
and the 
excess i s 
the honey 
used by 
man. The 
queen 
never 

works, but the workers gather the pollen and nec¬ 
tar from various flowers. (S zeHoney.) They have 
the sense of smell, for they scent the nectar or 



honey at great distances ; and, like other in¬ 
sects, they have curious compound eyes, com¬ 
posed of thousands of small eyes. The mouth of 
the bee is well adapted to the work. It has a 
long lip and a much longer tongue. With the 
latter it probes the flower-cups and licks up the 
nectar which in its honey-bag becomes honey. 
In the hive, bees gather in thick clusters, hang¬ 
ing from the top, the first suspended by its fore 
claws, and the others holding to one another by 
the legs. In twenty-four hours small scales of 
wax appear on their under parts. The workers 
shake the wax from their bodies or pick it out of 
their pouches with their feet; they then take it 
in their jaws, work it over with saliva, and from 
it build cells in double rows. These cells are 
called the honeycomb. Artificial wax combs are 
sometimes used, and the bees fill them with 
honey. Pollen is also gathered Ifor bee-bread. 
The worker scrapes the pollen and packs it into 
little baskets at the middle joints of its hind legs. 
Bee-bread is pollen mixed with honey for ordi¬ 
nary food and to feed the young. Cells are hex¬ 
agonal in shape, 
and so have 
strength and 
economize 
space. The cell 
of the drone is 
larger than the 
cell of the 
worker, and 
that of the 
queen bee is 
larger than 
either. The 
queen bee 
places a single 
egg in each cell 
worker-eggs 
in worker-cells, 
and drone-eggs 
in drone-cells. The workers seal up these 
cells, leaving little holes for air to enter 
when the young shall be hatched, while 
honey-cells are always sealed tight to keep out 
the air. The eggs become grubs or larvte, which 
spin about themselves silken cocoons , and in 
twenty-one days after the eggs are laid, full- 
grown bees, both workers and drones, come forth. 
The queen grubs remain still in their cells, and 
are guarded and fed by the workers. The old 
queen, jealous of these royal prisoners, becomes 
excited, and a large number of bees fill them¬ 
selves with honey, and, joining the old queen, 
“swarm ” or leave the hive, and settling on some 
branch, are put into a new hive. 

The humble-bee (E. Bombus ), having a longer 
tongue than the honey-bee, reaches the nectar of 
the red clover flower, and, carrying pollen from 
stem to stem, enables it to bear seed. The New 
Zealand farmer tried to raise clover, but failed 
till humble-bees were imported. The humble- 
bee and wasp have communities like the honey¬ 
bee, but the number of the males equals the 
females, and the males work actively and defend 








35i 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


the nest. Bees fortify their nests against the 
sphinx moth and other enemies. 

The carpenter bee is a solitary bee. She bores 
her nest in old wood in the shape of a tube, 
which takes a sudden turn and is continued down 
the trunk parallel to the grain of the wood. This 
tunnel she divides by sawdust partitions into 
cells, in each of w T hich is placed an egg with a 
supply of food for the young larva. Large quan¬ 
tities of bees-wax are used for making candles, 
and also for artificial flowers and fruit. 

Beech. L^S.] A tree of the Fagus family, grow¬ 
ing in Europe and America to a large size. It 
has a smooth bark and thick foliage, and bears 
triangular nuts 'which yield an oil. These nuts 
are used to feed swine. The wood is made into 
shoe lasts, mill wheels and tool handles. 

Beef. [Fr.] The flesh of an ox or cow when 
slaughtered for food. Beef contains fibrin and 

albumen, 
which are 
good flesh¬ 
forming ma¬ 
terials, and 
the value of 
meat is chiefly 
due to the 
presence o f 
these two sub¬ 
stances. The 
methods of 
cutting up 
an ox into beef vary in different countries. 
In this country it is cut up into 17 parts—- 
(1) shin, (2) clod, (3) neck, (4) cheek, (5) chuck 
rib, (6) middle rib, (7) fore rib, (8) sirloin, (9) 
shoulder, (10) brisket, (11) thin flank, (12) rump, 
(i3)aitch or edge bone, (14) buttock or round, 
(15) veiny, (16) mouse buttock, (17) leg. Corned 
beef is made by soaking lean parts in a pickle of 
saltpetre and sugar. 

Beer, (AS. beor; Ger. bier.~\ Under this name 
may be included beer, ale, and porter. The 
process of making beer is called brewing. 
Barley is soaked in w T ater and kept in a warm 
place until it begins to sprout. During this 
process the starch in ever)' - grain of barley is 
changed into saccharine or grape sugar. The 
sprouting is stopped by drying the grains, and 
the barley is then called malt. This done, the 
malt is crushed and boiled in hot water, which 
dissolves the sugar. The sweet liquid so got is 
called wort. Hops are added to the wort. They 
give an agreeable taste to the beer and help to 
clear it and to keep it. Next a little yeast is 
added which causes it to ferment. Fermenta¬ 
tion converts the grape sugar into carbonic acid 
gas, which escapes into the air, and alcohol, 
which remains in the beer. In 100 lbs. of beer 
there are from 4 to 8 lbs. of alcohol, 4J2 lbs. of 
dextrin, x / 2 lb. of albuminoid matter, and from 
80 to 90 lbs. of water. 

Beet. [AS.] A biennial vegetable plant which 
produces an edible root the first year and seed 
the second year. There are many varieties ; 
the red is used for the table, the mangel-wurzel 


for feeding stock, and the white in making sugar. 
Beet-root sugar is equal to that made from the 
cane, and is made in immense quantities in 
Europe, where more than 4' 000 >ooo tons are 
produced annually. This industry has been 
introduced into the United States, but has as yet 
made no great progress. 

Beetle. [AS.] Any insect of the order Coleoptera 
(or wings in a sheath), having four wings, the 
outer pair being stiff cases for covering the 
others when folded up, and defending them 
from hard substances underground. The black 
beetle is the common large cockroach. The 



curculio or weevil lives on fruit or grains ; tiger- 
beetles are striped ; carrion-beetles live on dead 
animals; the Spanish-fly is a bright-green beetle; 
stag beetles have long jaws. The turnip-fly 
or flea-beetle and click-beetle are destructive 
to crops. There are many thousands of different 
specks of coleoptera, and they vary very much 
in size and appearance. 

Bego / nia. [From Michael Begon, a botanist.] A 
species of plants grown as ornamental plants. 
The leaves are curiously one-sided and often 
exhibit brilliant colors. 

Bell. [AS.] A hollow metallic vessel shaped like 
a cup, with a wide mouth containing a clapper or 
tongue, and giving forth a musical sound when 
struck. Bells are made of various metals, but the 
best are made of an alloy of copper and tin. The 
large bell of Moscow is 19 feet 3 inches high ; 
the bell of Kioto, Japan, is 24 feet high. 

Belladonna. [Bot. name Atropa belladonna .]. 
A herbaceous plant with reddish bell-shaped 
flowers and shining black berries. Both plant 
and fruit arc poisonous, and used as powerful 
medicinal agents. Also called nightshade. 

BeFIows. [AS.] A flat, round, double utensil, 
which by the rise and fall of the top part draws 
in air through a valve and expels it through a 
tube. Useful for blowing fires, ventilating mines, 
and filling the pipes of an organ and some other 
musical instruments with wind. 

Ben / zene. [Arab, from benzoin.'] A compound 
of carbon and hydrogen discovered by Faraday. 
It occurs amongst the products of the distillation 
of many organic bodies, but its chief source is 













352 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON THINGS 


coal-tar. It is a thin, limpid, colorless liquid, 
emitting a pleasant odor. It dissolves easily in 
alcohol, ether, turpentine, and wood spirit, but 
is insoluble in water. It is of value from its 
great powder of dissolving gutta-percha, wax, 
camphor, and fatty bodies. Impure benzene is 
used for removing grease stains from silk or 
woollen articles of dress. 

Ben / zine. A substance derived from petroleum, 
which is much used as a substitute for turpentine 
and for dissolving oils and fats. 

Benzoin. [Arab.] A vegetable substance obtained 
by drying the juice of the benzoin tree. It is 
brought from Siam and the islands of the Indian 
Archipelago. It is used in perfumery and as 
incense, being fragrant and aromatic, and also 
in medicine. A compound tincture is prepared 
from it, known as Friar’s Balsam, and is used 
for dressing wounds. 

Berg'amot. [It. bergamotta ; prob. from Turk. 
beg artnudi, a lord’s pear.] A tree of the 
Orange family, having a pear-shaped fruit, from 
the rind of which is extracted an essential oil 
wdth a delicious and much-prized perfume called 
oil of bergamot. This oil is used in perfumery 
and in making liqueurs. 

Ber'yl. [Gk. beryllosi] A mineral found in granite 
together with topaz. It is of a light-green color. 
It crj^slallizes in six-sided prisms; is very hard 
and difficult to fuse unless mixed with some 
other substance, such as borax; and consists 
chiefly of alumina, silica, and glucina. It is 
found in India, Brazil, Peru, and Siberia. 

Be'tel. [Tamil.] A climbing pepper, the leaves 
of which, mixed with lime and areca-nut, are 
chewed by the inhabitants of the East Indies, and 
the Malays. It stains the lips red and teeth black. 

Bevel Wheels. Wheels the axes of which are 
not parallel, but inclined at a certain angle to 
one another. When the axes of the two wheels 
are at right angles they are called mitre wheels. 

BFcycle. [L,. bis, twice ; and Gk. kyklos , a circle.] 
A two-wheeled velocipede propelled by treadles 
attached to cranks or levers. It has become a 
favorite vehicle, both in Europe and the United 
States, from its rapidity of motion and the ease 
with wffiich it can be propelled. 

BilFlards. [Fr.], The king of indoor games. It is 
played with balls and a cue on a table, with 
pockets at the sides and corners. The player 
seeks to impel his ball to strike or cannon two 
other balls, or drive another ball into the pockets. 
The French game is cannon only, and is played 
on a table without pockets. The American 
game is played with four different colored balls. 
Pyramids is played with fifteen red balls arranged 
in a triangle, and a white ball; in pool there are 
as many balls as players. 

Bi'ograph. [Gk. bios, life ; graphein , to write.] 
An instrument for the reproduction from photo¬ 
graphs of seemingly living forms. The photo¬ 
graphs are taken on a film in such rapid succession 
that every phase of movement of the figures is 
caught as a separate picture. To produce the 
effect of life the film with its successive pictures 
is run rapidly through a lantern arrangement, 


they being thrown on a screen in such quick 
succession that they blend to the vision and 
produce a remarkable vivid representation of 
actual life movements. 

Birch. [AS.] A tree of several species belonging 
to the genus Betula —as the white or common 
birch—the most widely diffused, the dwarf 
birch, the paper or canoe birch, the yellow birch, 
and the black or cherry birch. The common 
birch is called silver birch or lady birch ; it has 
small green leaves, elegant drooping boughs and 
silver-white bark, and grows on the bleak 
mountain side. From the bark of the common 
birch an oil is obtained which is used in the 
preparation of real and imitation Russian leather; 
also a resinous substance called birch camphor 
or betulin is got from the outer bark of the tree. 
The birch of Jamaica is a kind of turpentine 
tree. The dwarf birch is a mere bush, and is the 
last shrub found on drawing near the eternal snow 
of the pole. Dye is prepared from birch leaves ; 
and the wood makes good charcoal for gun¬ 
powder, and is used for smoking hams and fish. 
The w T ood is used by Cartwrights, upholsterers, 
and turners; and the bark being impervious to 
water, is used for canoes and for preserving roofs. 
An oil similar to winter-green oil is prepared 
from the black birch. 

Bird. [AS.] A winged vertebrate animal covered 
with feathers. Birds easily mount up into the 
air, their bones being of all animals largest in 
proportion to their weight, and the quills of 

their feathers 
filled with 
air. These 
communicate 
with a series 
of sacs or air- 
chambers 
con nected 
with the 
lungs. In 
birds which 
fl y much 
the neck 

is stretched forward like a wedge, the breast 
bone is extended like the keel of a ship, and 
the wish-bone, which is the collar-bones 
joined into one, is much developed. In birds 
such as the ostrich, which run chiefly, the wish¬ 
bone does not grow. When a bird perches and 
bends its knees, the weight of its body pulls a 
large ribbon-like cord in its leg, which makes its 
toes clutch the perch. As it sleeps its body falls 
forward; and the further forward it goes, the 
closer do the toes cling, so that it does not fall 
off. The heart of a bird has four chambers, with 
perfect circulation. The temperature of the 
blood of birds is very high (104°) while that of 
the human body is 98°. Their bodies retain this 
heat through the non-conducting nature of the 
down and feathers with which they are covered. 
Feathers ( q . v.) are modified hairs, and are shed 
annually. Birds are then said to moult. The 
bones of the neck vary in different birds. The 
sparrow has nine, the swan has twenty-three. 






ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


353 


The necks of birds are thus flexible and strong, 
and their heads may be turned easily, or put 
under their wings when they go to sleep. The 
back-bone of a bird is inflexible, and practically 
one bone. The place of teeth in animals is 
taken in birds by the horny growth called the 
beak ( q.v .) Tropical birds have the most beauti¬ 
ful plumage. Birds usually migrate iu flocks to 
warmer countries on the approach of winter, 
returning in spring, many of them being very 
swift in flight. All birds build nests in which 
their eggs are laid and their young hatched, the 
young being cared for in the nest until able to 
fly. Birds’ nests are made of a great many 
different materials—such as straw, sticks, hay, 
moss, leaves, clay, wool, hair, and feathers. 
The outside of the nest is rough and strong, for 
it has to keep out the wind and the rain. The 
inside is generally soft and warm, like a bed. 
The nests of different species of birds vary 
greatly, from the neat little nest of the wren, 
with a hole in the side for an entrance, to the 
hole i'n a tree in which the woodpecker lives, the 
swallow’s nest of dry mud, and the eagle’s nest 
of woven sticks. Some birds build their nests 
in trees, some in bushes, some in hedges, some 
among the grass of the field, and some in the 
corners of windows and under the eaves of 
houses. Birds are classified according to their 
beaks and claws, which vary greatly with their 
habits. There are swimmers, waders, runners, 
scratchers, climbers, perchers, and birds of prey. 
(See Beak , Claw , Feather , Foot, Wing.) 

Bird of Paradise. A perching bird allied to the 
bower-birds. It has wonderfully beautiful plum¬ 
age and remarkable tail-feathers, which are much 
prized for ladies’ hats. There are twenty kinds. 
They live only in New Guinea and the adjoining 
islands. 

Biscuit. [Fr. bis cuit , twice baked.] Originally 
biscuits, which belong to the class of unfer- 
meuted bread, were deprived of their moisture 
by being twice baked ; but although that process 
is no longer employed, the name is retained. 
Ship biscuits are made of wheat flour, from 
which only the coarsest bran is separated. Fancy 
biscuits are made from fine flour, to which eggs, 
are added with ginger, almonds, or other spices. 
(See Bread.) 

Bis / muth. [Ger.] One of the metallic elements. 
It is found in small quantities, in the native 
state, in Cornwall, France, Germany, Peru, and 
Siberia, but is chiefly prepared from its ores, 
which are found in Saxony and Cornwall. Pure 
bismuth crystallizes more readily than any other 
metal, and its density decreases under increased 
pressure. Fusible alloys containing bismuth 
have been to some extent used as safety-plugs 
for steam boilers, in addition to the safety-valve. 
The compounds of bismuth are also used in 
medicine and as pigments. 

BFson. A large animal of the Ox family, of which 
only two species remain, one in America and 
one in Europe. Its most striking difference 
from the ox is iu the hump behind the neck, the 

23 c 


longer limbs and shaggy head and shoulders. The 
American bison, commonly but wrongly called 
buffalo, was formerly very abundant, but has 
been nearly exterminated. Of the European 
bison only one herd remains. The bison is about 
10 feet long, 6 feet high, and is very strong. 

Bit/tern. A wading bird of the Heron family, 
now very scarce in England. It has a booming 
cry, which when heard at night sounds so dis¬ 
mally that the bird has been named the night 
raven. The American bittern is called the stake- 
driver or meadow-hen. 

BitiF men. [E*] A combustible mineral which 
emits a strong odor when burning. It is sup¬ 
posed to have been produced by the action of 
heat on coal, and is essentially the same as 
petroleum and naphtha. 

Blackberry. The fruit of the prickly bramble 
bush, called in England the brambleberry. The 
plant is of the same family as the raspberry. It 
grows all over Emrope and Asia, and is abundant 
in North America. In the United States are the 
high-bush and low-bush blackberries, and the 
creeping dewberry, all growing wild. There are 
also several cultivated varieties, bearing larger 
and finer berries. The fruit is eaten for dessert, 
made into jelly, jam, aud preserves, and wine 
and brandy are made from it. 

Blackbird. A singing bird which is a species of 
thrush. In England it is sometimes known as 
the merle, and its fine note makes it a favorite ; 
but not with the gardener, who blames it for its 
fruit-eating propensities. In America there are 
the crow-blackbird or purple grackle, the red¬ 
winged blackbird, and the cow-bird. 

Black=lead. The substance called by this name 
has no lead in its composition, but consists of 
graphite or plumbago, one of the forms of car¬ 
bon. It gets its name from the mark it makes 
on paper, like that made by lead. The best 
known is found at Ticonderoga, New York, this 
being of almost pure carbon. It is used to make 
lead pencils, being ground and compressed 
into shape. It is also used for stove black¬ 
ing, mixed with clay to form crucibles, which 
have to stand great heat, aud for other purposes. 

Black=snake. A species of snake common in the 
United States and one of the largest found there, 
measuring sometimes over six feet in length. It 
is of a leaden color, is very swift in its movements,. 
and readily climbs trees. Though it bites readily, 
it is not poisonous, and is an enemy to the rattle¬ 
snake, which it coils around and crushes to death. 
It feeds on small animals, seeks eggs in the 
poultry-yard and milk or cream iu dairies. It is 
easily tamed. 

Blanket. [Fr.] A heavy, loosely-woven stuff, 
usually of wool, and having a nap, used in bed¬ 
clothing, as a robe, or as a cover for a horse. 

Blast=furnace. A furnace for smelting ores into 
which air is forced by pressure. The terms hot 
blast and cold blast are used to indicate whether 
the current is heated or not heated before enter¬ 
ing the furnace. 




354 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


BLAST FURNACE. 


asunder of rocks or other 
hard material by means 
of explosives. In this 
work gunpowder is now 
largely displaced by the 
more powerful dyna- 
m i t e or other newly- 
discovered explosives. 
Blasting holes are now 
largely made by steam- 
drills instead of by 
hand, and the electric 
spark is much used in 
exploding the charge. 
Some of the new ex¬ 
plosives are exceed¬ 
ingly powerful in their 
rending effect. 



Blasl/ing. The blowing 


Bleaching. [Fr.] The process of removing the 
color from textile fabrics and from many other 
materials used in the arts, such as oil, wax, and 
the various substances used in paper-making. 
The old method of ibleaching was carried on by 
exposing the materials to the action of the sun’s 
rays, while they were kept damp by frequently 
sprinkling them with water; but since the dis¬ 
covery of the bleaching action of chlorine about 
one hundred years ago by Berthollet, a French 
chemist, bleaching lias become a thoroughly 
scientific process. The two chief bleaching 
agents are bleaching-powder (or chloride of 
lime) and sulphurous acid. 

Blood. [AS.] The vital fluid of animals, which 
circulates through tubular vessels known as 
arteries and veins. This fluid is largely water, 
but contains the nutriment derived from the 
food we eat. The arteries carry the bright-red 
blood which feeds the system. The veins bring 
back dark-colored blood, filled with waste sub¬ 
stance from the body. Arterial blood is bright 
red and life-giving. Venous blood is black-look¬ 
ing, and destructive of life until purified by the 
lungs ( q.v .) From the extremities of small arte¬ 
ries the blood enters the thread-like capillaries, 
where nutrition takes place. These capillary 
tubes convey the blood to every part of the mus¬ 
cles and bones, to the root of every hair and 
every part of the brain, and throw it into the 
veins, so that it may go back to the heart (q.v.). 
Blood, though red in appearance, is a clear liquid 
without color, in which are particles or corpus¬ 
cle? so minute that the aid of a powerful micro¬ 
scope is required to examine them. Some cor¬ 
puscles are red, others are white, but the red are 
so numerous as to tinge the fluid red. Oxygen 
from the blood unites with particles of tissue, 
and burns them, causing both the heat and the 
motion of the body. Exercise makes us warm, 
because the air is inhaled more rapidly, and the 
blood passes more rapidly through the lungs in 
contact with it, and so more oxygen is introduced 
into the body. The blood circulates through the 
body once in about two minutes, or about 12 
lbs. of blood pass through the heart every minute. 
Every time the heart contracts it sends a fresh 


supply of blood to the blood-vessels, and the> 
motion gives a pulsation to the system. This 
is distinctly perceived at the pulse in the 
wrist, because there a rather large artery lies 
near the surface. The temperature of the human 
body is 98°, that of birds is 104°, and that of fish 
is 85°. 

Bliz / zard. A winter storm common on the wes¬ 
tern plains of the United States, its characteristic 
being a strong and very cold wind and fierce 
blinding snow. It usually appears in the Canadian 
plains, following a very low barometer, and 
spreads over a wide area. Blinded by the snow, 
many people lose their lives. In the bliz¬ 
zard of January, 1888, about 235 people perished. 
Blizzards rarely visit the East, but on March 12, 
1888, one occurred in the country about New 
York and Philadelphia which made all roads im¬ 
passable and stopped railroad travel for nearly a 
week. 

Block=system. A system for the control of rail¬ 
road trains so as to avoid collisions. Block sta¬ 
tions are placed a few miles apart, connected by 
telegraph lines, and provided with signal boards 
or lights. The rule is that no train shall pass a 
block station while a train is on the section in 
advance, and until word comes back that the 
section is clear. Thus, if operated perfectly, 
there can be only one train on a section of three 
or four miles at a time, and collisions would be 
impossible. But men are not always to be 
trusted, and an automatic block system, in which 
the trains themselves work the signals, through 
electric attachments, is being introduced. The 
block system was first introduced in 1851, and is 
now much more common in Europe than in the 
United States. 

Blow'pipe. A tube for blowing a jet of air into 
the flame of a lamp, a fire, or a gas-jet, in order 
to obtain a high temperature by rapid combus¬ 
tion. It is used in glass-blowing, in soldering 
metals, and in analytical chemistry and miner¬ 
alogy. 

Bluebird. A small song-bird very common in 
spring in the United States. It lays five or six 
pale-blue eggs, and hatches several broods in a 
season. 

BlueTish. A large voracious fish, valued for food, 
and widely found on the American coast. It is 
called there the horse mackerel. 

Bo'a Constrictor. [L.] A large and powerful 

serpent of tropical 
America, some¬ 
times twenty or 
thirty feet long. 
It has a succession 
of spots, alter¬ 
nately black and 
yellow, along the 
back. It kills its 
prey by winding it 
within its folds and 
crushing it by 
its. muscular strength ; but other serpents in 
Asia and Africa which crush their prey are also 
sometimes called by this name. 
















ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


355 


Bob / bin. [Fr.] A spool or reel, of bone or wood, 
with a head at one or both ends, and a hole bored 
through its length. It is used to hold yarn or 
thread in a shuttle, as in spinning or warping 
machines, looms, and sewing-machines. Bobbin 
lace is made on a pillow with bobbins. 

Bod / y. [AS.] The material part of a living being. 
In the higher animals it is composed of a head , a 
central part or trunk , and four limbs. When the 
human body i* dissected, or taken to pieces, 
there is found a hard part or skeleton, composed 
of about 240 bones ; upon these bones lie masses 
of red flesh (muscles), by which the bones are 
moved ; on the outside of all is a covering called 
the skin. The limbs are solid, but the trunk and 
head are hollow, containing certain organs, each 
of which has its allotted duty or function to per¬ 
forin so long as the body retains life. The mus¬ 
cles are called the organs of locomotion, because 
it is by their aid that we move about from place 
to place The chief organ in the head is the 
brain , contained in the bony box called theskull. 
The trunk is divided, horizontally, into an upper 
portion (called the chest ) and a lower portion 
(known as the abdomen). The organs within the 
chest are the heart and the lungs. In the abdo¬ 
men are situated the stomach, the intestines, the 
liver, the pancreas, the spleen, and the kidneys. 

BIow / ing=mach / ine. An apparatus to produce a 
blast of air. The blacksmith’s bellows is one of 
the earliest forms of these. Various machine- 
blowers are now in use, which give a very power¬ 
ful blast, some of them being rotary machines, 
others utilizing the steam jet to produce a blast. 
Another form of blower is the electric fan, with 
rotating vanes, used to keep the air in motion in 
stores or offices. Powerful fans are used for the 
melting of iron in cupolas, and air blasts are 
turned into smoke-stacks to make a powerful 
draft for locomotives, steam fire-engines, etc. 

Boar. The wild form of the common hog. It is 
a large and strong beast, of four feet or more in 
length, while the male has dangerous canine 
teeth. It hides by day and roams at night, doing 
great damage to crops and young trees. It is 
hunted on this account, and also for its flesh and 
bristles, but often proves a dangerous enemy. 
In some parts of India “pig-sticking” is the 
favorite sport. 

Bog. A tract of land covered with peat, which 
holds much water and converts it into a kind of 
quagmire. It is sometimes called Peat-bog, Pea - 
moss, or Moss, to distinguish it from other kinds 
of swamp. Bogs of wide extent occur in North¬ 
ern lands and they cover a considerable part 
of Ireland. Some bogs are more than 40 feet in 
depth, and are dangerous to traverse in wet 
seasons. (See Peat.) 

Boil 'er. A vessel in which water is boiled to pro¬ 
duce steam, for engine purposes. It is usually 
a large, cylindrical receptacle of iron, though 
boilers are frequently made of tubes, where rapid 
steam-making is desired. The boilers in use to 
warm buildings are commonly made of wrought 
iron, though copper is sometimes used. 


Boom / erang. A peculiar missile used by the 
savages of Australia in war or the chase. It 
consists of a piece of hard wood of a bent form 
and about two feet long. One side is flat, the 
other convex in shape. When thrown it has a 
singular motion. Instead of going forward it 
rises with a whirling motion, then begins to go 
backward, and strikes the ground behind the 
thrower. The Australians are very skillful in 
the use of this singular weapon, and can make it 
strike where they wish. 

Boil'ing. When water or any other liquid is 
heated in the open air, its temperature rises. 
After a time bubbles of vapor are formed and 
reach the surface, and at this stage boiling or 
ebullition h.is begun. The heat converts the 
water from the liquid state into the state of gas 
or vapor, which rises in bubbles and passes off 
into tiie air as steam. The temperature at which 
boiling begins is called the boiling-point. Dif¬ 
ferent liquids have different boiling points,—that 
of water being 212 0 F.; of alcohol, 173.12 0 ; of 
mercury, 662° ; and of acetic acid, 243.14 0 . 
These are the temperatures needed at sea-level. 
At higher points, where the pressure of the 
atmosphere is less, the boiling point is reached at 
lower cemperatures. 

Bolt. [AS.] A strong pin of iron or other material 
used to hold something in its place, often having 
a head at one end and a screw thread cat on the 
other, on which a movable piece called a nut is 
screwed. 

Bone. [AS.] A firm, hard substance, of a white 



THE ULNA. 


THE HUMERUS. THE SCAPULA. 


or pale rose color, composing the skeleton or 
firmer part of the body. There are 246 bones 
in the human body. They give shape and firmness 















35 ^ 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


to the body, protect the organs from injury, 
and afford a solid place for the attachment of 
muscles. All bones are curiously fashioned, and 
beautifully adapted to their various purposes. 
Where the object is to protect, the bone is strong 
and thick, and offers the greatest resistance with 
the least material, or is so placed as to defend the 
organ. Those designed for support are thick 
and solid. Long bones are hollow, and contain 
marrow, which is composed chiefly of blood¬ 
vessels and fat. The other bones are spongy and 
lattice like inside, and hard on the outside. 
Bones are full of fine tubes through which the 
blood passes. The bones of the various animals 
vary in their texture, and are chiefly composed 
of phosphate and carbonate of lime and gela¬ 
tine. Bones are covered with a tough membrane, 
except at the joints, where they are covered with 
cartilage. When this cartilage is removed the 
bone dies. The bones of the trunk are the pelvis, 
spinal column (see Backbone ), the ribs, the 
breast-bone, the shoulder-blade, and the collar¬ 
bone. The bones of the arms are the humerus, 
the ulna, and the radius. The wrist has eight 
bones and the palm of the hand five. The bones 
of the legs are the femur, pat 11a, tibia, and 
fibula. The ankle has seven and the body of the 
foot five bones. The skull is composed of a 
number of bones, which surround and protect 
the brain (q.v.). 

Bo / rax. A compound of boron wdth sodium and 
oxygen, is obtained chiefly from Tuscany, and 
is found also in Tibet, China, Nevada, and Cali¬ 
fornia. It is used in soldering gold and other 
metals, and in the arts as a flux. Dyers use it to 
give a gloss to silks. It is employed also in 
medicine, and as a cosmetic. It is valuable as 
an insecticide, being fatal to roaches, and is much 
used in preserving meat, fish, butter, and milk. 

Bore. [Icel.] A tidal flood wdiich rushes into 
certain rivers of peculiar configuration, and is 
dangerous to shipping, as at the mouth of the 
Amazon, the Hoogly, and the Tsien-tang; also 
the flow of the tide in the Bay of Fundy and in 
Hang-chow Bay. 

BouFder. [Dan. buldre .] A mass of rock chiefly 
rounded, that has been transported by the action 
of ice and other natural agencies from its native 
bed. Boulder clay is the unstratified clay 
deposit of the glacial or drift period, and often 
contains large numbers of boulders. (See Glacier.) 

Bow. [AS.] Anything bent in the shape of a 
curve, as a rainbow. A weapon made of wood 
or elastic material, with a cord connecting the 
two ends, by means of which an arrow is 
propelled. 

Box. [AS.] A tree or shrub which grow T s in 
various parts of the world. The common box 
has two varieties. The dw r arf box is used as an 
edging for gardens. The wood of the tree kinds 
is hard and smooth. It is extensively used by 
turners, engravers, and mathematical-instrument 
makers. Also a wooden case or receptacle. 

Brace. [Fr.] A cord, ligament, or rope for hold¬ 
ing anything tightly. Any piece of matieral 


used to transmit or change the direction of a 
weight or pressure. In the plural, straps to 
sustain trousers. 

Brad'awl. [AS.] A straight aw r l with chisel 
edge, used to make holes for brads, or thin nails 
with a slight projection at the top instead of a 
head. 

Brain. [AS.] The brain is the principal nerve 
centre, and occupies the 
whole cavity of the head. 
It is carefully enclosed by 
membranes, its upper part 
being called the cerebrum, 
and its low r er part the cerebel¬ 
lum. The interior mass of 
the brain is composed of 
white matter, but the entire 
surface has a thin gray cov¬ 
ering. The surface of the 
cerebrum is made up of irre¬ 
gular rounded ridges or con¬ 
volutions. The greater the 
number and depth of the con¬ 
volutions, the greater the 
amount of brain surface, and 
the greater the amount of 
gray matter which covers the 
surface. It is supposed that- 
the gray matter increases 
with study or thought. A 
deep indentation extending 
from front to back divides 
the brain into parts, so that 
in reality the brain is double, 
corresponding to the pairs 
of the external portions of 
the body. The two halves 
are connected by a central 
mass of fibres. F r o in the 
nervous mass within the skuil 
twelve pairs of cranial nerves 
extend to different parts of 
the head and face. From the 
brain the spinal cord extends 
downward through the spinal 
column to the low T er extremity 
of the body. In every action 
which comes from thought, 
the mind, through the brain, 
with its outgoing nerves, 
directs the first steps, and the 
brain is regarded as the 
organ of intellect and the seat of the soul. 

Brake. [AS.] A mechanism for retarding or 
stopping motion through friction by the pres¬ 
sure or rubbing against wdieels, or of clogs or 
ratchets against a rail, or of a pivoted lever against 
a wheel or drum in a machine. An air-brake 
operates by compressed air contained in an iron 
box on the engine connecting w T ith the w'heels of 
railroad cars. 

Bran'dy. [Ger. branntwein .] A strong alcoholic 
liquor, distilled chiefly in France from wine. 
When w T ine is heated in a close vessel, the alco¬ 
hol arises out of it as vapor. If the vapor be 







ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


357 


made to pass through a tube surrounded by cold 
water, the alcohol will be condensed to a liquid, 
which is brandy. 

Brass. [AS.] An alloy of two parts of copper 
and one of zinc. Prince Rupert’s metal, used in 
jewelry, has from 75 to 80 per cent, of copper. 
The alloy used in Dutch metal has 85 per cent, 
of copper. It is much used for machinery, tele¬ 
scopes, buttons, screws, etc. 

Brazil=rmt. The fruit of a large tree, found on 
the Orinoco River, South America. The nuts, 
which are known commonly as Cream Nuts, are 
three-sided, with hard shells, and white meat 
wdiich is very good when fresh, but soon spoils 
from its abundance of oil. The nuts are packed 
in a smooth round case, half as large as a man’s 
head, twenty or thirty of them in one case. 
They fall when ripe, rendering it dangerous to 
pass under the tree at that time. The monkeys 
are very fond of them, fighting for the nuts and 
throwing down the cases to break them. 

Brazil=wood. A red dye-wood, brought from 
Brazil, and used in dyeing silks, the dye being 
got from the wood by boiling. Brazil got its 
name from this wood, which the Portuguese 
called braza , or glowing embers, from its red 
color. 

Bread. [AS.] An important article of food made 
from the flour of wheat or other grains. In the 
process of bread-making from 50 to 60 per cent. 



BREAD-FRUIT. 


of water is added to the flour, in which yeast or 
other leavening matter is mixed. The yeast 
causes the dough to ferment, in which process 
the starch of the flour gives off carbonic acid gas. 
This forces the dough to swell, and fills it with a 
great number of air cavities, making it what is 
called light. The dough is then divided into 
loaves, and again left to stand, and again it 
swells. The loaves are then put into the oven, 
when the moisture evaporates and they swell, 
while a yellow crust begins to form on the sur¬ 
face. They are baked in the oven till the bottom 


crust is hard. The acid is driven out of the 
dough by the heat of the oven. Aerated bread 
was invented by Dr. Dauglish of Malvern. It has 
no leaven, but has carbonic acid gas forced into 
the dough by machinery. The mixture and 
kneading are also done by machinery. (See 
Biscuit.) 

Bread=fruit Tree. A native of the South Sea 
Islands which bears a large, nearly round fruit, 
the size of a child’s head. The pulp, when not 
quite ripe, is white and mealy, and is baked for 
food. It has little taste, but is very nutritious. 
The tree has been introduced into the West 
Indies and South America. 

Break 7 water. A bank of stones or a structure of 
timber, built to break the violence of the sea 
before its entrance into a roadstead or harbor. A 
great quantity of large stones are usually sunk, 
and the bank which they form is built upon with 
large blocks of artificial stone. In some localities 
breakwaters of immense size and extent have 
been built. 

BreathTng. The act of respiration. The organs 
concerned in breathing are the nostrils, the wind¬ 
pipe and the lungs. The wind-pipe is a stout 
tube, divided below into two tubes, one of which 
goes to the right and the other to the left lung. 
When the ribs are elevated and the diaphragm is 
depressed, there is a tendency to produce a 
vacuum between the lungs and the wall-chest. 
The air forces its way into the air-passages of the 
lungs, and expands the lung tissue so that it fills 
the enlarged space within the chest. This is in¬ 
spiration. When the ribs and diaphragm return 
to their passive condition, the pressure of the air 
ceases, and the elastic tissue contracts, forcing 



AIR-CELLS AND CAPILLARIES OF A 
HUMAN LUNG (MAGNIFIED). 

the air out. This is called expiration, and the 
whole act respiration. At every inspiration we 
draw into the lungs rather more than half a pint 
of cool, fresh air. At every expiration we send 
out the same quantity of hot, foul air. Air that 
has been breathed once is found to have lost 
about one-twentieth of its oxygen, and. to have 
gained as much carbonic acid gas. Such air 
is not fit to be breathed again. While we are 
in the open air there is little fear of our being 
compelled to breathe the same air twice ; but in 







353 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


rooms it is necessary to see that there are open¬ 
ings for the impure air to pass out, and other 
openings to allow fresh air to get in. If we 
reckon that we breathe fifteen times per minute, 
it can be readily calculated that an ordinary adult 
takes into his bod)’ from the air, by means of his 
lungs, i ]/ 2 lbs. of oxygen daily, and gives to the 
air a rather greater amount of carbonic acid gas. 
The frog has no ribs, but simply closes its lips 
and swallows the air which is in its mouth. Tur¬ 
tles swallow the air in the same way as frogs. 
Fishes get all the air they need from the water, 
which enters freely at the mouth and passes over 
the gills, and escapes at the gill slit—the oxygen 
from the water being absorbed by the blood of 
the gills. A fish out of water dies for want of 
oxygen, which it can take from water but cannot 
take from air, and so it is suffocated by air. Lob¬ 
sters breathe only by gills, which a;e situated in 
a cavity under the body and attached to the legs, 
the action of the legs and of a spoon-shaped ap¬ 
pendage causing a current of water to pass over 
the gills,which absorb the needed oxygen. Insects 
breathe by air-tubes that pass through every part 
of their body, and open on the surface of the 
body in small holes, which exclude water or dust, 
but admit air. (See Lungs.) 

Brick. [Fr.] A mass of clay which is converted 
into building material by burning. The clay is 
dug up, exposed to the air and frost, and kneaded 
or mixed with water until it is a thick paste, and 
then moulded into bricks, which are called green 
or raw bricks. A brick-making machine will 
turn out from twenty to thirty thousand green 
bricks a day. These are burned in large ovens 
or kilns. The color of bricks depends on the 
proportion of iron they contain; red bricks 
have much iron, and cream bricks have little 
iron in them. Terra-cotta is a very fine clay of 
a delicate red color, made into bricks, urns, and 
statues. Bricks are used for buildings of all 
kinds, and are cemented by mortar made of sand 
and lime. 

Bridge. [AS.] A roadway over a stream, valley, 



or low ground. Viaduct is applied to bridges 
over which a road or railway passes; and aque¬ 
duct is applied to those for carrying a canal or 


water. They are made of wood, stone, iron, or 
steel. Bridges are built in various ways. In shal¬ 
low water they are supported from the bottom, 
or stone piers are built, and arches thrown from 
pier to pier. Suspension bridges are held up by 
strong strands of wire stretched from shore to 
shore. A common way of building bridges now 
is by truss or girder work, the bridge being 
sustained by iron girders firmly bolted together. 
There are many remarkable bridges in existence, 
some of them of great length and width and able 
to support immense weights. 

BritarFnia Met/al. [From L. Britannia , Great 
Britain.] An alloy of tin, antimony, and copper. 
It varies in composition, but in general it 
contains from 80 to 90 per cent, of tin, with 
varying proportions of the other two metals. It 
is used for the manufacture of numerous articles 
for the table, also as a basis for electro-plating. 

Bronze. [Fr.] An alloy of copper and tin, with 
a small quantity of zinc added. Bronze is used 
for statues, ornaments, bells, cannon, coin, etc. 
Turkish gongs and cymbals are made of a bell- 
metal plunged while hot into cold water. Hard 
bronze is obtained from 7 of copper to 1 of tin ; 
while soft bronze, which bears rolling and draw¬ 
ing, contains 16 of copper to 1 of tin. Bronze 
for bells generally contains a little zinc and lead. 
Copper with 10 per cent, of aluminium yields a 
handsome golden yellow alloy, known as alu¬ 
minium bronze , and much in use for various 
purposes. 

Broom. [AS.] A low shrub with long, straight, 
green angular branches, minute leases, and 
yellow flowers. The twigs, when tied together, 
are suitable for making brooms to sweep with. 

BrusseIs=sprouts. A plant of the Cabbage 
family, which produces in the axils of the up¬ 
right stems numerous small green heads or 
sprouts , each a cabbage in miniature. 

Buck 7 wheat. [. Buck , a beech tree ; and wheat .] 
A plant of a family which includes knot-weed, 
called also Saracen wheat, with a triangular seed 
shaped like beech-nuts; when ground it is used 
in America for griddle cakes, in France for bread 
or as gruel. In England it is sown as food for 
pheasants, to decoy them from their 
covers. Its flowers yield excellent 
honey, of which bees are very fond, 
and it is often planted in Lhe United 
States for this purpose. 

Bud. [AS.] The rudiment of a branch, 
a leaf, or a flower. In biennial and per¬ 
ennial plants buds are formed towards 
the close of the growing season in the 
axils of the leaves. Terminal buds 
are those at the e n d of branches, 
and lateral buds are those at the sides. 
Buds are usually protected from the 
frost during winter by a covering of 
scales. The buds of plants growing 
in tropical countries have no special covering. 

Buffalo. [Span.] A ruminant animal of the Ox 
family, found in Southern Asia and Europe and 
in South Africa. The buffalo of Asia is a native 











ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


359 


or tile East Indies, but has been introduced into 
other countries as far west as Italy. This animal 
is fond c-f water, and during the heat of the day 
lies in water sunk up to its nostrils. It covers 
itself with a coating of mud, as a protection 
against insects. It has long been domesticated 
and used as a beast of burden, and is the farming 
animal in the Phillipine Islands. The Cape 
buffalo inhabits South Africa, and is regarded by 
hunters as very fierce. Its horns are very broad 
at the base. Buffalo-horn is used for combs, 
drinking cups, and knife and fork-handles. The 
American bison is generally called buffalo. (See 
Bison.) 

Bug. [Celt.] A general name applied to various 
insects, as squash-bug; but specially also the 
bed-bug. Also, loosely, any beetle, such as 
lady-bug, potato-bug, etc. 

Bu'gle. [Fr.] A copper musical instrument for 
calling hounds or for summoning soldiers, first 
made from the horn of a wild ox. In bands the 
bugle is now superseded by the cornet. 
BulPfinch. A European cage bird allied to the 

grossbeak, with the 
breast and neck red, 
It may be easily 
taught to whistle 
correctly musical 
airs. 

BulFfrog. The 

largest of the frogs, 
it being generally 
6 to 8 inches long, 
and 4 inches broad. 
It is very common in 
the United States, 
especially in the 
South, and derives its 
name from its loud call, which resembles the low¬ 
ing of a bull. 

BurEion. [Fr.] A swelling usually on the first 
joint of the great toe, caused by continued 
pressure of tight boots. 



THE COMMON FROG 


BuiEsen BuriEer. This burner consists of an 
ordinary gas-jet over which is placed a metal 
tube about 5 inches long, perforated with holes 
at the bottom. When the gas is lighted, air is 
drawn through the holes, and mixes with the 
gas before ignition. From this air a plentiful 
supply of oxygen is obtained to allow complete 
combustion to proceed at once throughout the 
whole flame, and thus a smokeless, non-luminous 
flame of great heating power is obtained. The 
burner is used for various purposes, such as fire¬ 
lighting, cooking, ironing, heating,and soldering. 

Buoy. [Du. boie, a chain.] A floating mark or 
beacon to point out a shoal or danger, usually 
chained to its place. Fife buoy, a float intended 
to keep from sinking. Bell-buoy, a buoy with 
bells rung by the waves. 

Burdock. A rough wild plant, very common in 
Europe and the United States. It is about a 
yard high, has large coarse leaves and purplish 
flowers, and bears prickly seed burs, which catch 
on clothing, the wool of sheep, etc., and are 


thus scattered. The leaves and their j nice are of 
use in healing burns or the itching effect of 
poison ivy. 

BuslEel. [Fr.] A measure of capacity of 4 pecks 
or 8 gallons or 32 quarts. The English imperial 
bushel contains 80 lbs. of water at 62° F. The 
United States bushel contains 77.6274 lbs. of 
water at 39.8° F. 

Bust/ard. A bird, native to Europe and Asia, 
where it inhabits dry open plains. It has large 
wings, but rises in the air only at times. When 
on the wing, its flight is strong and sustained. 
It generally runs along the ground, and feeds on 
vegetable matter, worms, and insects. The 
Great Bustard has a long neck and longer legs, 
measures about 2 feet 6 inches in length, and 
weighs about 20 lbs. The Tittle Bustard is 
about half this size. 

But/ter, [AS.] A fat contained in milk, and ob¬ 
tained from the cream by churning. The cream 
is beaten about in the churn until the skin of 
curd which exists around every little ball or 
globule of fat is broken ; the particles of fat then 
stick together and form butter. The butter is 
then well washed in fresh water, to remove the 
small pieces of curd. A little salt is mixed with 
fresh butter; but if the butter is to be kept for a 
long time, much more salt must be used. Like 
all fats, butter is almost entirely a heat-giving 
and force-producing food. 

But/tercup. [AS.] A kind of crowfoot with bright- 
yellow flower. It is the cuckoo-bud of Shake¬ 
speare. (S Flower.) 

But/terfly. The most beautiful of insects, having 
wings covered with colored dust, which is really 
fine, shiny, iridescent scales. The butterfly is 
therefore called a scale-winged insect. Young 
caterpillars are hatched from the eggs of the but¬ 
terfly. In some cases these eggs are beautiful, 
shaped like vases and caskets. They are fastened 
to leaves, and the mother, during her brief life, 
seeks to deposit them on that plant which, after 
the caterpillars are hatched, will afford the 
proper food. The eggs of butterflies lie dormant 
during the winter, because the cold of winter 
would be fatal to the young insects, and the leaf¬ 
less trees would afford the caterpillars no food ; 
but the warmth of the spring soon develops the 
living embryo. The caterpillar is composed of 
thirteen rings joined together, and has six jointed 
legs on three of the rings behind its head, like the 
six legs of its mother. These remain with it 
through life, while the four pairs of legs on the 
rear part of its body disappear. The caterpillar 
crawls over the plant upon which it was born, 
devouring the green leaves. During this stage 
it is called a larva. After a time it ceases to eat, 
and becomes a pupa or chrysalis. Under its chin 
is a little spinner, from which issues a silken 
thread, with which it suspends itself, head down¬ 
wards. Others nang from the tail. The chrysalis 
remains as if dead, but is really feeding on the 
fat formed in the body of the larva ; and in due 
time the imago , the perfect butterfly, comes 
forth, dries its wings, and flies away full grown. 
Butterflies fly in the daytime, and when they 




36 ° 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


rest their wings are raised over their back. The 
antennae stretch out nearly straight, and end in 
knobs. The under side of the wings often resem¬ 
bles in color the flower upon which the butterfly 
feeds. Conspicuous are the large round eyes, 
which under the microscope are found covered 
with numerous flat surfaces. These are called 
compound eyes, for they consist of a great num¬ 
ber of eyes crowded into a mass. There are about 


Cabbage. [O.E., or E. caput.'] An esculent vege¬ 
table wdth a foot-stalk, short, strong, and fleshy, 
which runs as a great rib to the point of the blade, 
while smaller ribs run from it to the edges. The 
common cabbage has a compact head of leaves, 
hence its name. It is one of the most nutritious 
of ordinary vegetables. Red cabbage is used as 
a pickle. In the Channel Islands, a tree-cabbage 
four feet high is grown to feed cattle. 

Cab'inet. [Fr.] A safe place for jewels or paper ; 
usually a set of drawers or a cupboard closed with 
doors. Cabinet. A private room in which consul¬ 
tations are held. Monarchs lormerly consulted 
wdth their councillors in cabinets, hence the 
name became applied to the 
board of councillors. 
In the United States it is ap¬ 
plied to the heads of the gov¬ 
ernment departments who act 
as adviser of the President. 

Ca / ble. [Fr.] A strong chain 
or rope for fastenings ships or 
other purposes. Telegraph 
cable is a rope of gutta-percha, 
yarn, and iron ware, in the 
centre of which are copper 
conducting wires to be laid 
underground or under the 
sea. The largest .chain 
cable, with links 2 7 /% inches 
thick, was made especially 
for the steamship Great Eastern. 

Cac/tus. [Iy.] A kind of plant like the prickly 

J iear, found in tropical America, usually wdth 
eafless stems and branches, and sometimes clus¬ 
tered thorns. (See Cochineal.) 

CacFdy, [E. Ind. ; from Malay, kati , a weight of 
1 ^ lbs.] A small box for holding tea. 

Caffedn. [Fr.] A white, bitter, crystallizable sub¬ 
stance obtained from coffee. 

Caisson. [Fr.] An apparatus used in laying the 
foundation of bridges under water. One form 
is an inverted water-tight hollow box wdth iron- 
bound edges, in the bottom of which some 
masonry has been constructed. The weight of 
the masonry forces the caisson into the sand and 
mud at the bottom, and air, under pressure, is 
then forced in, driving out the water and allow¬ 
ing the workmen to enter through the air-tight 
locks. 

Cake. [Scand., or L,. coquere , to cook.] A mass 
of dough, made palatable by the addition of 
sugar, eggs, fruit, and other materials, and baked 



five thousand kinds of butterflies. They are great 
rovers, and having no homes they flit about 
among the most brilliant but shallow blossoms, 
perfecting their seeds. _ 

Buz'zard, [Fr.] A bird of the Falcon family. 
There are various kinds of this bird of prey—the 
common buzzard, the rough-legged buzzard, the 
honey buzzard, the moor buzzard, the bald buz¬ 
zard or osprey, the carrion buzzard, and others. 


C 


in the oven ; or made into a batter and baked on 
a griddle. It differs in these respects from bread. 
Also the compressed seeds of flax, rape, and 
cotton. These contain much oil, which is 
extracted by strong pressure, leaving a compact 
cake of about half an inch in thickness. Oil 
cake is used as food for animals, half-a-pound a 
day being sufficient for a sheep and five pounds 
for a bullock. It is used in addition to grass, 
hay, or other food. 

CaFabash. [Span.] A tree found in tropical 
America, the gourd-like fruit of which has a 
soft pulp, and its shell is made into drinking- 
cups and bottles. 

CaFamus. [L,. Acorns calamus.] The Sweet- 
Flag, a plant found in ditches and by the side of 
ponds in Asia, Europe, and North America. The 
root-stock yields an aromatic stimulant and tonic, 
much used as a medicine in the East. It is also 
made into confections and used in liquors in 
Germany. Some persons chew it to clear the 
voice and sweeten the breath. 

CaFcium. One of the metallic elements, whose 
oxide is the abundant and very useful lime. It 
occurs abundantly as limestone, and in its 
crystallized form as marble. Calcium carbonate 
is so abundant in nature that it is found in most 
natural whalers, in which it is dissolved and 
carried to the sea. Sulphate of lime is a common 
constituent in what is known as hard water, and 
is found in sea w T ater. In its solid state it is 
known as Gypsum, or Plaster of Paris. 

Calculating Machine. An instrument in which, 
by the movement of keys, acting upon an 
intricate mechanism, arithmetical calculations 
may be made. The Babbage machine was 
capable of performing remarkable operations, 
but was of no practical use. There are simpler 
instruments now in use which add, subtract, 
multiply, and divide with wonderful speed and 
accuracy. 

Calf. [AS.] The young of the cow and of some 
animals ; also leather for bookbinding made from 
calf-skin. The flesh of calves is called veal. 
Calf-foot jelly is the gelatine of the feet of the 
calf, extracted by boiling and flavored with sugar 
or essences. 

CaFico. [E. Ind.] Fine white cotton cloth, with 
special names, as super calicoes, shirting calicoes, 
unbleached calicoes. Also cotton (q.v.) cloth 
with a figured pattern. 

CaFipers. A kind of compasses with curved legs 
for measuring the diameter of round bodies. 








ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 361 


Calomel. [Gk .] A compound of chlorine and 
mercury, which is found native as horn quick¬ 
silver in Bavaria, Bohemia, and Spain. It is of 
great value in medicine, being one of the mildest 
and most frequently used of all the preparations 
of mercury. It is used for the liver, as an oint¬ 
ment, and ic producing salivation. 

Caloric Engine. A form of air engine, invented 
by John Ericsson, which is in considerable use 
for light machinery. In its working parts it 
resembles the steam engine, but is operated by 
the expansive power of hot air instead of steam. 

Cal'yx. [Gk.] The outer covering of a flower. 
It is usually green and leafy, but in such flowers 
as the anemone is delicate and resembles the 
petals. Each leaf of the calyx is a sepal. (See 
Flower .) 

Cam. [Dan.] A turning or sliding piece of 
machinery, which, by the side of its face or a 
groove on its surface, changes the motion of 
another piece against which it acts. Cams are 
used in the pin-machine, the sewing-machine, 
and others where varied motion is required. 

Cam / bric. A kind of fine thin white linen, first 
made at Cambray in Flanders. Cambric muslin 
is thin white cotton. 

Cam / el. [L. camelus.~\ A most useful ruminating 
animal, which for centuries has been used as a 
beast of burden or ship of the desert on the 

sand)’- plains 
of Africa and 
Arabia. It is 
well adapted 
by nature for 
life on the 
desert. It can 
go for many 
days without 
water, being 
provided with 
a remarkable 
arrangement 
of cells in its 
stomach or 
paunch which 
it fills with water, and keeps as a store for future 
use. Its two long toes rest on a broad, horny 
cushion, which enables it to walk without sinking 
in the sand, and its nostrils can be closed at will 
to shut out the fine dust of the sand-storms. The 
African or Arabian camel has one hump, and is 
called the dromedary. The Bactrian camel of 
Central Asia has two humps. The hump is not 
a part of the skeleton, but is a mass of fat which 
slowly lessens when the animal is on long jour¬ 
neys and food is scarce, it being consumed as 
nutriment. The camel is about six feet in height, 
and not very rapid in speed. It is very useful to 
the Arab, conveying himself and his belongings 
on a journey, and yielding him flesh and milk 
for food, hair for weaving into a covering, and 
hides for sandals and saddles. Camel hair is used 
for painters’ brushes. 

CamelTia. [Probably named after Kamel, a 
Jesuit, who first brought the plant from the East.] 
An Asiatic shrub with shining green leaves and 


showy flowers. In China oil is pressed from its 
seeds. 

CameFopard. [Gk. kamelos , camel ; and pardos, 
a leopard.] An old name of the giraffe, arising 
from the idea that it was an offspring of the 
camel and the leopard. 

CanrFeo. [Ital.] A precious stone, as an onyx or 
sardonyx, having a figure carved in relief on the 
surface. 

CairFera ObsciFra. [D] An optical instrument. 
In its simplest form it consists of a rectangular 
box fitted at one end with a lens and at the other 



end with a plane mirror, inclined at an angle of 
45 0 to the horizon. When the lens is directed 
to any object, the rays of light, after passing 
through the lens, are reflected from the mirror, 
and form an image on a plate of glass at the top 
of the box, where they may be observed and 
sketched. Instead of the box it is usual to have 
a kind of tent surrounded with curtains to keep 
out the light. There are various forms of the 
camera now in use for taking photographic nega¬ 
tives, the photographic camera being an adapta¬ 
tion of the camera obscura, which is fitted at the 
back for the introduction of a sensitized plate or 
film, so as to receive the image of an object or 
scene in front of the lens. 

CanFomile. [Gk. chamai , on the ground ; and 
melon , an apple.] A bitter herb used as a medi¬ 
cine. Its flowers have a strong and fragrant 
smell, with an aromatic taste. Its volatile oil is 
used as a carminative. 

CarrFphor. A white resinous substance existing 
in many plants, but mainly obtained from the 
camphor laurel, grown in China, Formosa, and 
Japan. The Borneo or Sumatra camphor, highly 
esteemed in China, is obtained from a lime tree in 
Sumatra, Borneo, and the Malay Peninsula. 
Camphor has an aromatic odor and a strong, 
unpleasant taste, and is soluble in alcohol and 
oil. Spirits of camphor is camphor dissolved in 
spirit. When this solution is poured into water, 
the camphor reappears in white flakes. Cam¬ 
phor is used as a medicine, and enters largely 
into varnishes used by painters. It is also used to 
kill moths and other insects among furs or 
woolen cloths. For a further important use of it 
see Celluoid. 

CanaF. [L,. canalis, a pipe.] A waterway made for 
boats or ships or for irrigation. The barrier which 
confines the water is called the weir or guard- 
lock, and the enclosure with gates at each end to 
raise or lower boats as they pass from one level to 


















362 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 



another iscalled the lift-lock. Most famous among 
canals is the Suez Canal, which was opened Novem¬ 
ber 17, 1869. It is 87 miles long—66 miles actual 
canal and 21 miles lake—connecting the Mediter¬ 
ranean and the Red Seas. An effort to connect 
the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans by a canal 
across the Isthmus of Panama has been made, 
but as yet without success, and it is proposed to 
make a similar canal across Nicaragua by the Uni¬ 
ted States government. There are thousands 
of miles of canals in Kurope and America. 

Cana'ry. A cage bird about the size of a sparrow, 
which is found wild in the Madeira and the 
Canary Islands. Great quantities of tame biids 
are raised in Germany. In its wild state it is 
generally of a dusky gray color ; but tame birds 
are of very many different colors, those with 
white or yellow feathers being most valued. The 
tame bird is a sweet singer, some having the sky¬ 
lark, others the woodlark, and others the night¬ 
ingale note. It is the favorite among cage birds. 

CarPdle. [U. candela , a (white) light made of wax 
or tallow ; from candere , to be white.] A twist 
of threads surrounded by tallow or wax which 
gives light when lit. Common 
candles are made of tallow. 
Tumps of fat from sheep or 
cattle are first melted in large 
pans, and then boiled with 
water. From the fat or tallow 
so obtained we can make the 
candles called “dips ,’’ by dip¬ 
ping skeins of cotton (wicks) 
into the melted tallow. The 
candles called “ moulds” are 
made by running the tallow 
into metal tubes, the wick 
having been first stretched 
down the middle of the tube. 
Wax candles are made from 
the wax produced by bees. 
Stearin candles are made from 
a hard kind of fat called 
stearin, which can be ex¬ 
tracted from tallow. Com¬ 
posite candles 
consist of a 
mixture of 
tallow and 
stearin. Par¬ 
affin candles 
are made of 
solid paraffin, 
which, like 
paraffin oil, is 
' prepared from 
a mineral sub¬ 
stance that 
oozes out of or 
sugar cane. can be ob¬ 

tained by heating certain rocks called bitu¬ 
minous shales. (See Smelt.) 

Cane Sugar. The variety of sugar obtained from 
the sugar-cane and the sugar-beet, as distin¬ 
guished from grape-sugar , which is obtained 
from maize and some other plants. (See Sugar.) 



Canister. [L. canistrum.\ A basket of reeds, 
or a small box for holding tea or coffee.— Canis¬ 
ter shot, or case shot, a kind of shot with a 
number of lead or iron balls enclosed in a case 
which bursts when fired. 

Can / nel Coal. A hard, jet-black variety of coal 
which burns with a bright white flame. The 
gas yielded by this coal has nearly three times 
the illuminating power of that obtained from 
common coal. It is hard enough to be cut and 
polished like jet, and is sometimes made into 
trinkets. In Scotland it is known as parrot coal. 

CarFnon. [Fr. canon; from L,. canna, reed, pipe, 

tube.] Apiece of 
ordnance o r artil¬ 
lery. The large 
cannon now in use 
consists of a forged 
steel tube strength¬ 
ened with massive 
steel rings shrunk 
upon it. Howitzers 
and mortars are 
sometimes called 
cannon. Cannon 
are distinguished by 
the weight of the 
ball, or the diameter of their bore. Some of the 
great rifled guns now in use can send a heavy 
ball a distance of 10 or 12 miles. 

Canoek [Span, canoa.] A boat made of the 
trunk of a tree hollowed, or of bark or skins. 
It is propelled by a paddle or sails, and has no 
rudder. 

Can'teen. [F. cantine , bottle case.] A refresh¬ 
ment house in a fort or barracks for the use of 
soldiers, where they can purchase food and 
other necessaries, and intoxicating liquors under 
certain restrictions. A vessel, usually of tin, 
used by soldiers, in carrying water or other 
liquids. 

Can'vas. [Fr. from Gk. kannabis , hemp.] A 
coarse cloth for sieves, sails, and sacks, made 
from hemp, flax, or cotton , the cloth on which 
a picture is painted. 

Caoutchouc. [Ind. pronounced koo'chookC] The 
elastic gum of several trees in South America, 
Africa, and Asia. It is impervious to liquids 
and gases, and is much used in the arts and manu¬ 
factures. (See India-rubber.) 

Capercailzie. [Celt.] A kind of large grouse 
with a fine flavor found in Scotland and in 


Northern Europe,especially Norway and Sweden, 
and known under the name “cock of the woods.” 

Capillary. [T. capillus , a hair.] A tube with a 
hair-like bore ; a minute blood-vessel. 

Capkllary Force. The force by which water 
ascends in w r ood, sponge, blotting paper, and 
other porous bodies. By the same action the 
flame of a lamp is fed with oil. The wick is a 
bundle of threads whose surfaces are nearly in 
contact, and the oil rises between them in the 
same way as if they were narrow tubes. Water 
is supposed to rise from reservoirs «od springs 
below the surface of the ground to the roots or 
plants in the same way as it rises in fone tubes. 



















ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


363 


Capillary actiou seems to be due to an attraction 
between water aud the surfaces of solid sub- 
stances. 

Capital. [Fr.] The head of a column, and con¬ 
sisting of abacus, bell, and necking. The Greeks 
used three orders—Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. 
The Romans added Tuscan and Composite. 
Other orders in use are Byzantine, Moorish, and 
Gothic. Also the seat of government of a 
state or a nation. Capital letters , heading let¬ 
ters, used at the beginning of sentences, etc. 

Cap'itol. Originally the great national temple of 
Rome. A modern Capitol now stands on its site. 
The name has been applied to the building in 
which the United States Congress holds its 
sessions; also to the legislative halls of the 
States. 

Capstan. [Fr.] A vertical drum revolving on 
an upright spindle with a drum-head, in which 
are sockets for bars or levers. It is used on 
board ship to raise weights by means of a rope, 
and is worked either by steam power or by men 
walking round pushing on levers in the sockets. 

Cap'sule. [U. capsa, a chest.] A seed-vessel of 
a plant containing many parts or carpels, as the 
flax, the poppy, and the lily; a metallic seal or 
cover for closing a bottle; also in medicine a 
gelatinous envelope in which bitter doses are 
enclosed. 

Car. [Fr.] A frame on wheels for carrying 
persons or loads. In the United States the word 
is applied to vehicles used on railroads or for 
street travel. Railroad cars are called carriages 
in England, except Pullman cars, train cars, etc., 
introduced from America. 

Car'at. [B'r.] A weight of grains Troy, 

divided into four parts or carat grains, for 
weighing gold, diamonds, or precious stones; 
the twenty-fourth part of any quantity of pure 
gold. Goldsmiths’ standard is 22 carats, which 
consists of 22 parts of gold, I of copper, and 1 
of silver. 

Caravan. [Per. karwani] A company of mer¬ 
chants, pilgrims, or traveleis, joined together 
for mutual safety and protection, in Asia and 
Northern Africa, with camels as the usual means 
of conveyance. A large covered carriage for 
conveying passengers 01 wild beasts or furniture. 
Shortened into van. 

Caraway. [Bot. name Carutn carvi. ] The seed 
of a plant like a carrot, of the Parsley order, 
grown in Holland ; used in confectionery and as 
a carminative. 

Carbide of Calcium, A product of the electric 
furnace, consisting in a compound of calcium 
and carbon. It is of interest from the fact that 
when met it yields in abundance acetylene gas, 
remarkable for its illuminating powers. 

CarbcUic Acid, An organic compound derived 
from coal tar. When pure it is a white crystal¬ 
line substance, possessing a burning taste and 
the odor of creosote. In the crude form it is 
largely used as a disinfectant. It is also applied 
externally to wounds and abscesses after they 
have been opened. Taken internally, it acts as 


an irritant poison, but in small quantities it is 
used as a medicine. Drains and sewers are 
sometimes flushed with solution of carbolic acid 
in order to remove infectious matter. 

Car / bon. A non-metallic element known only 
in the solid form and very widely distributed. 
It enters into the composition of all organic 
structures, whether animal or vegetable. It is 
found in all the animal tissues, and, with oxygen, 
hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulphur, makes up the 
whole plant—wood, leaves, and flowers. All 
vegetable products—such as sugar, starch, gum- 
arabic, alcohol, oils—consist largely of carbon 
combined with oxygen and hydrogen. Carbon is 
the chief constituent of coal; and coal, when 
heated so as to expel its gases, is turned into 
coke, which is also carbon. Carbon is also 
found under the form of what is often named 
blacklead, but which is properly called plumbago 
or graphite. This is the substance from which 
pencils are made. The diamond, though widely 
different in appearance from all the other forms, 
is pure carbon. 

CarboiUic Acid. One of the products of the 
combustion of carbon, also known as carbon 
dioxide. When coal or wood burns brightly in 
the fire, carbonic acid is produced, and it may 
be prepared artificially by acting on chalk or 
marble with hydrochloric acid. The air we 
breathe contains oxygen, which enters the blood, 
combines with the waste carbon of the tissues, 
and is breathed out again as carbonic acid. This 
substance is given out in large quantities from 
volcanoes, and from the ground in volcanic 
regions. It is also produced during the ferment¬ 
ation of wine and beer. It is one of the perma¬ 
nent gases of the atmosphere, in the proportion 
of about 4 volumes in 10,000. Plants derive it 
from the atmosphere and supply it to animals. 

Carboniferous Sys / tem. In geology the system 
of Primary rocks overlying the Devonian. It 
takes its name from the extensive coal-beds 
which it contains. In the system there are two 
well-marked sub-divisions—the lower section 
consisting of carboniferous limestone, and the 
upper, of the coal-bearing division of the system 
known as the coal-measures. These comprise 
sandstones, dark shales, and seams of coal. The 
flora of the Carboniferous period consisted al¬ 
most entirely of flowerless plants, such as 
ferns; and among the fauna, fossils of true air- 
breathing animals and various insects are found. 
The system is very largely developed in the 
the United States. (See Coal.) 

Carborun / dum. A compound of carbon and sili¬ 
con, produced in the electric furnace. It was 
discovered in 1890 in an effort to make artificial 
diamonds, in which bright blue crystals haul 
enough to cut precious stones were formed. 
When powdered it is superior as an abrasive to 
emery and even to diamond dust. It is now 
largely produced at Niagara Falls, and widely 
used as a sharpening agent. 

Car'buncle. [U. carbunculus , a small coal.] A 
precious stone of a fiery-red color, found in the 
East Indies—a ruby, sapphire, or garnet. A hard 



3*4 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


and painful swelling on the skin on the trunk or 
back of the neck, larger than a boil, and with no 
central core. 

Card. [L. carduus , a thistle.] A comb with bent 
wire teeth set in leather to smooth and arrange 
the fibres of cotton, flax, wool. 

Cardinal Bird. An American song-bird or finch, 
with bright-red feathers and a high-pointed crest. 



Ca / ret. [E- car ere , to want.] A mark (a) on a 
line of print or writing to show that something 
wanting and interlined or on the margin ought 
to be inserted. 

Carmine. [Fr. carmin.~\ A rich red or crimson 
color with a purple shade, prepared from cochi¬ 
neal, and having acid properties. 

Carp. [Dan.] A fresh-water fish, originally from 
Asia, but now in Europe, reared in artificial 
ponds, and latterly also introduced into America. 
The leather carp is almost wanting in scales, and 
the mirror carp has only a few large scales. 

Car / pentry. [E. carpentum , a coach.] A work in 
wood for the construction of buildings. A car¬ 
penter frames and puts together roofs, partitions, 
and floors of buildings; a joiner makes the doors, 
shutters, stairs, mantle-pieces, and other parts 
reqitiring more neat joining. 

Car / pet. [Fr. carpeite.'] A thick covering or 
the floor, usually of wool, but also of cotton, 
hemp, and straw, and made in breadths to be 
sewed together and nailed on the floor. Brussels 
carpet is made of worsted yarn on a foundation 
web of strong linen thread, the worsted being 
drawn up in loops to show the pattern. Kidder¬ 
minster carpet is an ingrain carpeting chiefly 
made at Kidderminster, England. Tapestry some¬ 
what resembles Brussels, the warp being printed 
at intervals before weaving, so as to produce the 
figure in the carpet. Turkish carpets and Per¬ 
sian carpets are made similarly with woolen 
threads on a linen warp, and are similar in color 
and in softness. Axminster carpets arc like Turk¬ 
ish, but are made with worsted, and are very 
handsome. Moquette, Chenille, and Wilton are 
velvety carpets. 

Carriage. Motor. (See Automobile.) 

Car / rier=pig / eon. A variety of domestic pigeon 
used to convey letters from a distant point to its 
home. It has beeu used in war. 


CarYonade. [From Carron in Scotland, where 
first made during the Peninsular War.] A short 
cannon without trunnions, but supported on its 
carriage by a bolt. 

Carrot. [Bot. nam & Daucus carotal) A biennial 
plant with a long tapering spindle-shaped root of 
a red color. It is used in soups and stews, and 
highly valued as a food for cattle. 

Cart. [Celt.] A frame on two or more wheels for 
carrying loads. In excavating sand, gravel or 
earth, one-third cubic yard of material before it is 
loosened is a cart-load. 

Cartridge. [Fr. car touche. ] A case of paper or 
metal containing powder and sometimes shot for 
a gun. Ball cartridge contains a projectile, and 
blank cartridge is without one. 

Ca / sein. [E. caseus, cheese. ] An albuminous sub¬ 
stance contained in milk, and forming the prin¬ 
cipal constituent of cheese. The casein iu milk 
is not coagulated by boiling, like albumen ; but 
rennet , or au acid, separates out the casein and 
butter as curds , leaving the milk, sugar, and 
salts as whey . 

Cas / sia. [Semitic.] The pulp of the pods of a legu¬ 
minous shrub in the East Indies ; also the bark 
of Chinese cinnamon, imported as cassia and sold 
as cinnamon, from which oil of cinnamon is ex¬ 
tracted. 

Cast=I / ron. Iron that is cast into pigs or moulds. 
It contains more carbon than steel, is brittle in 
character, but is used for many purposes. (See 
Iron.) 

Cas'tor Oil. A mild cathartic oil got from the 
castor-oil plant [Ricinus communis) ^ and usedasa 
medicine. It is colorless, but possesses a nau¬ 
seous taste. In India it is obtained in such 
abundance as to be used for illuminating as well 
as for medicinal purposes. It is greatly made 
in France, Italy, and the Western States of 
America. 


Cat. [E. catus.~\ A small domestic animal, of the 
same family as the lion, tiger, leopard, etc. The 
cat is a flesh-eater, and is fond of birds and mice. 



It has a fur 
coat, 
smooth and 
glossy and 
soft as silk; 
has padded 
feet, can 
run or walk 
noiselessly 
and is a 
good climb¬ 
er. The cat 
seeks its 

. prey at 

having excellent powers of vision, while 
the long stiff hairs around its mouth are very sen¬ 
sitive, and aid it to find its way in the dark. There 
are several varieties of cats, as the Angora, Manx, 
Maltese, Persian, and tortoise-shell. '1 he Per¬ 
sian has long, soft, silvery hair and bushy tail. 
T. he Manx^ cat has no tail. Wild cats feed on 
birds, rabbits, hares and poultry. 


CATERPILLAR. 





ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


3^5 


Cat/acombs. [Gk. ikata, downward; kyinbe , cav¬ 
ity.] Great excavations in the vicinity of ancient 
Rome, used for burial by the early Christians. 
They are cut in a soft volcanic material, and the 
total length of their galleries is at least 300 or 400 
miles. 

Catbird. An American bird allied to the Mock- ! 
ing-bird, and possessing a remarkable power of i 
imitating the notes of other birds. Its spring 
song is mellow and sweet, but it has also a disa¬ 
greeable note, somewhat like the mew of a cat. 

It is found in the eastern half of the United 
States. 

Caterpillar. [Fr.] The larval state of a butterfly 
or moth. True caterpillars have three pairs of 
true legs and several pairs of fleshy legs armed 
with hooks. They usually feed on leaves, fruit, 
and vegetables. Some are called worms—as silk¬ 
worm, canker-w T orm, etc. After a time they sur¬ 
round themselves with a sheath or case of leaves, 
silk, or other substance, pass into the chrysalis 
state, and finally emerge as the mature insect. 
(See Butterfly.) 

Cat/fish. A common American fish, with naked 
skin and eight fleshy barbules on the head. It 
is from 7 to 9 inches long, and is a favorite food- 
fish. The Great Take Catfish, found in Takes 
Erie and Ontario, is from 2 to 4 feet long, and 
weighs from 6 to 30 pounds. There are also very 
large catfish in the Mississippi and other rivers of 
the West. 

Cat'gut. A cord of great toughness made from the 
intestines of animals, especially of sheep, and 
used for musical instruments. 

Cat/kin [O.E.] The flow T ers of willow r , poplar, 
and some other trees. It consists of a slender 
axis with many flowers wanting in petals along 
its sides, and is called catkin from its resem¬ 
blance to a cat’s tail. 

CaTnip or Cat/mint. [T. Mentha cataria.'] A 
plant common in the United States, of whose 
leaves cats are very fond. They have a sharp 
and bitter taste. A tea made from them is some¬ 
times used as medicine. 

Cats'eye. A very precious stone which, when cut 
in a certain way, presents different colors, like 
the opal. It is so named because the eye of the 
cat has a similar pow r er. 

Cattle. A term denoting all animals of the ox 
kind. [See C070.] 

Cau'l if lower. [Fr.] A variety of cabbage with a 
cluster of flower stalks and buds. It is more 
delicate in taste than the ordinary cabbages, and 
much esteemed as food. 

CausTic. [Fr. from Gk. kaiein , to burn.] A 
substance that burns the flesh. Caustic lime is 
slaked lime, also quicklime. Caustic potash 
and soda are the hydroxides, Caustic silver or 
lunar caustic is nitrate of silver. 

Cave or Cavern. [T. cavus , hollow.] A hollow 
place underground. Among the most interest¬ 
ing caves are the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky ; 
Fingal’s Cave, a basaltic cave in Staffa, Scotland; 
the Adelsburg caves, in Carniola; and the Turay 
cave, in Virginia. Many caves contain splendid 
stalactites and stalagmites. Mammoth Cave has 


been penetrated for 10 miles, and contains a 
river and many splendid apartments. The 
greatest caves occur in limestone strata. Primi¬ 
tive man seems to have dwelt in caves, and bones 
and implements left by him have been found 
there. 

Ce / dar. [T-] An evergreen tree with spreading 
Dranches and hard red wood with a fragrant 
smell. The chief varieties are the cedar of 
Tebanon, the white cedar, the American red 
cedar, the Spanish cedar. Cedar has a pleasant 
smell, and is much used for making chests and 
cabinets. The red cedar of Florida is largely 
employed in making lead pencils. 

Cel'andine. [Fr. from Gk. chelidon , a swallow.] 
A plant like a poppy, with yellow flowers, sup¬ 
posed to come and go with the swallow’s. It is 
used as a medicine in jaundice and for w r arts. 

CeFery. [Fr.] A vegetable of the Parsley family 
of which the blanched leaf-stalks are used as a 
relish for food. 

Cell. [T-] One of the smallest parts of a plant 
or animal. All cells have their origin in the 
primary cell from which the organism was 



developed. Also in electricity ajar or vessel, or 
a division of a vessel, for holding the fluid of a 
battery. Daniels’ cell. Z, Zinc rod in porous 
pot P, containing dilute sulphuric acid ; C, cop¬ 
per in outer vessel containing copper sulphate 
solution. Also a room in a prison, a sleeping 
room in a monastery, a small cavity or hollow 
place. 

CeFluIoid. An ivory-like compound of camphor 
and collodion It is made into knife handles, 
pianoforte keys, billiard balls, shirt collars and 
cuffs, and many other things, and used instead 
of glass for photographic dry plates. 

CelTuIose. A substance which is the basis of 
almost all vegetable fabrics. It has recently come 
into use as a lining for war ships to prevent the 
inflow of water through shot holes. It does this 
























































3 6 <S 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


by swelling when "wet. A preparation was first 
used for this purpose made from the fibrous 
husk of the cocoanut, but a better article is now 
in use obtained from the pith of the cornstalk. 

Cem / ent. The best-known cements are Portland 
and Roman cements, and are distinguished from 
mortar by hardening quickly, while mortar 
hardens slowly. Portland and Roman cements 
both set or harden under water ; hence they are 
generally spoken of as hydraulic cements, 
although they are often used in superior 
masonry which is not intended to be covered 
by water. Portland cement is made of chalk 
or ground limestone mixed w r ith clay or shale. 
Roman cement is made from a natural mixture 
of lime and clay. Of the natural cement 
stones found in the United States, the best 
are the Rosendale cements of New York. A 
cement made of carbonate of magnesia is 
superior in strength and hardness to all others. 
For ordinary cementing plaster of Paris is very 
useful, and there are many cements to mend 
broken glass, ivory, wood, etc. 

CerFtipede or CerFtiped. [L. centum , a hundred ; 
pes , foot.] An animal with one hundred feet or 
with many feet. They are also many-jointed. 
Large, flat-headed, venomous kinds live in 
tropical countries. 

Centre of Gravity. The point in a body at which 
we may suppose the whole weight of the body 
to be collected; and therefore so long as this 
point is supported the body will rest indifferently 
in any position. 

Chaffinch. [O.E.] An English song bird, said 
to like chaff, and valued as a cage-bird. (See 
Finch.) 

Chalk. [AS.; L. calx.~\ A form of soft limestone, 
widely spread in parts of Europe ; not found in 

America. I u 
southeast Eng¬ 
land it forms 
a bed nearly 
one thousand 
feet thick. If 
we pour a 
drop of vine¬ 
gar on a lump 
of chalk, there 
is a bubbling 
up, or e ff e r - 
vescence, 
which is due 
to carbonic 
acid gas escap¬ 
ing from the chalk. The chalk, in fact, 
is nearly pure carbonate of lime, which is 
a compound of the metal calcium with 
carbon and oxygen. All limestones can be 
detected in this w T ay by pouring on them a few 
drops of some acid. Most limestones are com¬ 
posed of the shells or hard parts of the coral-build¬ 
ing animals, but chalk is composed of the shells of 
minute swimming or floating animals, whose 
hard parts, after death, sank to the bottom and 
collected into thick layers. These were after¬ 
wards uplifted to the surface and became cliffs or 


beds of chalk. Chalk is used in connection with 
the blackboard in lecture-rooms and schools. 
Various preparations of it are made for pastel 
colors. It is also used as a manure. 

Chameleon. [L-] An animal of the Lizard tribe 
which has the power of changing its color at will. 
In a dark place it is white or grayish, but when 
light is admitted its color changes to red, green, 
or brown, in accordance with the color of its loca¬ 
tion. It lives in trees, and has a very extensible 
tongue, covered with a sticky secretion, by which 
it can seize insects and draw them into its mouth. 

Chamffois.. [Fr.] An animal of the Antelope 
family which is found in the Alps at a height of 
more than 8,ouo feet above the sea-level. It is 
like the goat in its looks and habits. Its horns 
are peculiar, rising straight from the crest of the 
head for some inches and curving backward sud¬ 
denly so as to form a pair of sharp hooks. Its 
hind-legs are longer than its fore legs, so that in 
descending mountains its hind feet catch rough 
places and its fore feet are set close together and 
pushed forward. It is acute in scenting man at a 
distance, and footprints in the snow will alarm 
the wary animal. The chamois live in herds, and 
when grazing they post one of their number to 
give the alarm ; but if danger comes, they see it 
so quickly that often they make off before the 
signal is given. The skin of the chamois is much 
valued for making chamois leather, which com¬ 
bines softness with tenacity. “ Chamois leather,” 
or wash-leather, is now made from the flesh side 
of sheep skins. 

CfoampagneL [Fr.] A light wine, of several kinds, 
originally made in Champagne, France. This 
wine contains much carbonic acid gas, which 
causes effervescence when poured out. 

Charcoal., [AS.] The most common form of 
carbon. The purest form is animal charcoal, 
called also bone black and ivory black. It is 
prepared by heating bones in a vessel nearly 
closed; the volatile matters are driven off, and 
bone black is left. Ic is used in purifying sugar 
and in the filtration of water. Wood charcoal is 
prepared by burning wood with a limited supply 
of air ; only the more volatile constituents burn 
away, and) the greater part of the carbon is left. 
Charcoal so prepared is black and brittle ; it re¬ 
tains the form of the wood from which it is de¬ 
rived. Other forms of charcoal are gas-carbon, 
coke, and lamp-black. It has a remarkable power 
cf absorbing gases, and has therefore valuable 
uses in medicine and as a substance for respir¬ 
ators. It is used as a deodorant, and as a dis¬ 
infectant in hospitals and dissecting-rooms. It 
is also largely employed in the manufacture of 
gunpowder. 

Chart. [L., charta, paper.] A map especially for 
the use of seamen. Heliographic, of the sun; 
selenograpic , of the moon. 

Cheese. [AS., fiom L. caseus , cheese.] Curd of 
milk pressed hard. By adding rennet to milk, 
the nitrogenous substance called casein is made 
to curdle or coagulate ; and it is separated from 
the whey by straining. The curds are pressed 
into shape in moulds and then dried. The best 







ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


3 6 7 


cheese is made from new milk—that is, from 
milk which has not lost its cream. The richest 
kind of cheese made in England is called Stilton 
cheese ; it is made from milk to which cream has 
been added. Cheddar cheese is made from good 
new milk, while some other kinds are made 
from milk partly or fully skimmed of its cream. 
Gruyere cheese , made in Switzerland, is flavored 
with herbs. Roquefort is made from the milk 
of sheep and goats. Skim-milk cheese is a flesh- 
forming food, because it consists chiefly of 
casein; new-milk cheese is a flesh-forming and 
a heat-producing food, because it contains the 
casein and also the milk-fat or cream. One hun¬ 
dred pounds of cheese contain 30 lbs. of fat. 
Cheese in America is (principally made in large 
factories, largely in New York State. The annual 
production in the United States is about 50,000,000 
pounds. (See Curds.) 

ChemTstry. [Gk.] The Egyptians, Greeks, and 
Romans were acquainted with many of the sub¬ 
stances known to us at the present day, and also 
with the method of their preparation ; but among 
those nations nothing was known of chemistry 
as a science. During the Middle Ages the al¬ 
chemists experimented with numerous sub¬ 
stances, more especially with such as were of a 
metallic nature, with the object of turning them 
into gold. In this way they discovered some im¬ 
portant substances. Dr. Black’s discovery of 
“fixed air,” or carbonic acid, in 1756, led the 
way to the discovery of other gases by Caven¬ 
dish, Rutherford, Priestley, Scheele. The dis¬ 
covery of oxygen by Priestley in 1774 enabled 
Lavoisier to explain the true nature of combus¬ 
tion. Next came the discovery of the laws of 
chemical combination by Dalton, and the publi¬ 
cation of his atomic theory. Sir Humphrey 
Davy, by decomposing potash and soda in 1807, 
laid the foundation of electro chemistry. The 



CHESS BOARD. 

most important advances in chemistry were 
made during the nineteenth century, and in or¬ 
ganic chemistry progress has been very rapid. 
Cheroot/. [Tamil.] a kind of cigar originally 
nude in Manilla ; now a. cigar of inferior or 
adulterated tobacco. 


CherZy. [Fr.,frotn Gk. kerasos] A tree of the 
Prune or Plum family bearing a red stone-fruit, 
which is much esteemed for dessert purposes and 
for conserves. There are several hundred varie¬ 
ties of the common garden cherry. The wild or 
black cherry of the United States is a beautiful 
and useful tree, its wood being much esteemed 
by cabinet-makers. Its fruit is not very good for 
eating. Cherry brandy or rum is brandy or rum 
in which cherries have been steeped. 

Chess. [Fr., from Pers. shah, a king.] A game 
played by two persons on a board divided into 
squares. Each player has a king, a queen, two 
bishops, two knights, two castles, and eight 
pawns. The king, when made prisoner or check¬ 
mated, is assumed to be dead, and the game 
ends. There is no game requiring more skill. 

Chest/nut. [Fr., from Gr. kastanon , a chestnut.] 

A tree with white 
or red flowers like 
spikes, and a fruit 
of a reddish brown 
color, enclosed in 
a green prickly 
husk, the nuts be¬ 
ing covered by a 
thick firm skin. 
The timber is hard 
and lasting, and 
used for ornamen¬ 
tal work, fur¬ 
niture, etc. 
The bark is used in tanning. The chestnut is 
found in Europe, America and Japan. The Eu¬ 
ropean chestnut b<. ars a much larger fruit than 
the American, but not so sweet. Its starchy con¬ 
tents are used for bread-making in Italy. 

Chick/weed. The name of several weeds, espe¬ 
cially Stellaria media , the seeds and buds of 
which are a favorite food of small birds. . 

Chic/ory. [L- cichoriuin.~\ A common Euro¬ 
pean plant, known also as succory. It is 
somewhat like the dandelion, and a substitute 
for coffee is obtained from its root bv roast¬ 
ing and grinding. It is mixed with coffee 
or used by itself. Chicory can easily be distin¬ 
guished from coffee by placing some of it in 
water. It rapidly sinks, and colors the liquid a 
reddish-brown; but genuine coffee floats, and 
does not color the water. The chiccry or succory 
plaut grows on limy soils and by the dusty 
roadside. It has large bright blue flowers and 
toothed leaves. It is introduced in America where 
the blue and white-flowered varieties are common. 

ChiFblain. [AS.] A swelling produced by the ex¬ 
posure of the hands or feet to cold and sudden heat. 

Chimpanzee. [Fr.] A West African ape which 
is more like man in some ways than any other 
ape. When full grown it is 4 feet high. It has 
no hair on the hands and face, and none on its 
large rounded ears. Its arms are shorter than the 
orang’s, but fall below the knee. Its habit in 
walking is to bend forward and rest on the hands. 
When tamed it has been taught to eat food with 
a spoon at a table, but in the wild state it lives 
among the branches of trees near the ground. 


















363 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


ChFna. A fine kind of ware first made in China, 
and first brought from China in the seventeenth 
century. (See Porcelain.') China ink is India 
ink. 

Chinchilla. A South American rodent like a squir¬ 
rel, with five-toed fore feet and four-toed hind 
feet, and a large bushy tail. Its soft fleecy fur is 
much valued. It is a shy animal, with nocturnal 
habits. 

Chine. [Fr.] A piece of the backbone and sur¬ 
rounding flesh of an animal cut for cooking. 

Chintz. [Hind.] Cotton cloth printed with col¬ 
ored patterns, and often glazed. (See Cotton .) 
Chintz is used for bed-hangings and to cover fur¬ 
niture. 

Chipmunk. A small American squirrel, marked 
with black stripes on a yellowish-brown skin ; 
thence called striped squirrel; also ground squir¬ 



rel, since it lives in the ground, in w’hich it bur¬ 
rows and makes its nest. It lives on seeds and 
nuts, which it carries in cheek pouches and 
stores up in its holes. It is also called cheeping 
squirrel, from the noise it makes. Its worst enemy 
is the weasel, which follows it into its burrow. 

Chio / ral. [Gk.] A chemical substance prepared 
by acting on pure alcohol with dry chlorine gas. 
Itis a limpid, colorless liquid. With water it forms 
chloral hydrate , a crystalline substance, largely 
used for the purpose of obtaining quiet sleep. 

Chlo / rides. [Gk.] Salts formed when chlorine 
gas unites with metals. The only chloride which 
occurs plentifully in nature is sea, or rock-salt, 
which is a chloride of sodium. 

Chio / rine. [Gk. chloros , light green.] One of 
the non-metallic elements, discovered by Seheele 
in 1774. It is prepared from common salt by the 
action of sulphuric acid on manganese dioxide. 
It is a transparent gas of a greenish-yellow color, 
which does not occur free in nature. United 
with the metals sodium, potassium, and magne¬ 
sium, it forms the chief salts of sea-water. Chlo¬ 
rine is a powerful bleaching agent, and this action 
depends upon the power which it possesses of 
combining with the hydrogen of water, and so set¬ 
ting free the oxygen. 

Chlo'roform. [Gk. chloros , light-green, and for¬ 
myl .] A heavy, colorless volatile liquid, possess¬ 
ing an agreeable odor, like ether ; it has a sweet 
though acid taste ; it is only slightly soluble in 
water ; it dissolves sulphur, phosphorus, gutta¬ 
percha, iodine, and fatty and resinous substances. 
It was discovered in 1831 by Guthrie in America, 
and attention was first called to its anaesthetic 
properties by Flourens in 1847, regarding its 


effects on animals ; and soon after this Simpson 
of Edinburgh introduced it as an anaesthetic in 
medical practice. Its effect on the nervous sys¬ 
tem is to cause a suspension of voluntary motion 
and of sensation, while respiration and the action 
of the heart are continued. 

Chlo'rophyl. [Gk. chloros , light-green ; phyllon , 
leaf.] The substance which gives plants their 
green color. It is a resinous substance, whose 
chemical composition is not exactly known. 

Choc / o!ate. [Span, or Aztec.] A sweetmeat made 
from cocoa. (See Cocoa.) 

ChoFera. An epidemic intestinal disease, which 
seems native to Southern Asia, and has at various 
times swept with terrible destruction of life over 
Europe and America. It produces severe and 
painful cramp, often quickly followed by death. 
It is now known to be due to a form of bacteria 
( q . z/.), and recent epidemics have been checked 
by sanitary measures. 

Chough. [AS.] A bird of the Crow family, of a black 
color, and with a long, slender, curved bill and red 
legs. The Cornish chough is the sea-swallow. 

Chrome or Chromium. [Gk.] A hard, fusible, 
and brittle metal. Potassium chromate and lead 
chromate (chrome red) are used in dyeing and 
calico-printing. Chrome yellow is used by paint¬ 
ers. Pure chromium is the most difficult to fuse 
of all the metals. Its compounds are much rsed 
in the arts, in painting and coloring. It forms 
four compounds with oxygen, and its chief ore 
is chrome ironstone, found in America, Sweden, 
and the Shetlands. 

ChronorrFeter. [Gk. chronos, time ; and metron , 
a measure.] An instrument for the exact mea¬ 
surement of time. The name is commonly ap¬ 
plied to a portable time-keeper, in opposition to 
a clock, which is station¬ 
ary. In chronometers 
the balance-wheel is compen¬ 
sated, so as not to be affected by 
changes of temperature. 

Chrysalis. [Gk. chrysos , 
gold.] The pupa or yellow form 
which many insects take before 
they get their wings. When the 
larva of the butterfly leaves 
off eating, it enters the 
chrysalis state. Wrapped in 
a dry skin, and hanging head 
downward, suspended or tied 
by a silken thread, it remains 
seemingly dead. A marvellous 
change is going on, and when 
the skin bursts a fullgrown butterfly appears. 

Chrysanthemum. [Gk. chrysos , gold; anthemon , 
flower.] A family of perennial plants, consist¬ 
ing of the ox-eye daisy, feverfew, but chiefly 
the garden chrysanthemum, of which there are 
1,500 varieties, some of them of great size and 
beauty. Some have their petals rolled up like 
quills. This flower was introduced from China 
or Japan about 1764. 

CFder. [Fr.] A drink uiade from the juice of 
apples. Besides being used as a beverage, it is 
used for making vinegar and cider-brandy. 



CHRYSALIS. 





ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


369 


Cigar'. [Span.] A small roll of dried tobacco 
leaves for smoking. Originally a kind of tobacco 
made in Havana, Cuba, where the finest are 
made. In the United States very many million 
cigars are made annually, and large numbers are 
also made in Havana. 

Cigarette'. [Fr.] A roll of loose fine tobacco 
rolled in paper for smoking. 

Cincho'na or Cascaril'la. A tree growing in the 
Andes and in the East Indies, from the bark of 
which is procured Peruvian bark, which yields 
quinine, a substance of great medicinal value in 
fevers. In the 17th century the wife of Count 
Cinchon, Viceroy of Peru, was cured of fever by 
the bark of this tree, hence the name. 

Cin'nabar. [E. cinnabaris.] Red sulphide of 
mercury, or vermilion. It occurs as crystals. 
It is used as a paint and in medicine. Cinnabar 
grecoruni is a red resin used for coloring 
varnishes, and known as dragon’s-blood. 

Cin'namon. [Heb. qinnamon. ] The bark of a 
kind of laurel tree found in Ceylon. It is 
aromatic, pungent, and used as a cordial. With 
cassia it yields the oil of cinnamon. Cinnamon 
is used in medicine, cooking, and confectionery. 

Cir'cle [E. circus.'] A plane figure contained by 
one line called the circumference, and such that 
all straight lines drawn from a point within the 
figure, called the centre, to the circumference 
are equal. Any straight line drawn through the 
centre of a circle, and terminated both ways by 
the circumference, is called a diameter. A line 
from the centre to the circumference is called a 
radius. Two diameters at right angles to one 
another divide a circle into four equal parts 
called quadrants. Each of these is divided into 
90°, so that the whole circumference of a circle 
contains 360°. 

Circula'tion. [E-] The movement of the blood 

through the vascular 
organs of animals. In 
birds and mammals, the 
air-breathing animals, 
the circulation is double 
(pulmonary and systemic), 
and is carried on through 
the heart ( q.v .), the arteries, 
and the capillary tubes. In 
reptiles the heart consists 
of two auricles, and one 
ventricle, and there is an 
incomplete double circula¬ 
tion. In fishes, which are 
water-breathing animals, 
there is a simple circulation 
—the heart consisting of 
a single auricle and a sin¬ 
gle ventricle, the blood 
taking in oxygen and giving 
out carbonic acid in the gills instead of the lungs, 
which are absent in fishes. 

Cis'terns. [E. cisterna ; from cista, box, chest.] 
Receptacles for water. They are generally 
square or round in shape, and are commonly 
lined with lead. Soft water acts upon lead, 
dissolving it and forming carbonate of lead, 

24 C 


which is a poisonous substance. It is the bright, 
clean lead which is affected. After the lead has 
become dull, or crusted over, the water can no 
longer dissolve it. 

Cit'ric Acid. An acid which is found in lemon 
juice, and which also occurs along with tartaric 
and malic acids in many other fruits—such as 
oranges, cherries, currants, garden rhubarb, etc. 
It is prepared from lemon or lime juice. It crys¬ 
tallizes in large colorless crystals, which dissolve 
freely in water. When dissolved in syrup it is 
kept for use in the manufacture of lemonade. It 
is used by calico-printers, and in the dyeing of 
sillc. 

Cit'ron. A fruit of the same family as the lemon 
and orange, and of the shape of a lemon, but 
larger and rougher, while its juice is not so sour. 
It is a native of the south of Europe and Asia. 
A favorite confection is made of its peel pre¬ 
served in sugar, and oil of citron is made from 
the peel and the leaves. Citric acid is sometimes 
made from its juice. 

Clam. A bivalve shell-fish found in many seas, 
one species being the common edible clam 
abundant in the United States, and much used 

as food. There 
are many vari¬ 
eties—as long 
clam, round 
c 1 a in , sea 
clam, little- 
n e c k clam, 
and giant 
clam. The long clam burrows in the sand with 
the muscular organ usually known as its foot. 
Its shell grows at the hinge, and increases as 
fast as the animal grows, The giant clam is an 
inhabitant of the China Sea and South Pacific, 
and is the largest known bivalve mollusc, the 
shells being known to measure 2 feet in length 
and weigh 500 lbs. 

Clar'et. [Fr., from E. clarus, clear.] A wine of 
a red color; first applied to Medoc wines, and 
then to red Bordeaux wines. 

Clar'inet or Clar'ionet. [Fr.] A wind instrument 
blown by a single reed, and usually a leading in¬ 
strument in a military band. 

Clarion. [Fr.] A trumpet w r ith a loud, clearsound. 

Claw. [AS.] The toe nail of a beast or bird. The 
claw of the lion may be unsheathed or put out, 
and withdrawn or sheathed. The claws of the 
dog, which catches its prey with its teeth, are 
blunt, and cannot be withdrawn. The hawk and 
the eagle, that seize their prey alive, have all 
their toes or claws long, curved, strong, and 
sharp ; but the vultures, that feed on dead ani¬ 
mals, have short hind toes, nearly flat front ones, 
and all very weak. The bustard has no hind toe. 
Each foot of the spider has three claws : the mid¬ 
dle one is bent over for clinging to the web ; the 
other two have teeth like a comb, and are used 
sometimes for cleansing the limbs and webs. 

Clay. [AS.] A fine-grained, sandy substance, de¬ 
rived from the decay of aluminium silicates. It 
is white when pure, but it is generally mixed 
with impurities which impart to it various shades 









37 ° 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


of gray, brown, red, purple, or blue. When dry 
it is friable, and when wet can be kneaded be¬ 
tween the fingers. When shaken 'with water it 
becomes mud. It is largely used for making 
bricks and earthenware. 

ClerrFatis. A climbing plant of many kinds, found 
in most temperate regions, with beautiful flowers, 
having feathery styles that enlarge in the fruit. 

Clock. [Celt.] A machine for measuring time, 
with wheels moved by weights or springs. It is 
usually made so as to tell the hour by the stroke 
of a hammer on a bell. An alarm clock has a 
mechanism to ring a gong at a set time. An 
astronomical clock has a compensating pendu¬ 
lum. An electric clock is regulated or moved by 
electricity. A sidereal clock keeps sidereal time, 
and is fitted on large telescopes. 

Clouds. When vapor is condensed high up in the 
air, it receives the name of cloud. The three 
fundamental forms are— cirrus , cumulus , and 
stratus. The cirrus consists of fibrous, wispy, 
or feathery clouds, placed in the highest region 
of the atmosphere. Cumulus (heap cloud) con¬ 
sists of rounded masses commonly seen in the 
sky in summer, supposed to be formed by 
columns of ascending vapor, the upper portions 
of which have condensed. Stratus is a horizontal 
sheet, frequently formed at sunset, but which 
disappears again at sunrise. These primary 
forms combine into intermediate forms, and are 
all combined in the nimbus or storm-cloud, 
that from which rain falls. The average distance 
of clouds from the earth is between one and two 
miles, but streaky, curling clouds are often six 
or more miles high. 

Clo'ver, A leguminous plant grown for fodder. 
It is one of the most useful crops a farmer can 
grow. Its roots collect and store up a large 
amount of plant-food. The common broad or 
red clover is the kind most generally grown. 
The -white or Dutch clover grows in good pasture 
land ; each stem bears a single head of flow’ers. 
Sheep are very fond of it. Crimson clover gives 

one excellent hay 
crop. Swedish 
clover, on the 
contrary, w T i 1 1 
grow strongly for 
two or three years 
in succession , 
yielding a very 
fair crop each 
year. It has a pink 
flower, and bears 
cold and wet well. 
Cloves. [Fr.] The 
clove tree is of 
cloves, the Myrtle order, 

and is a native of the Spice Islands, but is 
now cultivated in Zanzibar and the West Indies 
and other tropical countries. It resembles the 
laurel, and grows to a height of from 15 to 40 
feet. Its leaves are large and oblong, its flowers 
small and dark red, and its fruit is like an olive 
in shape, but red like the flowers. The fruit, 
when dried, is known as “mother of cloves.” 


The cloves used for flavoring are the unopened 
flower-buds. These buds become dark-brown, 
and look like nails ; and so they take their 
name from clou , the French word for nail. The 
little ball which seems to form the head of the 
nail is really composed of the petals of the 
flower, and will unroll if soaked in water. Cloves 
are used for their strong aromatic taste in flavor¬ 
ing food such as puddings, cakes, and preserves. 
Oil of cloves is useful in medicine, and to scent 
toilet soap. 

Coach. [Fr., from Gk. conche, a shell.] Aframe- 
work with cover and seats, set on wheels, for 
carrying people, having doors in the sides and 
an elevated seat for the driver. Mail coaches 
and tally-ho coaches often have four seats inside 
and seats for twelve outside. 

Coal. [AS.] A black substance (consisting 
mainly of carbon), dug out of the earth, which 

Coal is of compact but 
brittle structure, and 
found in seams and beds, 
and is the remains of a 
luxuriant vegetation 
which flourished on the 
earth’s surface during 
the Carboniferous age, 
and to some extent in 
other geological periods. 
It is supposed to be due 
to the action of heat and 
pressure upon great ac¬ 
cumulations of this ma¬ 
terial. There are many 
varieties of coal, distin¬ 
guished from one an¬ 
other by the varying proportions of the different 
constituents. Bituminous coal , such as is in gen¬ 
eral use, contains from 75 to 80 per cent, of carbon, 

5 to 6 of hydrogen, and 10 to 12 of oxygen. 
A7ithracite is the most completely mineralized 
variety, and contains about 90 per cent, of 
carbon, the gases oxygen and hydrogen having 
been driven off. Cannel coal and ligtiite con¬ 
tain less carbon and yield more ashes than those 
named. The present yearly output of coal in 
Great Britain and the United States is about 
200,000,000 tons in each. Other countries jield 
much less. Some of the mines are very deep. 

Coal=tar. A thick black liquid, obtained during 
the distillation of coal for the manufacture of 
illuminating gas. This substance yields madder, 
a coloring substance formerly obtained from the 
roots of a plant. One ton of cannel coal when 
distilled leaves 12 gallons of coal-tar, from which 
are produced 1 lb. of benzene, \]/ 2 lb. of carbolic 
acid, and a number of other substances used for 
dyeing purposes. From these substances there 
may be obtained 16 distinct yellow colors, 12 
orange, 30 red, 15 blue, 7 green, 9 violet, besides 
a number of browns, and an indefinite number of 
blendings. 

Coat. [Fr.] An outer garment for the upper part 
of the body, chiefly worn by men.— Coat of arms 
(translation of cotte d'armes , small coat worn 
over armor), the heraldic bearings of any one. 



burns and gives heat. 



COAL UNDER THE MICROSCOPE. 













ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


37 * 





Co'bait. [Gen kobalt; from kobold , a goblin.] 
A reddish-white metal, very tenacious, and very 
difficult to fuse; occurs in small quantities in 
meteoric stones, and is usually found combined 
with arsenic and sulphur. It forms three com¬ 
pounds with 
oxygen. One 
oxide imparts 
a deep -blue 
color to glass. 
This glass, re¬ 
duced to pow¬ 
der, is used in 
producing the 
blue colors in 
porcelain, pot¬ 
tery, glass, en¬ 
caustic tiles, 
etc. Chloride 
of cobalt dilu¬ 
ted forms sym¬ 
pathetic ink. 
Co'bra de Ca= 
pelTo. [Port.] 
The hooded 
snake, a very 
copra de capello. venemous ser¬ 

pent found in India. Its hood is formed by the 
skin of its neck, which it can draw over its head. 
Ordinarily it is like other snakes, but when going 
to strike the head broadens out. It is usually 
carried about by snake-charmers; but in India 
many people die from its bite every year. 

CochTneal. [Span.] A dye got from the dried 
bodies of insects found on a cactus in Mexico, 
Central America, etc., and yielding carmine red. 

Cock. The male of a hen, particularly of domestic 
fowls ; also a valve for drawing liquids ; and a 
small pile of hay. Weathercock is a vane in the 
shape of a cock. 

Cockatoo'. [Malay.] A bird of the Parrot family, 
having a short, strong, and much-curved beak 
and crested head. Among the many varieties are 
the sulphur-crested, broad-crested, and the great 
black cockatoo of Australia. 

Cock'chafer. A beetle; called also may-bug or 
dor-beetle. (See Beetle.) 

Coc'kle. [Celt.] A kind of shell-fish, a bivalve 
with radiating ribs, used in Europe as food ; also 
a weed among corn—applied to the corn-rose and 
darnel. 

Cock'roach. An insect of the straight winged 
family, of which there are many species, some 
living in the woods under stones, leaves and rot¬ 
ten logs; others, infesting houses, where they 
eat both animal and vegetable food, swarming 
out of their holes at night. There are two kinds 
common in houses, one small, and one quite large. 
They may be des'royed by poison or driven away 
by borax, which they do not like. 

Co'coa. The product of the fruit of chocolate tree, 
a native of Mexico, Central America and Brazil. 
It is a handsome tree, 10 to 20 feet high, and is 
sheltered when growing by larger trees. It com¬ 
mences to bear fruit in the third year. The fruit 
is cucumber-shaped, and consists of a hard outer 


It is very abundant and large on the Banks of 
Newfoundland. There are several kinds—shore- 
cod, in shallow water ; rock-cod. often mottled. 
Cod liver oil is obtained from the liver of the 
cod-fish, and is used extensively in medicine to 
supply the body with fat. 


part from 6 to 8 inches long, and a soft white 
pulp, which protects numerous seeds almost 
as large as almonds. The seeds are cleaned, 
dried, and ground by hot roll¬ 
ers to a paste or powder, which 
is known as rock or flake 
cocoa. Sometimes they are 
broken up by rollers into 
pieces, which are called cocoa 
nibs. Mixed with sugar and 
spices, flake cocoa is known as 
chocolate, and is used in cakes 
and sweetmeats. About one- 
half of the weight of the seeds 
is due to a fat called cocoa 
butter; much of this is re¬ 
moved in making chocolate. 
The active principle of cocoa 
is theobromine,' a nitrogenous 
product. 

Co'coa-nut. The nut of the 
cocoa-palm. The tree grows 
in tropical countries to a height 
of from 60 to 80 feet, and is 
without branches, the leaves 
and clusters of nuts being at the top. The nut has 
a milky fluid, and a white meat of albumen 
which yields an oil. The cocoa-palm is found in 
all parts of the tropics, and is a very useful food- 
plant, while its nuts are used in large quantities 
in temperate regions for confectionery and other 
purposes. (See Palm.) 

Cocoon / . [Fr.] The case spun by insects to cover 
them, especially the oblong case of the silk¬ 
worm in its chrysalis state, which is formed of 
threads of silk spun by the insect in its larval 
state, and from which the silk of commerce is 
prepared. 

Cod. [Goth.] An important sea-fish, used as 
food, and taken in immense quantities on the 
nortnem coasts of Europe and North America. 


COFFEE-PLANT 












372 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


Coffee. The fruit of a tropical evergreen tree 
from whose beans is prepared a favorite beverage. 
In its wild state the coifee tree grows from 20 to 
30 feet high, but when cultivated is not allowed 
to grow more than 8 or 10 feet. Its flowers are 
small, white, and fragrant-smelling, and grow in 
thick clusters. Its berry or fruit is like a cherry, 
and contains two seeds or beans. The first crop 
of fruit appears when the trees are three years 
old. The plants bear fruit for many months, so 
that several crops can be gathered in a year. 
The berries are dried ; then the beans are re¬ 
moved by rollers from the pulp that surrounds 
them. Coffee thrives in moist, warm countries, 
as Abyssinia, Arabia, Brazil, Ceylon, Java, and 
the West Indies. To make coffee, the beans are 
roasted aud then ground to a fine powder. Boil¬ 
ing water is then poured on the ground coffee ; 
this dissolves a substance called caffein. The 
best coffee is the Mocha , grown in Arabia. Java 
coffee is also of fine quality. There are many 
other varieties, differing greatly in flavor. Cof¬ 
fee is used very largely in the United States. 

Cog. [Celt.] A tooth or cam on the rim of a 
gear-wheel for imparting or receiving motion. 
A cog-wheel is a gear-wheel with cogs or teeth. 

Cognac. A kind of French brandy, so named 
from the town Cognac. 

Coin. [Fr., from U- cuneus , a wedge.] A piece 
of metal stamped to be used for money. It is 
round, flat, bright, hard, and durable. Alloys of 
the metals are generally used. They are melted 
into ingots, rolled into ribbons to the required 
thickness, and punched, rounded, milled, and 
stamped with a die and counter-die, and weighed. 

Coke. [O-E] Mineral coal from which bitumen, 
sulphur, or gas has been extracted by roasting 
in a kiln or oven, or by distillation, as for gas. 
It is smokeless, and is largely used in steel 
works and in foundries. 

Cold Storage. A method of preserving food 
substances by keeping them in a low tempera¬ 
ture. Freezing machines are used to chill the air 
for this purpose. This system has come widely 
into use, cold storage rooms being provided in 
all our large cities in which vegetables, fruits, 
and meats can be kept for any desired length of 
time. They are of much use in markets to 
preserve the material left unsold. Cold storage 
meats need to be used soon after being thawed 
out, as they spoil more quickly than unfrozen 
meats. 

Cold Wave. The name given in the United States 
to spells of severe depression in temperature, 
usually the effect of anti-cyclonic conditions 
arising in the great plains of western Canada. 

CoFlie. A Scotch shepherd dog remarkable for 
its intelligence. There are two breeds, rougli- 
liaired and smooth-haired. 

Collo / dion. [Gk. kolla, glue ; and eidos , like.] 
A substance formed when gun-cotton isdissolved 
in a mixture of alcohol and ether. It is used in 
photography for the purpose of forming a thin 
film on the glass which is to receive the silver 
salts on which the image is formed. Combined 
with camphor it forms celluloid (q.v.) 


Cologne 7 or Cologne Water. A perfume made 
of alcohol flavored with essential oils. The oils 
of many flowers are used, though much of the 
cologne sold is a cheap imitation of the real 
article. It was named from the city of Cologne, 
where it was first made. 


Co'ion. [Gk.] The mark (:) used at the end of 
a clause complete in itself aud nearly independent. 
Semicolon, the mark ( ;) used to indicate a 
separation more distinct than the comma. 

Col / o / r. [U-] The term used to express the 
different sensations which are produced when 
light of different kinds enter the eye. When 
ordinary white light is passed through a prism 
(q.v.), it is decomposed into seven colored rays— 
violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, red. 
There are three primary color sensations—red, 
green, aud violet; and the blending of these in 
different proportions gives rise to all the other 
colors. 

CoFumn. [U.] A long round piece of stone, 
wood, or metal set on end to hold up or adorn a 
building. It is usually ornamented, and com¬ 
posed of base, shaft, and capital. A clustered 
column is a column composed of several smaller 
columns. (See Capital.) 

CorrFets. [Gk. koine, liair.] A wandering class 
of heavenly bodies. As seen through a powerful 
telescope, a comet consists of an ill-defined mass 
of light called the head, which is much brighter 
towards the centre, preseuting the appearance of 
a nucleus like a star or planet. Surrounding the 
nucleus there are certain definite layers of 
luminous material, which seems to unite behind 
the head, and from which a luminous train called 
the tail proceeds. The direction in which the 
tail points is always opposite to that of the sun. 
There are many comets revolving round the sun 
in very elliptic orbits, almost touching the sun 
at one end of the orbit and very distant at the 
other. Other comets are supposed to come from 
the depths of space. Some of them break up 
into fragments and form meteoric rings. 

CorrFmon. [Fr.] A piece of land to which all 
have right for pleasure or pasturage. 

Com pass, Mariners. A magnet ( q.v.), when 

suspended horizon¬ 
tally, always points 
in a direction nearly 
north and south, and 
on this principle has 
been constructed 
the mariner’s com¬ 
pass, an instrument 
of great value to sail¬ 
ors, as showing them 
in what direction 
to steer. In the 
compass the needle 
is fitted up in such 
a way that it will always remain horizontal 
whether the ship is pitching or rolling. The 
needle is firmly attached to a circular card (called 
the compass card),which is divided into thirty-two 
equal parts by lines drawn from the centre to 









ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


373 


the circumference. The mariner’s compass was 
brought from China to Europe during the thir¬ 
teenth century. 

Compressed Air. One of the first important uses 
of compressed air as a source of power was in 
the excavation of the Mount Cenis and the 
Hoosac Mountain railroad tunnels, in which air 
compressed by water power was conducted by 
pipes into the depth of the tunnels. Another 
important use is in the air-brake on railroad 
trains. It is used for many other purposes, an 
important one being the propulsion of street 
cars by compressed air motor engines, and 
another one the driving of letters through tubes 
from the central to the branch offices of some 
large cities. 

Concertina. [Ital.] A small musical instrument 
like an accordion, with bellows, having reeds 
inside and keys and handles on each of two six- 
sided heads. 

Concrete. [L,.] A hard building material made 
of gravel, pebbles, sand, and pieces of stone held 
together by cement (q-v.), or tar, used for side¬ 
walks, foundations, and submarine structures. 

CotUdor. [Span.] The largest of known vultures. 
It is of the vulture kind, and lives on the highest 
Andes, building its nest 15,000 feet above the level 
of the sea. In win ter these birds descend in groups 
to feed on the low grounds and the seashore. 
They possess the instinct of discovering a dead or 
dying animal at a very great distance, and though 
they feed principally on carrion they will some¬ 
times seize living animals. The condor is usu¬ 
ally 4 feet long, and has 9 feet spread of wing. 

Cone. [Fr.] A figure with a round base tapering 
to the top or vertex. Also the fruit of firs, cedars, 
and other trees known as conifers, composed of 
woody scales, each of which has one or two seeds 
at its base. 

Congou. [Chin.] Black tea of higher grade, finer 
leaf, and less dusty than bohea. It means “ well 
worked ” In the United States it is called “ Eng- 
glish breakfast tea.” 

Constellation. [L,. con ; and stella, a star.] The 
name given to the artificial groups of stars. The 
figures of men and animals were of old supposed 
to be outlined in the sky, and mythological 
names were given to them. The stars in a con¬ 
stellation are distinguished by the Greek letters 
a , b g, d, etc. ; as« Tauri (Alderbaran ), first star 
in Taurus, or g Orionis ( Bellatrix ), third star in 
Orion. 

Convolvulus. [L,.] A monopetalous plant with 
twining stems, including the bindweed, with 
flowers beautifully colored. Morning glory, 
and sweet potato belong to the same family, and 
are first cousins to convolvulus. 

Co'ny. [O.E.] A kind of rabbit. The cony of 
Scripture is the daman or rock-rabbit. 

Coot. [Du.] A short-tailed water bird. It is the 
common mud-hen of the marshes, and is interest¬ 
ing because of its lobed foot, which has flaps on 
the sides of the toes. The European coot is 
named the bald coot, in allusion to the bald or 
bare patch on the front of its head. There are 
several American varieties. 


Co / pal. [Span.] A resinous substance consisting 
of the dried juice of various trees growing in Zan¬ 
zibar, Madagascar, India, and South America. In 
Africa also it is dug from the earth where forests 
once stood. It is sold in rounded masses, and in 
appearance resembles amber. After being melted, 
it becomes soluble in alcohol ; and in this way 
varnishes and lacquers are prepared. 

Cop'per. [O.E.] A metal, so called from the 
island of Cyprus, where the Greeks and Romans 
obtained it. Metallic copper is found in the 
United States, but it is generally prepared from 
its ores, of which there are several, found in 
most European countries, as well as in North 
and South America, Africa, Australia, and Japan. 
The principal localities in the United States are 
Michigan, Montana, and Arizona. It can be ob¬ 
tained from its 
ores at a com¬ 
paratively low 
temperature; 
which accounts 
for its extensive 
use in the early 
stages of civili¬ 
zation. Metallic 
copper posses¬ 
ses a deep, red 
color, takes on 
a brilliant 
polish, is very 
malleable and 
ductile, and as 
a conductor of 
heat and elec¬ 
tricity it comes 
next to silver. 
It is not acted 
on by water, 
nor by exposure 
to dry air, but 
in moist air it 
becomes coated 
with green car- 
bonate. Red 
oxide of cop¬ 
per is used for 
coloring glass. 
Blue vitriol 
is the sulphate, 
and is much 
used in dyeing 
and in the preparation of paints. Copper mixed 
with tin is bell-metal, and with less tin is bronze ; 
with zinc, it is brass or pinchpeck. 

Cop / per=plate. A plate of copper on which pic¬ 
tures or writing are engraved. In printing from 
copper the lines are filled with ink, the surface 
is wiped clean, and the impression taken by 
pressing paper under the roller of a press. 

Coital. [ Animal .] A minute creature, of low 
organization, which builds itself a framework of 
carbonate of lime, which is lined with the fleshy 
body of the living animal. Corals live in colonies 
in the warm seas, and their combined shells form 






374 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


great masses of coral rock, which in some regions 
become reefs or islands- They cannot exist at a 
depth greater than from 90 to 120 feet, and they 
also die by exposure to the air, so that from a 
depth of about ioo feet they work upwards until 
they reach low-water mark ; and w T hen their pro¬ 
gress is thus stopped in the upward direction, 
they begin to grow outwards, increasing on the 
outer edges of the reef, where they find food, 
carried by the ocean currents, most abundant. 
The action of the waves and the chemical action 
of the sea-water cement the materials into a firm 
steep slope. When a reef has been built on a 
shelving sea-bottom near a continent or round a 
volcanic island, the space of water inside is called 
the lagoon channel. When the reef has been 
built on a submarine ridge or peak, it forms a 
circular island, called an atoll , with a broad lake 
of sea-water inside, called a lagoon. 

Corduroy 7 . [Fr.] A thick cotton cloth with the 
surface in ridges. 

Cork. [Span.] The bark of a tree similar to the 
oak in appearance. The trees grow for 15 years 
before the cork is gathered, and some trees live 
over 150 years. They are found in Spain, Italy, 
and Portugal. The cork forests of Spain cover 
620,000 acres. The bark is cut lengthwise, and 
stripped off in sheets in July and August. After a 
year new bark forms, and the process is repeated 
every three or four years. The sheets are soaked 
in water and placed under weights, and when dry 
are read}’- for use. These sheets are cut into 
corks by machinery. They are first cut into nar¬ 
row strips, then they are cut into different-sized 
pieces for bottles, and then rounded. Cork is 
used for stoppers because it is elastic, so that 
after being pressed into the neck of a bottle it 
fills the space and allows no air to pass in nor any 
of the contents to escape. Cork is also used for 
soles of slippers and in the making of life-boats 
and life-preservers. 

Cor / morant. [Fr., from U. corvus marinus , or 
sea-crow.] A sea-bird which greedily devours 
fish. It is about the size of a goose, and has a 

yellowish 
skin, which, 
hanging 
loosely under 
its bill, forms 
a w r ide pouch. 
T h e legs are 
strong and 
black, and the 
webbed feet 
have one claw, 

indented like a saw. The cormorant is wont to 
fish with its head under w r ater, and it has such a 
clear eye and dives so well that it is able to be 
under the waves till it catches its fish. Fish after 
fish will disappear into the skinny pouch under 
the bill. It is said a cormorant can devour 4 lbs. 
offish a day, which is half its own weight. If a 
fish is too large to swallow, it will toss it up in 
the air, and catching it again head foremost bolt 
it more easily. In China, the cormorant is 
trained to dive and catch fish, but a strap beneath 


its throat prevents it from swallowing it; each 
time the fish is taken from it, the bird returns 
to its work till the owner is satisfied. 

Corn.. [AS.] In Scotland, applied to oats ; in the 
United States, to maize ; in England, to wheat; 
in Russia, to rye and barley. A collective name 
for the grains. The corn-producing grasses 
furnish excellent food for both man and beast. 
They contain a great deal of starch, and also a 
fair proportion of such flesh-formers as gluten 
and fibrin. Wheat and oats are superior as food 
to barley and rye, containing more flesh-form¬ 
ing matter and less water. Wheat is, as a rule, 
too expensive a food to give to cattle, but the 
bran, which consists of the outer coating of the 
grain of wheat, is a very useful food for cattle 
and horses. It is rather indigestible, and should 
first be scalded in boiling water. Oats and maize 
are largely used for animal food. 

Corhiet. [Fr.] A wind instrument made of brass, 
furnished with valves moved by small pistons or 
sliding rods, and used in bands and orchestras. 

Corolla. [I,.] The colored envelope of a flower 
which surrounds the organs of fructification, con¬ 
sisting of one or more leaves called petals. 

Cot/ton. [Fr.] The cotton plant is an annual, 
and belongs to the same order as the marsh¬ 
mallow and the hollyhock. Originally it was a 
native of Asia, but it is now cultivated in almost 
all warm countries, especially in the southern 

portions of 
the United 
States, India, 
China, Egypt, 
Brazil, and the 
West Indies. 
The plant 
grows to vari¬ 
ous heights in 
different coun¬ 
tries, varying from 2 or 6 feet to 9 or 10 feet. Its 
leaves are dark green, and its flowers are large 
and usually white or bright yellow. As each 
flower drops a seed pod takes its place. These 
pods are three-sided, and about the size of a w T al- 
nut When ripe these pods burst open, showing 
within a mass of white fibres, w’hich are the 
snowy balls of cotton. The pods are gathered 
and the cotton taken out and dried. The seeds 
are removed by the cotton-gin, a machine with 
revolving cylinders, covered with sharp teeth, 
which tear the seeds from the cotton. The cot¬ 
ton is tlieu pressed into large bales. In making 
cotton cloth, the cotton is thoroughly cleaned Ly 
a cotton-picker, carded, and spun into long, fine 
threads for the w r arp or for cross-threads. The 
spinning wheel formerly did this, one thread at 
a time. Hargreaves invented “the jenny,” by 
which eight threads could be produced at the 
same time. Continued improvements have made 
the machinery so perfect as to render the process 
of spinning easy and rapid. Sewing cotton is 
made by twisting together several of the fine 
fibres, and winding on reels or bobbins. The 
weaving of cotton consists in crossing and re¬ 
crossing the threads ,in a loom to form cloth. 














ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


375 


The threads which extend the length of the cloth 
form the warp ; the threads crossing from side to 
side form the woof or weft. The fabrics made from 
cotton include gingham (where the yarn is dyed 
before being woven), cambric, muslin, lawn, 
calico, chintz (a kind of heavy calico, gaily col¬ 
ored), corduroy, velveteen, wincey, and other 
stuffs mixed with silk or wool. 

Cotton=Seed Oil. The seeds of the cotton plant, 
which are left in large quantities after the extrac¬ 
tion of the cotton fibre, have become valuable as 
a source of oil, which, when clarified, is of a 
clear golden-yellow color. It is used as an 
adulterant or a substitute for linseed, sperm, 
iard, olive, and almond oil, for cooking in place of 
lard or butter, and for other purposes. A large 
proportion of the salad oil used in the United 
States is Cotton-Seed oil. The “cake,” which 
is left after the oil is pressed from the seeds, is 
used as a fodder for cattle and as a fertilizer. 

Cow. [O.E.] A hoofed, herbivorous animal, 
which is one of the most useful of all animals to 
man. It is somewhat smaller than the horse, has 
long, smooth horns, large, gentle eyes, and a 

tufted tail. 
Its hoofs are 
cloven. Tike 
the horse, 
it is a grass- 
eater ; and, 
like the 
sheep, it 
chews the 
cud. (See 
Digestion .) 
W e seldom 
take a meal 
but some of 
the food we 
eat or drink 
is supplied 
by this use¬ 
ful animal. 

THE CRANE. J t gives SL 

large quantity of milk, which is used either as it 
comes from the cow, in cooking, or made into 
butter and cheese. Its flesh is called beef (q.v.)', 
its fat is made into tallow, from which candles 
and soap are made ; its skin is tanned and made 
into boots, shoes, harness, and other leather 
articles; its hair is mixed with plaster; its hoofs 
are made into glue ; its horns are made into 
combs, spoons, buttons, and the handles of 
knives and forks; and in some countries in 
Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia, oxen are 
used as beasts of burden or to draw the plough. 
There are many different breeds, some of which 
are useful for dairy purposes, others yield good 
beef. 

CotEgar. A large American animal of the cat 
family, resembling the panther but smaller. It 
is often called panther (or painter). It is also 
called the puma, and formerly was known as the 
catamount, or mountain cat. It crouches in trees 
in the forests and springs on passing deer. In 
South America it kills and feeds on wild cattle, 


Cow / ry. [Hind.] A small sea-shell, somewhat 
like a coffee berry and used as money in Siam 
and Africa. The shell is produced by the 
mollusc, and the spots on its surface are made by 
a coloring matter secreted by the mantle. 

Cow / slip. [AS.] A kind of primrose with several 
flowers on one stalk appearing early in the spring. 

Cow=tree. [Span.] An evergreen tree found in 
Venezuela, first discovered by Humboldt. The 
sap flows freely when the bark is wounded ; and 
it is safe to drink freely, for the fluid, which has 
the color and taste of milk, is not ouly cool but 
refreshing and nutritious. It is, however, acrid 
and bitter. Also called the traveller’s tree. 

Crab. [AS.] A shell-fish with strong claws, and 
a tail tucked underneath its body. The eyes of 
crabs are on long stalks, and may be turned 
about or folded back into little grooves in the 
shell. Crabs breathe by gills, and a crab’s heart 
consists of a single sac. They shed their shells 



at intervals, and while the new shell is growing 
is known as soft-shell crabs. These are esteemed 
as food in the United States. In the tropics 
some species of crabs live in the fresh water of 
the rivers; others in the damp forests, visiting 
the sea-shore to deposit their eggs ; others, like 
the land-crabs of Jamaica, live on the mountain 
tops. The hermit crab is a curious animal with¬ 
out a shell for its soft body ; so it seeks to shelter 
its body in some empty shell, and when it out¬ 
grows one shell hunts for a larger one, some¬ 
times turning out the living owner of a shell it 
wishes. The fiddler crab has one claw much 
larger than the other,developed by fighting, which 
it holds up as it w’alks sideways. The females 
of the pea crabs, or oyster crabs, live in oyster 
shells, and go out and in at will. Horse-shoe 
crabs, or king crabs, the largest crabs, are dark 
brown, and have long, stiff tails. 

Cran / berry. [AS.] A red berry with a sour taste, 
growing on a stalk like the neck of a crane. It 
is cultivated in Europe and the United States, 
the American plant bearing larger berries. It is 
used in tarts, and is cooked with sugar as a des¬ 
sert. 

Crane. [AS.] A long-legged, long necked wading- 
bird. Cranes are either white or brown, and are 
without crest plumes on their heads, except the 
African crowned crane, which has an upright tuft 
on its head. They are remarkable for their long 
migrations twice every year, and for their perfect 





















376 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


discipline on these journeys. The Greeks and 
Romans esteemed the flesh of the crane as a 
delicacy. 

Crane. A machine for lifting and lowering weights, 
and, w’hile holding them suspended, carrying 
them a short distance to the side. 

Crank. [O.E.] A bent portion of an axle or shaft 
or an arm keyed at right angles to the end of a 
shaft, by which motion is directed or received. 

Crayton. {Fr.] A pencil of colored chalk. A 
pencil of carbon used in producing electric light. 

Cream. [Fr.] Cream is milk-fat, and rises above 
the watery particles of the milk. When cream 
is examined with a microscope, it is seen to 
be composed of very small balls of fat, each of 
which has a skin or covering of curd. By churn¬ 
ing, the skin of curd is broken, and the little 
lumps of fat unite to form the yellow solid called 
butter. (See Curds') — Cold-cream , an ointment 
of white wax, almond oil, rose-water, and borax, 
used as a salve. 

Cream of Tartar. An alkaline tartrate, known as 
the bitartrate of potash. As prepared from argol— 
a deposit from grape-juice—it is a white crystal¬ 
line substance, and the crystals, when reduced to 
powder, form the cream of tartar. It dissolves 
readily in hot water, but sparingly in cold. It is 
used in medicine. 

Cre'matory. Within recent times burning instead 
of burying dead bodies has come into use to some 
extent, and is growing in popularity. Crema¬ 
tories or furnaces for this purpose exist in several 
of our large cities. 

Cream / ery. A factory for the production of but¬ 
ter. Creameries are now widely in use in the 
United States, their effect being cheapness in 
production and a better and more uniform quality 
of butter than that made on the farm. 

Cre / osote. One of the substances derived from 
the tar obtained from the distillation of wood. 
It differs chemically from the creosote obtained 
by distilling coal-tar. Wood creosote coagulates 
albumen, but does not coagiilate collodion ; 
which distinguishes it from carbolic acid, the 
leading product of coal creosote. It has great 
antiseptic power, hence its name (Gk. kreas , 
'flesh ; and sozein , to preserve). A piece of meat 
steeped in it does not putrify. Both wood and 
coal-tar creosote are used as preservatives for 
timber placed in the ground. 

Cress. [AS.] A plant which grows in moist places, 
used as a salad. The leaves have a pungent taste, 
and are anti scorbutic. 

Cricket. [Fr.] An insect with a sharp voice 
found under the floors of houses in Europe. 
Whatever is moist they seek for, and they will 
eat yeast, crumbs, milk, or kitchen refuse. The 
noise of the cricket is produced by the male. He 
raises his horny wing-cases and rubs them briskly 
together. The sound he makes is cree-cree , 
hence his name. In Africa crickets are fed in a 
kind of iron oven and so’d to the natives, who 
esteem them because their noise lulls to sleep. 
The field-cricket feeds on herbs that grow at the 
mouth of its burrows, and in summer they sit 
there chirping all night and day. 


Cricket. [AS. crook , a small staff.] A gam* 
played with bat and ball and wickets. It is the 
favorite game in England and the British Colo¬ 



nies. In the colleges and cities of the Eastern 
States ithas become popular. Eleven men make 
a team. The man with the bat stands in front of 
the wicket, which is three upright stakes with 
two short bails or sticks resting on their top, 
when these are knocked off the player is out. 
The ball is bowled with an over-hand throw with 
the purpose of knocking the wicket. 

Crotchet. [Fr.] Knitting by a hooked needle 
with cotton, worsted, or silk. 

Crocodile. [Gk.] A large and fierce animal 
found in the Nile and other rivers of Africa, also 
in Asia and America. It grows to 16 or 18 feet in 
length. The mouth of the crocodile has no lips 
to coyer its strong teeth, which are firmly set in 
pits in the jaw, with a new tooth started below 
the root of each tooth. The fourth tooth in the 
lower j aw is longer than the other teeth, and when 
the mouth is closed it reaches up over the upper 
jaw. The crocodile bird enters its mouth in pur¬ 
suit of insects which infest its mouth. The hide 
of the crocodile is tough, and is composed of 
plates of bone covered with horny scales. Its tail 
is useful in swimming, and also in the capture 
of its prey. It strikes large animals with it, and 
by it holds them under the water till they drown 
Its neck is wanting in flexibility, and so it has 
much difficulty in turning. Its eggs are laid in 
the sand, and hatched by the heat of the sun. 
Alligators are like crocodiles, but they are 
smaller, and their feet are not so completely 
webbed, and they are found only in American 
waters. 





ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


377 


Cro'cus. [Iy.] A flower white in color in wild 
state ; cultivated forms are yellow or purple ; 
rising from the bulb, blossoming early in spring. 
One species, the saffron, blossoms in autumn. 

Cross. [Fr., from Iy.] Two pieces of wood laid 
one across the other, either simple cross T, or 
St. Andrew’s Cross x> or St. Anthony’s Cross j, 
or the Latin Cross ■{*. 

Crow. [AS.] A genus of birds, related to the 
magpies, nutcrackers, jays, and other forms. 
The Crows have long, strong, and compressed 
bills, with the ridge of the mandible more or less 
curved, and the tip notched ; the wings are 
usually long, the tarsi covered with broad plates, 
and toes of moderate length. They feed not only 
on grain and fruit, but on animal substances, and 
some species on carrion. They all make large 
nests of sticks, lined with soft hair or down, and 
lay eggs with dark spots on pale-bluish, green- 




CRYSTALS. 


ish, or white ground. True crows include the 
raven, the carrion crow, the hooded crow, and 
the rook. The rook and jackdaw are gregarious, 
the rook nesting on trees, and the jackdaw on 
high buildings, such as church towers. The 
raven, carrion crow, and hooded crow all feed on 
carrion, and are fond of eggs, and young birds 
or rabbits. The American crow resembles the 
carrion crow, but is smaller, and after the breed¬ 
ing season gathers in large flocks. Its fondness 
for grain and seeds is an annoyance to the farmer, 
but it repays him by devouring large numbers of 
worms and larvae. It is one of the most intelli¬ 
gent of birds. The fish crow of the United States 
is very expert in catching river and sea fish. 

Crown. [Fr.] An ornamental head-dress for a 
king or queen. Nobles wear coronets, the pope 
a triple crown or tiara. The crown of England 
is a circle of gold with crosses, fleur-de-lis, and 
imperial arches, enclosing a velvet cap, and set 
in diamonds and precious stones. 

CriFcible. A vessel or pot for the melting of 
glass or metals. It is made of some substance 
which will stand a great heat, usually clay mixed 
with black-lead, sand, or other refractory sub¬ 
stance. For the use of chemists crucibles are 
made of platinum, silver, porcelain, blacklead. 

CruFser. In modern navies a cruiser is a ship-of- 
war, armored or unarmored, designed for cruis¬ 
ing, and lighter in armament than the battleship, 
while higher in speed. 


Crystals. [Gk.] The term applied in chemistry 
and mineralogy to those bodies which have 
assumed a regular geometrical form, in contra¬ 
distinction to those substances which are amor¬ 
phous. Although there are numerous varieties 
of crystalline form, they can all be reduced to 
six primary systems. These are distinguished 
from each other by the number and position of 
the axes , which are mathematical straight lines 
assumed to intersect each other in the centre of 
the crystal, and to connect the opposite faces of 
the crystal or its opposite corners. Each substance 
which crystallizes possesses a definite form, 
serving as one of the marks to distinguish it 
from other substances. 

Cuck/oo. [O.E] A climbing and perching bird, 
about twice the size of a lark, which feeds on 
caterpillars, grubs, and insects. The cuckoo 
does not build a nest, but places her eggs in the 
nests of other birds. Sometimes the birds turn 
the strange egg out, but oftener the mother bird 
takes it under her care and hatches it with her 
own. Though the cuckoo egg is small, the 
young cuckoo is larger than those young birds in 
the same nest, and turns all the other young 
birds out, and often kills them. The tree- 
cuckoos of America also have this peculiarity. 
The cuckoo is called “ the harbinger of spring,” 
because it co^es over the sea when winter is 
gone, and its cry of “ Cuckoo ! cuckoo ! ” seems 
to say that spring is come. The Arabs think the 
bird says “ Yakub ! ” hence they call it Yakub’s 
(or Jacob’s) bird. 

CiFcumber. [L-] A creeping plant, with fruit 
of a long and usually curved shape, used for 
salads, either fresh or pickled. 

CuracoaL A liqueur or cordial, flavored with 
orange-peel, cinnamon, and mace ; first made at 
the island of Curagoa, in the Dutch West Indies. • 

Curds. [Celt.] The thickened part of milk. If 
a weak acid be added to milk, solid whitish 
lumps of curd separate from a watery liquid 
called whey. If, instead of a weak acid, an acid 
fluid obtained by soaking the stomach of a 
young calf in salt water, which is called rennet , 
is used, it quickly and completely coagulates the 
curd and separates it from the whey. When 
curds are analyzed, they are found to be com¬ 
posed of a substance known as casein , which 
contains nitrogen, and is classed with the nitro¬ 
genous or flesh-forming food stuffs. 

Cur / !ew. [Fr.] A sea-bird which neither swims 
nor dives, and leaves the shore in summer for 
the inland country, where it nests and rears its 
young. In the autumn and winter months flocks 
of curlews may be seen at the sea-shore feeding 
on small crabs, shrimps, and worms. The curlew 
is about two feet in length, and when its wings 
are spread out they measure three feet from tip 
to tip. It makes its nest on the ground among 
dry grass, and lays in it four greenish eggs spot¬ 
ted with brown. It is easily tamed, and is 
common in Europe, North America, and some 
parts of Asia. 

Cur'rant. [Fr., from Gk. korinthos .] A small 
seedless raisin from Corinth ; the fruit of several 




ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


-> *7 

O/ 


8 


shrubs, as common red-currant, white currant, 
and black currant, used for jams or jellies; also 
the flowering currant, with showy white, red, or 
yellow flowers. 

Current, Electric. A quantity of electrical force 
conveyed along a wire, from an electric machine, 
a galvanic battery, or a dynamo, and employed 
for producing sparks, operating motors, etc. 

Cutlery. All kinds of table, hunting, butchers’ 
and cooks’ knives and forks; razors, pocket- 
knives, scissors, and shears. Also surgical, dis¬ 
secting and dental instruments are sometimes 
included. 

Cut / tle=fish. A form of mollusc, without an ex¬ 
ternal shell, somewhat like the octopus, but with 
two tentacles longer than the arms and with club- 
shaped ends and curious suckers. There are also 
narrow fins at the sides of the body ; and the 
mantle is supported on the inside by a thin 
plate, which is known as cuttle-fish bone. 


Dace. A small fish of the Carp family, found in 
clear and quiet streams in Europe. It makes 
good sport for the angler, and its flesh is pre¬ 
ferred to that of the roach, but is not highly 
esteemed. 

BaTio. [Ital. a cube.] The solid part of the 
pedestal of a statue ; the lower part of the wall 
of a room when ornamented with mouldings or 
differently from the rest. 

DaEfodH. [Fr.] A kind of lily or narcissus, with 
a bulbous root and beautiful flowers, usually 
yellow ; c tiled daffadowndilly. 

Dagjerre / otype. The predecessor of the photo¬ 
graph ; the method of printing pictures of 
natural objects discovered by Louis Daguerre, 
and made known in 1839. The images were 
impressed on a silver plate, made very sensitive 
to light by a coating of iodide and bromide of 
silver. The daguerreotypes were not very 
permanent, and have been replaced by photo¬ 
graphs. (See Photography.) 

Dahlia. [Swed. A. Dahl , a botanist.] A tuber¬ 
ous plant, with a large and beautiful single or 
double flower. It is a na ive of Mexico and 
Central America ; but the cultivated varieties are 
numerous—more than two thousand—with bright 
and varied colors. The first roots were carried 
to Europe by Humboldt in 1790. 

DaEry. [Sc.and.] A place for keeping milk and 
making butter and cheese. A dairy should be 
lofty, well built, and roofed with slate, the 
windows covered with gauze wire, the floors and 
walls overlaid with smooth, polished tiles, and 
the shelves of slate or marble. It should be cool, 
dry, clean, and well ventilated, and furnished 
with pails, coolers, sieves, bowls (either of 
earthenware or glass), dishes for skimming milk, 
plunge or barrel churns for making butter, 
slices, scales, and weights. A system of dairy 
factories or associated dairies was instituted in 
the United States in i860, and has developed so 
greatly that there are now more than 1000 in 


These are used in bird-cages. They are not like 
true bone, but are formed of layers like shells, 
with a hard covering, and the birds peck small 
particles of lime from them. 

Cyclone. [Gk.] A great storm moving in a cir¬ 
cle or spiral, which may be less than c oo or more 
than 2,000 miles in diameter. It is attended 
with violent winds and heavy rains, and some¬ 
times does immense damage. The storm moves 
slowly or rapidly forward. The Anti-cyclone is 
opposite to the cyclone, its winds blowing out 
from instead of towards a centre. 

CyEinder. [Gk.] A long, round body, the ends 
of which are equal circles opposite to each other. 

CyrrEbal. [Gk.] A musical instrument formed 
of two metal plates, which are clashed together. 

Cy / press. [L-] An evergreen tree, often planted 
in grave-yards. Its wood is remarkable for great 
durability, and yields a healing balsam. 


the State of New York alone, and the system 
has been introduced into several countries of 
Europe. They were at first confined to cheese- 
making, but many of them now make butter 
and cheese, and there are numerous creameries 
(q.v.), making butter only. 

DaEsy. [AS., day’s eye.] A small wild flower, 
with a white rim of petals arranged like a star, 
and a yellow centre. The flower is held in a 
green cup, on a short, wiry stalk rising from 
thick green leaves. It grows in fields or by the 
wayside, and is found low down in the grass. It 
blooms from early spring to late in autumn, opens 
when the sun shines and closes at night. Ox-eye 
daisy , or the Daisy of NorthAmerica,isalso called 
the whiteweed. It is a kind of chrysajithemuin. 

DanEasSc. [Damascus.] Cloth of silk, linen, or 
wool, with figures woven on it by different 
directions of thread without change of color, 
first made at Damascus. Damask is woven with 
a twill, in which the weft threads skip eight of 
the warp. In diaper cloth the weft skips five 
instead of eight. 

Dancers, Eastern. Young women of the East¬ 
ern countries noted in the dance for their grace¬ 
ful and rhythmic movements. 

DaiEdelion. [L. dens leonis , a lions tooth.] 
An herb common in Europe and the United 
States, with large yellow compound flowers, 
and leaves with jagged or notched edges. The 
root is mixed with coffee, and is a useful tonic, 
and the young leaves are used as a salad. 

Darwinian Tl heory. The theory of natural 
selection , advanced in 1859 by Charles Darwin, 
which maintains that all species of animals and 
plants are derived from older species by a process 
of survival of the individuals best adapted to 
the surrounding conditions of nature, and hered¬ 
itary transmission of their superior structure. 

Date. [Fr.] The date palm-tree and its fruit. 
Ihe fruit is shaped like an olive, is sweet and 
wholesome, and has a hard kernel. It is th§ 





379 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


chief article of food of the natives ot Arabia 
and North Africa, and is their principal source 
of wealth. The tree rises to a height of 60 feet, 
with a crown of large feathery leaves and flower- 



stalks, and white flowers that are followed by the 
fruit in bunches. The leaves are used as thatch, 
the sap by fermentation is made into wine, and 
the wood is useful for furniture and in building. 

Da / vit. [Fr.] A piece of timber used for keeping 
the anchor clear of the ship’s side when being 
hoisted; />/., arms of iron over a ship’s side or 
stern from which a boat is hung, ready to be let 
down or to be raised. 

Day. [AS.] A word originally used to indicate 
the period of time during which it was light, in 
contrast to night or the period of darkness. 
This usage still exists, but a day in its civil or 
legal sense, is now the period between midnight 
and the succeeding midnight, or 24 hours. The 
siderial day, which is based on a seeming revo¬ 
lution of the stars, instead of the sun, is shorter, 
being 23 hrs. 56 min. 49 sec. Astronomers 
reckon the day as beginning at noon, and count 
the hours from 1 to 24. 

Dea'con. A person in the lowest degree of holy 
orders. In the Roman Catholic Church the 
deacon acts as an assistant to the priest, and 
may preach and baptize with the permission of 
the bishop. In the Church of England he can 
exercise nearly all priestly functions. I11 the 
Presbyterian, Baptist and other Churches the 
deacon or elder is an officer selected to assist the 
minister in the direction of religious affairs. 

Decant/er. [Fr.] A large glass or bottle for 
holding liquor free from sediment, from which 
drinking glasses are filled. 

Deck. [Du.] The upper floor or covering of a 
ship. The name, however, in a large vessel is 
applied to the beith deck, where the sailors’ 
hammocks are hung ; the gun-deck ; half-deck, 
the part below the spar-deck; hurricane-deck ; 
orlop-deck, where the cables are stowed; poop- 
deck, with a cabin; quarter-deck, including 
poop-deck ; spar-deck, or upper deckt 


Deep Sea Exploration. Dredging the ocean 
depths to discover the conditions there existing. 
Many expeditions have been sent out for this 
purpose, the most interesting discovery being the 
fact that numerous animals, of peculiar forms, 
inhabit the ocean at great depths, numbers of 
them being brilliantly phosphorescent, and thus 
lighting up their dark abode. 

Deer. [AS.] A family of ruminating animals, 
with slender limbs, and large antlers or horns on 
the head of the male animal. These are solid, 
and are shed annually in the spring; but new 
ones grow rapidly and send out branches, so that 
in a few mouths the deer has another pair of 
horns, each year’s antlers increasing in size till 
the seventh year, after which they get smaller. 
The deer feed on vegetable substances, and they 
are wont to swallow large quantities without 



much chewing, and masticate at their leisure ; 
this they can do because they have a compli¬ 
cated stomach divided into four chambers. (See 
Digestion.') The reindeer is found in the north 
of Europe and America. It is used for drawing 
sleds ; and its flesh and milk supply the natives 
with food, and its skin with covering. It eats 
moss and lichen. The horns of the wapiti, or 
Canadian red deer, weigh more than 60 pounds. 
The moose, or elk, is the giant of the Deer tribe. 
The fallow deer has palmated horns. The musk 
deer is about 20 inches in height. The musk, 
from which it is named, is secreted in the abdo¬ 
men.— Deer-stalking , hunting the stag by steal¬ 
ing on it unawares. 

Degree'. [Fr.] The 360th part of a circle ; 60 
geographical miles ; the unit of measure for arcs 
and angles ; divided into 60 minutes, and each of 
these into 60 seconds ; also a distinction con¬ 
ferred on graduates of a college or university. 






3 8o 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


HonQrary degrees are conferred on persons of 
distinction without examination as to their at¬ 
tainments.' 

Delf. A kind of earthenware made at Delft, in 
Holland; also any glazed earthenware for table 
use made in imitation of that. 

Denudation. The removal of solid matter by the 
flow of water in streams, or the action of the 
waves and currents of the seas. The process is 
continuous in regions of plentiful rainfall, the 
surface layers of the earth being gradually car¬ 
ried away to deposit in bays and seas. 

Dev / il=rish or Octopus. A highly organized 
mollusc without an external shell, and some¬ 
times of great size. Its head has large staring 
eyes, and its eight arms or feet have two rows of 
suckers, which adhere to animals or objects by a 
curious mouth with two long teeth. Within its 
body is a sac with an inky fluid, which it throws 
from a funnel in its mouth when alarmed. This 
ink is used as sepia, or India ink. The name 
devil-fish is sometimes applied to the fishing- 
frog, and in America to a gigantic species of ray , 
one of which has been found in Delaware Bay 
weighing 5 tons. 

Dew. [AS.] The name given to the drops ( f 
water which are seen on the leaves of plants on 
bright mornings, more especially in the spring 
and autumn. The air contains aqueous vapor, 
and the amount of vapor which the air will 
carry increases as the temperature of the air 
rises, and diminishes as it falls. When the air 
contains as much vapor as it is capable of taking 
up at any particular temperature, it is s-aid to be 
saturated ; and when it is cooled below the 
point of saturation, condensation takes place, 
and the moisture deposited in this way from the 
atmosphere is termed dew . The temperature at 
which dew begins to be deposited is termed the 
dew-point. When the sky is clouded, the greater 
part of the heat radiated by the earth is reflected 
back from the clouds, and the temperature of the 
air does not sink to the dew-point. It will be found 
that on cloudy nights there is no deposition of 
dew. The air should be still, otherwise no air 
remains long enough in contact with the ground 
to be cooled to the dew-point. 

Dew'berry. An American species of blackberry, 
with prostrate stems, abundant in dry, stony 
fields from Canada to Virginia. Its fruit is of 
large size and delicious taste, being much supe¬ 
rior to the high blackberry. There is a British 
fruit of the same name, but not nearly so pala¬ 
table. 

Dial. [B. dies, a day.] An instrument constructed 
to show the hour of the day from the position of 
the shadow of a style cast by the sun on the face 
of a dial-plate. It consists of a straight rod or 
style attached to a plane surface, which is gradu¬ 
ated iu such a way that the shadow points to the 
correct time of day as shown by the sun. The 
style is placed in a direction parallel to the earth’s 
axis. The time shown by a sun-dial is true solar 
time. 


DFamomd. [Fr., from Gk. adamantos.'] The 
hardest and next to the ruby the most valuable 
of gems. Chemically, it is pure, crystallized car¬ 
bon, its crystalline form belonging to the regular 
or cubic system, having generally eight or twelve 

faces. The best dia- 
monds are perfectly 
clear and colorless, and 
are described as being 
of the first water. The 
peculiar lustre of the 
diamond distinguishes 
it from all other sub¬ 
stances, and the vivid 
brightness and intense 

THE ORLOFF DIAMOND. glOWOf itS TefleC- 

tions are unsurpassed by any other stone. It is 
also distinguished from other gems by its ex¬ 
treme hardness. The value of a diamond is 
greatly enhanced by cutting. This industry was 
at one time confined almost exclusively to Am¬ 
sterdam, but it is now carried on in other places. 
Diamonds are cut in two forms—the brilliant 
and the rose cut. The former brings out better 
the beauty of the stone. The dust is used by the 
lapidary arid the gem-engraver, and the stone is 
used for jewelling watches and in cutting glass, 
and for the latter purpose it must not be cut. In¬ 
ferior sorts are used by engineers in rock-boring, 
and by copper-plate engravers as etching-points. 
Diamonds are found in India and Borneo, and 
sometimes in North America and Australia; 
but the chief diamond fields of the present day 
are those of South Africa and Brazil. They were 
first discovered in South Africa in 1867, existing 
there in a blueish earth, from which they are 
washed out. An immense number of diamonds, 
of great collective value, have been obtained 
from these mines. Among the large diamonds 
found the most famous is the Koh-i-noor, which 
has a very interesting history. Others are the 
Great Mogul, the Orloff, the Regent, and the 
Sancy. 

DFaper. [Fr., corrupted from Gk. iaspis, jasper.] 
Linen or cotton cloth or towelling, woven with 
constantly-repeated figures like i as per. (See 
Damask .) 

DFaphragm. [Gk.] A muscle crossing the body, 
separating the chest from the abdomen, and 
forming a movable partition between these two 
cavities, its most important office being con¬ 
nected with the function of respiration. 

Di'atoms. The name of a family of miuute plants, 
inhabiting seas and rivers, each consisting of a 
single organic cell, inclosed in a double case of 
silica, the two ha'ves fitting together like a box 
and its lid. They exist in vast multitudes and 
of many different forms, being visible only under 
the microscope. 

Die. [F.] A stamp, often one of a pair, used in 
marking coins, iu forging metals, and in striking 
sheet metal. Dies are always made of the finest 
steel, and the figures on the die are cut by small 
steel tools. Book-stamps are cut in brass instead 
of steel. 










ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


Digestion. [L,.] The power of dissolving and 
distributing food over the body. All vertebrates 
have a mouth, which is generally furnished with 
teeth. The food is mostly cut and divided in the 
mouth and mixed with saliva, after which it is 
swallowed and digested in the stomach (g.v.) by 
gastric juice, and in the intestines by bile and 
pancreatic juice, the nutritious portions being 
absorbed in the blood. In shell-fish, after food is 
crushed by hard plates in the stomach and mixed 
with saliva, it passes into a long intestine, where 
the nutritious parts are absorbed into the blood. 
Insects pass the food into a crop and then into a 
gizzard, where it is crushed and passed into the 
true stomach and intestines. 

Digitalis. A genus of plants of which the best 
known species is the common foxglove, which 
bears handsome flowers—large, rosy, spotted 
within with white and purple, and hanging 
gracefully. The leaves have an acrid, bitter taste, 
and an overdose of them is poisonous. Em¬ 
ployed in small doses, digitalis is a useful medi¬ 
cine, being very useful in diseases of the heart, 
and in inflammation. 

Dike. [AS.] Earth dug out and raised up in a 
bank ; also a Avail of turf or stone. In geology, 
a volcanic rock filling up fissures in the strata. 

Dim'ity. [L ] A cotton cloth used for curtains. 
It is plain or twilled, sometimes in colors. 

Diphtheria. A very malignant disease of the 
throat, mainly attacking children, and often 
fatal. It is a contagious disease, due to the 
presence of noxious bacteria, and has been suc¬ 
cessfully treated by inoculation with an anti¬ 
toxin, or serum, produced by culture of diph- 

An instrument for measuring 
the dip or inclination of the 
compass needle to the hori¬ 
zon, and from this fact it is 
also termed the inclination 
compass. It consists of a 
magnetic needle very accur¬ 
ately mounted on a hori¬ 
zontal axis. 

Disc or Disk. [AS., from 
Gk.] The round surface of 
a plate or star. In owls, the 
space around the eyes. A 
disc engine is a kind of ro¬ 
tary engine. 

Disinfectant. An agent for 
destroying the germs of in¬ 
fectious diseases, or for re¬ 
moving by oxidation the 
organic matter i n which 
germs develop. Some of 
dipping needle. the substances used for this 
purpose are sulphurous acid, obtained by burning 
sulphur, corrosive sublimate (mercuric chloride), 
chloride of lime, carbolic acid. Coudy’s fluid, and 
green vitriol (ferrous sulphate). 

Distillation. This process consists in boiling a 
liquid and condensing the vapor which is formed. 
The liquid, which we may suppose to be water, 


theria germs. 
Dip'ping=nee / dle. 



381 



is heated in a vessel. The steam or vapor, as 
soon as it is formed, is made to pass through a 
coil of pipes, placed in a vessel of col t water. 

While passing 
^ through this 
If coil, the vapor 
parts with its 
heat to the 
cold water, 
and o n con- 
densing is 
drawn from 
the end of the 
worm. The 
vessel must 
be constantly 

replenished with cold water, and the heated 
water allowed to run off, otherwise the conden¬ 
sation would soon cease. The object of distilla¬ 
tion is generally to free the liquid from any im¬ 
purities it may contain, and also to separate a 
more volatile liquid from one less so, such as 
alcohol from water. 

Div / ing=bell. An apparatus in which persons may 
be let down and remain for a considerable time 
under water without much inconvenience or 
danger. It is a large vessel, closed at the top 
and sides, but open at the bottom. It takes 
its name from having been originally shaped 
somewhat like a bell; but it is now generally 
made square at the top and bottom, the bottom 
being somewhat larger than the top. The bell 
is used in blasting rocks under water, in examin¬ 
ing the foundations of piers and bridges, and in 
recovering stores and treasures from sunken ves¬ 
sels. A code of signals has been arranged by 
which those below can make known their wishes 
to others stationed at the top. Dresses have now 
been devised which enable divers to work under 
water without the aid of a diving-bell. The dress 
is made of india-rubber cloth, and covers the 
entire body. The head is covered by a helmet 
provided with eye-lioles covered with strong 
glass. Air is supplied through a tube which enters 
the head-piece, and is connected with an air-pump 
above. A dress of this kind is now much used by 
those who dive for pearls, sponges, and coral. 

Dock. [Du.] An artificial place with gates, for 
ships being loaded or unloaded. The dockyard 
is the place near the dock where stores for ships 
are kept. A dry dock is one from which the water 
has been pumped out, and is fitted with appli¬ 
ances for making or repairing ships, and includes 
graving-dock, floating-dock, and hydraulic dock. 
A wet dock is the name for a dock with water shut 
in at a fixed level, and opened or shut accord¬ 
ing to the state of the tide. 

Dog. [O E] The dog is a carnivorous quadruped, 
and belongs to the same family as the fox, the 
wolf, and the jackal. It has long been domesti¬ 
cated, and is the faithful companion of man, hav¬ 
ing followed him into every part of the world. 
There are many varieties, which are carefully 
bred. They include the large and useful Eskimo, 
Newfoundland, and St. Bernard breeds ; the 
various long and slender hounds, the poiQter, 




























3§2 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


setter, and other hunting dogs ; the alert little 
terrier ; the water-loving spaniel ; the watchful 
mastiff; the fine and powerful bull-dog; the 
highly intelligent collie or sheep dog, and va¬ 
rious others. 

Dogfish. A small shark of many kinds. The 
European spotted dogfish is abundant; the 
American dogfish is sometimes called the blue 
dogfish ; the common dogfish, both in America 
and Europe, is horned. 

Dog'star. Sirius, the brightest of the fixed stars 
in the Canis Major or Greater Dog constellation. 
The conjunction of the rising of the dogstar with 
the rising of the sun was thought by the ancienis 
to be the cause of the great heat of summer and 
the consequent sickness, and the period of six 
weeks from the middle of July was hence named 
dog-days. 

Dog'wood. The American dogwood is a small 
but very ornamental tree, bearing flowers sur¬ 
rounded with large white bracts, and scarlet ber¬ 
ries in winter. The bark is a useful febrifuge. 
The European dogwood is a shrub whose foliage 
becomes deep-red in autumn. Its wood is very 
hard, and is used lor skewers, cogs for wheels, 
etc., and also makes the best charcoal for gun¬ 
powder. 

DoElar. [Sax.] A silver coin of different value in 
different coyntries. In the United States the silver 
dollar weighs 412 x / 2 grains. The name is an ab¬ 
breviation of Joachim’s thaler, first coined in 
1518 in St. Joachim’s Valley, Bohemia. 

DoEphin. [Fr.] A mammal smaller than the 
true whale, and common in all seas. It is more 
elegant than the porpoise, and is distinguished 
by its long snout. Dolphins follow vessels in 
companies, leaping out of the water and tumb¬ 
ling about. They chase flying-fish relentlessly, 
and prey on small fish, and often follow them 
into shallow waters or up rivers. In color the 
dolphin is black above and white below, but it is 
said to change its color when dying. Its head is 
peculiarly shaped—round above and long like a 
beak. 

Dom / ino. [Ital.] A kind of hood worn by the 
canons of a cathedral ; a mask. Also a small 
piece of wood, bone, or ivory marked by from 
one to six dots, or blank, for playing the game 
of dominoes. The game is played by matching 
the dots. 

Dor / mouse. A small rodent animal that sleeps in 
winter. It lays up a winter store of nuts, and 
does not bury them, but prefers to hide them in 
the tree, which serves for a home. It weaves a 
nest of grass blades, like that cf the harvest 
mouse. 

Dove. [AS.] A bird of the genus Columba. It is 
the same as the pigeon, there being no distinc¬ 
tion in the terms. The European turtle-dove 
has a sweet plaintive note ; the ring-dove is the 
largest; the sea-dove is the little auk. 

Dove'tail. [O.E.] The ends of two boards fitted 
into each other by one being cut the shape of a 
dove’s tail. The one is called a tenon, and the 
other the mortise or socket. 


Drag'on. [Fr., from Gk., a serpent.] A fabulous 
winged serpent; a small tree-lizard or flying- 
lizard of several kinds found in the East Indies 



and Southern Asia. Five or six of the hind ribs 
on each side are prolonged and covered with a 
web-like skin, forming a kind of wing. This 
wing aids it in flying or leaping from tree to tree. 

Drag / on=fly. An insect with a large head and 
great eyes, and a white, scarlet, blue, and green 
long sharp body, and four strong gossamer-like 
wings. It preys on flies, gnats, mosquitoes, and 
butterflies. It lives mostly about water, and 
lays its eggs in the water, in which the larvae 
vare hatched. The pupas are not inactive, as in 
many insects, but are voracious insect-eaters. 

DragoorE. [Span.] A soldier who used to fight 
either on foot or horseback, with a musket 
carved with dragons; a horse-soldier with a 
helmet. 

Drain. [AS.] An arrangement of channels for 
draining off water from houses or fields. House- 
drains are glazed and water-tight. 

Drainage=tubes. A recent appliance used in 
surgery. The tubes are of india-rubber, perfor¬ 
ated with numerous holes, and are introduced 
into chronic abscesses and large wounds to draw 
off the pus as formed. In some cases tubes of 
glass, or of decalcified bones are employed. 

Draughts. A game for two persons, each with 
twelve round pieces of different colors, played 
on a board marked with black and white squares. 

Dredge. [Fr., from Du.] A scoop for bringing 
up mud from the bottom so as to deepen rivers 
or docks ; also a drag-net to sweep the bottom of 
streams or seas for other purposes. 

Drill. [Du.] An instrument for boring, usually 
with an edged or pointed end, and cutting by 
revolving. Diamond drill is a rod set with 
diamonds for boring rock. 

DrorrEedary. [Low L.] The African or Arabian 
camel, which has but one hump. (See Camel.) 

Dross. [AS.] The impure portion or dregs which 
sinks to the bottom, or the scum which rises to 
the top, especially from metals when ore is 
smelted. 






encyclopedic dictionary of common things 


3S3 


Drug. [Fr., or from dry.'] Something dried to 
make a medicine. Applied to medicinal agents 
used in the treatment of disease, or more gener¬ 
ally the crude substances which, after they have 
undergone preparation, are usually called medi¬ 
cines. To be drugged is more particularly ap¬ 
plied to those suffering from a narcotic medicine, 
which produces stupor, and sometimes death. 

Drug / get. [Fr.] A coarse cloth dyed of one 
color, made of wool, to protect carpets. 

Drum. [O.E.] A large tube with tight skins over 
the ends, beaten to accompany music—a kettle¬ 
drum has a metallic hemisphere, and a single 
piece of skin to be beaten ; the tympanum or 
stretched membrane in the inside of the ear ; 
a broad wheel on a revolving shaft, round which 
a belt is put to drive another wheel. 

Drying Machines. Machines for the rapid dry¬ 
ing of fabrics or other materials by centrifugal 
force. They revolve so rapidly that the water is 
thrown off from the enclosed substance. The 
centrifugal process is also used as the final stage 
in sugar production, the sugar being placed in a 
perforated cage, and the machine whirled round 
at a speed of 1,000 rotations a minute. This 
throws off the molasses, and leaves the sugar 
crystals nearly white. In paper-making machines 
are fans which drive heated air against the inner 
surface of the paper, rapidly drying it. 

Duck. [O.E.] A well-known swimming-bird, 
whose boat-shaped body and long neck and web¬ 
bed feet adapt it to live in the water. Its body 
is covered with a thick and close plumage ; its 
coat of down is very thick ; and it has a large 
supply of oil in an oil-gland which keeps its 
feathers from getting wet. Its flat bill is sup¬ 
plied with rough plates around the edge, which 
form a good strainer, and so it can pick its food 
from the mud and water it takes into its mouth. 
Ducks are kept on farms for the sake of their 
eggs and their flesh. The feathers are also of 
use for bedding, those of the eider duck ( q . v.) 
being especially soft and fine. River ducks in¬ 
clude the common domestic duck, the wood- 
duck, the mandarin or Chinese duck, and the 


Ea'gle. [Fr., from L. aquila.] A large vertebrate 
bird of prey of the Falcon family, with a short, 
sharp, hooked beak ; short, strong feet; very 
strong, sharp, hooked claws (q-v.) ; and a long 
tail. It has keen vision, is solitary in its habits, 
and builds its nest usually on the top of a lofty 
tree in a swamp, or on some rocky peak, of large 
sticks and branches heaped together. It uses the 
same nest year after year. It feeds on birds, 
squirrels, hares and rabbits, and lambs from the 
flock, seizing its prey, not with the beak, but 
wnth the talons (q.v.), sometimes driving its 
breast-bone straight againsf what it wishes to kill. 
The most noted species are the golden eagle, the 
imperial eagle, the American white or bald eagle, 
and the. European sea-eagle. The golden eagle 
is a fine large bird. Its nest is roughly made up, 


Muscovy duck, originally of South America. 
The steamer duck of South America cannot fly, 
but swims swiftly. 

Dye ing. [AS.] A process consisting in fixing 
the color in cloth and other materials by immers¬ 
ing them in a prepared bath containing coloring 
substances. Dyes are obtained from animals, 
vegetables, and minerals, the different tints 
being secured by combining the requisite num¬ 
ber of simple coloring substances with cue 
another. In order to render the colors perma¬ 
nent, mordants are used. These consist chiefly 
of the sahs of iron, alumina, and tin. With ani¬ 
line and some otherdye no mordant is required. 
Indigo is the chief of blue dye-stuffs ; quercitron 
and fustic dye yellow; and madder, log-wood, 
cochineal, and aniline dyes are the most com¬ 
mon red dyes. 

Dynamite [Gk. dynamis ], or Giant Powder. 
The general name for various explosives, pre¬ 
pared by mixing nitro-glycerine with some 
absorbing substance which prevents leakage. 
The materials used for this purpose are sawdust, 
silicious marl, rotten-stone, tripoli, the meal of 
Indian corn, sponge plaster, and an infusorial 
earth known as “ keiselguhr.” Its explosive 
powers are very great, while it is far safer to 
handle than nitro-glycerine. It was discovered 
in 1867 by Alfred Nobel, a Swedish chemist. 

Dynamo. [Gk.] A machine used for generating 
a current of electricity by the rotation of coils of 
wire with iron cores between the poles of a pow¬ 
erful electro-magnet. When any conductor of 
electricity is moved about in the space surround¬ 
ing the poles of a magnet so as to cut the lines 
of force at right angles, currents of electricity 
are produced in the conductor. In magneto¬ 
electric machines permanent magnets are used; 
but when an electro-magnet is substituted for the 
permanent magnet, the machines are termed 
“ dynamos,” or dynamo-electric machines. Dy¬ 
namos are used for electric lighting; also 10 
operate electric motors on cars and in factories 
to drive machinery—the motor being simply a 
reversed dynamo. 


and often measures five feet square. The young 
eagles never number more than four, and are 
hatched in thirty days. This bird, on perceiving 
its game, circles in the air, and then slowly de¬ 
scends in decreasing circles till the prey is caught. 
The bald or white eagle is about the size of a 
small hen turkey. Its head is not really bald, 
but covered with thick, white feathers, which 
give it this appearance. Its feathers are of a 
brownish-black color. It loves fish, but does 
not catch them itself. Instead, it watches the 
fish-hawk or osprey at its work, and when it 
sees that the hawk has caught a fish, it swoops 
downward and forces it to yield its prey. 

The eagle was the emblem of ancient Rome, 
and is now the emblem of the Austrian and Rus¬ 
sian empires, and of the United States. The 




ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


3»4 


Austrian and Russian eagles are made with two 
heads, in imitation of the double headed eagle 
first used by Constantine the Great, one of the 
heads of which meant the Western Empire, and 
the other the Eastern Empire. 

Eagle, a gold coin of the United States, whose 
value is ten dollars. It was first coined in 1795. 
The half eagle was first made in the same year, 
the quarter eagle in 1796, and the double eagle 
in 1849. These coins are not pure gold. The eagle 
was named from the emblem of the United States. 

Ear. [AS.] The mechanism through which 
sound reaches the brain. In man and the higher 
vertebrates the ear is divided into three parts— 

the outer open¬ 
ing, or meatus ; 
the middle ear, 
o r tympanum 
or drum ; the 
inner ear, or 
labyrinth. The 
membranous 
labyrinth con¬ 
sists of a num¬ 
ber of sacs and 
tubes contain¬ 
ing a lymph 
fluid, which fills a cavity known as the bony 
labyrinth. The sound collected by the outer 
ear sets the tympanic membrane vibrating; 
the bones in the middle ear convey these vibra¬ 
tions to the inner ear, where the fibres of the 
auditory nerve receive them and send them to the 
brain. A passage called the eustachian tube 
opens from the inner cavity into the throat. 
When through cold the throat is swollen, the 
mouth of this tube may close and deafness ensue. 
The ears of animals of prey bend forward to 
collect the sounds in the direction of the pursuit. 
The ears of animals of flight, as hares and deer, 
turn backward to catch the sounds that may 
warn them of approaching danger. 

Earth. [AS.] One of the planets of the solar 
system, coming next to Mercury and Venus in 
the order of distance from the sun. The princi¬ 
pal motions of the earth are (1) its daily revolu¬ 
tion on its axis; (2) its j’early revolution in its 
orbit round the sun. It was long believed that 
the earth stood still and the sun, planets, and 
stars revolved around it, but astronomers have 
proved that the earth moves round the sun, 
completing one revolution in about 365 days 6 
hours. The orbit is an ellipse, w T ith the sun in 
one focus, so that the earth is not at the same 
distance from the sun at all periods of the year ; 
the mean distance is about 92,800,000miles. The 
motion of the earth in its orbit explains the 
apparent motion of the sun in the heavens 
during the course of the year. Many general 
considerations suggest to us the globular form of 
the earth. When a ship is sailing away from 
the land, the hull will be seen to disappear while 
the masts are still visible, and by degrees the 
masts also sink below the horizon. If the sea 
were flat, the body of the vessel would be visible 
as long as the masts. Mariners also have sailed 


round the earth, always steering in the same 
general direction. Measurements made at dif¬ 
ferent parts of the earth’s surface show that the 
length of a degree increases towards the poles, 
and that consequently the earth is not a perfect 
sphere, but is flattened at the poles. Its mean 
diameter is 7,918 miles, and circumference 24,875 
miles, while it moves around the sun at a speed 
of 15 miles per second. The mass of the earth is 
rather more than five times as great as that of a 
globe of water of the same size would be. It 
has been found that the temperature increases 
about i° F. for every 64 feet of descent. If the 
temperature were to increase at this rate inwards, 
then at no great depth the heat would be suffi¬ 
cient to melt the ordinary materials of the crust 
known to us. Hot springs and volcanoes show 
that the interior of the earth is much warmer 
than the exterior. It is therefore supposed that, 
though the materials in the interior are at an 
exceedingly high temperature, yet owing to the 
great pressure under which they exist they are 
most probably in the solid state. 

Earthquake. A movement or shaking of some 
part of the surface of the earth, resulting from 
a shock inflicted on a solid portion of the earth 
at some point bblow the surface. Earthquakes 
occur with most frequency in volcanic regions. 
A few of the more remarkable earthquakes of 
modern times were those of Lisbon in 1755, 
Lima in 1746, Peru and Ecuador in 1868, and the 
Riviera in 1887. 

Hh'ony. [Fr., from Heb.] A kind of wood, 
usually black, hard, and heavy, which can take 
on a fine polish. The finest is the heart wood of 
a tree found in Mauritius. Other trees in Ceylon 
and the East Indies also yield ebony. A legu¬ 
minous tree in the West Indies yields green 
ebony. It is used for ornamental cabinet work, 
mosaic, flutes, knife handles, pianoforte keys, 
etc. Most of the furniture called ebony is made 
of cherry-wood dyed black. 

EccerPtric. [Fr., from Gk.] Awheel or revolv¬ 
ing disk, whose axis of motion is not in its 
centre. By its use circular motion can be con¬ 
verted into intermittent motion. Eccentrics are 
used to work the valve-gear of steam-engines 
and for many other purposes. 

Echo. [Gk.] A sound reflected back to the ear. 
It is caused by the sending back from a reflect¬ 
ing surface of 
the undula¬ 
tions which 
produce the 
sound. The 
most remark¬ 
able echoes 
are one at 
Lurlei on the 
Rhine ; those at the Whispering Galleries at St. 
Paul’s, London, the Observatory, Paris, and the 
Capitol, Washington, and those on some of the 
lochs in Scotland. (See Focus.') 

Eclip'ses. [Gk. ekleipsis , a failing.] When a 
body which does not allow light to pass through 
it (an opaque body) is exposed to the light of 










ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


385 


the sun or of any other luminous body it casts a 
shadow behind. An eclipse of the moon is caused 
by the moon entering the shadow of the earth ; 
which can only happen at the time of full moon, 
when the earth lies directly between the sun and 
moon. An eclipse of the sun takes place when 
the moon, coming between the earth and the 
sun, intercepts the sun’s light. This can only 
happen at the time of new moon, when the 
moon comes directly between the sun and the 
earth. Usually the moon hides the whole disc of 
the sun, producing a total eclipse ; but occasion¬ 
ally a thin baud of sunlight is visible round the 
edge of the moon, and then we have what is known 
as an annular eclipse (annulus , a ring). This is 
because the moon is not always at the same 
distance from the earth when the eclipse happens, 
and at its greatest distance the apparent size of 
the moon is less than that of the sun. If the 
moon is a little out of the central line between 
the earth and sun a partial eclipse is produced. 

Eel. [AS.] A kind of fish with a strong smooth 
skin, a vast quantity of small scales, and a long 
thin body. Though it has the head of a fish it 
has no gill covers, but only a small hole. Its 
dorsal and anal fins run along nearly one-third 
of the body, but some species are nearly destitute 
of fins and have no scales. Eels mostly abound 
in waters which communicate with the sea and 
some species live only in sea-waters. The fresh¬ 
water eel can creep over the ground like snakes, 
and sometimes passes the winter in a torpid state 
in mud. It has transparent horny coverings to 
defend its eyes from mud and stones. Eels are 
the terror of most other fish, and attack their 
prey by day and by night. The murry eel 
abounds in the Mediterranean and other warm 
seas, and the Romans esteemed it a delicacy. 
Eels are caught by eel-bucks, eel-sets or nets, 
and bobs or worms and worsted. Electric eels 
are found at the mouth of the Orinoco in pools 
after a flood, where they are harpooned by the 
natives, who drive wild horses into the water to 
receive their electric shocks. These eels are 
large, yellow, and livid, and arch their bodies, 
straightening themselves with a jerk, and curv¬ 
ing back again when they produce the shock. 
The shock is severe enough to knock down men 
or animals. The electricity is generated by 
cells in the lower part of the body, and the number 
of cells varies according to the size of the fish. 

Egg. [AS.] A roundish or oval-shaped body laid 
by birds and other animals, and from which their 
young come forth. The egg of the bird consists 
of a yolk with a germ-cell, which is surrounded 
by white albumen and enclosed in a shell. The 
germ-cell occupies little space, but it is of great 
importance, since from it the bird develops. 
Twisted cords of albumen allow the yolk to roll 
over when the egg is turned, but the germ-cell 
always keeps uppermost, and so is always 
nearest the body of the bird as she sits on her 
eggs, and thus receives the most heat. In growth 
the albumen furnishes the matter for the body of 
the young bird, and the yolk affords its nourish¬ 
ment. The bigger the yolk the larger will be the 

25 C 


young chicken. There is at the top of the egg a 
little bubble of air for the use of the young bird, 
and fresh supplies of air pass through numerous 
small pores in the shell. The young bird, when 
sufficiently grown, chips the shell by a little 
knob on its beak ; which disappears after it has 
Come forth from the shell. An ostrich egg will 
weigh three pounds, and contain as much as one 
dozen hens’ eggs. Ostrich eggs are left in the 
sun to hatch. Alligators place theirs under a 
mass of vegetable matter heaped up on purpose 
to produce the heat necessary for hatching. Tur¬ 
tles lay from 100 to 200 egg c , and cover them 
with sand, carefully smoothing the place where 
they are left to hatch iu the heat of the sun. The 
female shark lays but two eggs, which are en¬ 
closed in leathery purse-shaped cases, with the 
four corners lengthened into tendrils, and these 
becoming entangled in sea-weed hold the egg in 
its place. The empty black cases of sharks’ eggs 
are often found on the sea-shore. The eggs of 
fishes are tiny, covered with a thin skin, and so 
transparent that the fish can be seen moving in¬ 
side for a day or two before being hatched. A 
single cod-roe will contain 9,000,000 eggs, but 
great myriads of fish are devoured when young 
by their larger neighbors. The eggs of frogs are 
scattered through a lump of thick jelly, which 
sticks to grass or twigs, and so is prevented from 
drifting away by that which affords food to the 
young animals. Many snakes lay eggs, which 
like those of the frog are stuck together by a 
thin jelly. Snails deposit tiny white eggs, which 
contain perfect little snail-shells within. The 
eggs of ants are scarcely visible. The queen ant 
lays all the eggs, which are immediately taken 
in charge by nurses that lick and clean them till 
little white grubs are hatched. The queen bee 
lays all the eggs of bees, sometimes 2,000 in a 
single day, and each egg is placed in its own 
special cell—worker eggs in worker-cells, and 
drone eggs in drone cells. After a few days the 
eggs hatch white grubs, which are attended by 
nurses. Nearly all spiders enclose their eggs in a 
silken cocoon,which, in some species, the mother 
carries on her back: 2,000 young spiders have 
been found in one cocoon. The eggs of domestic 
fowls are very nutritious. 

Ei'der Duck. [Scand.] A sea-bird, which spends 
the winter on the Arctic seas, and when spring 
comes swims with its mates to the shore. The 
female makes a large, loose nest of dry grass, and 
lines it with a thick layer of down plucked from 
her own breast. The natives rob the nests of 
this down, and when it is replaced rob them a 
second time. Then the male bird strips himself 
of his down to line the nest, which is now left, 
undisturbed. The female lays from six to ten 
pale-green eggs. Eider down is valuable for its 
softness and lightness, and the eggs are much 
liked as food. The eider duck does not fly well, 
but is early taught to swim and dive, the mother 
going down to the sea with a little one under 
each wing. 

EEder. [AS.] A small tree or shrub with soft pith, 
white flowers, and black, red, or purple berries. 




ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON THINGS 


386 


The berries are diaphoretic and aperient. Elder- 
flower water, made from the flowers,is a perfumed 
water used in perfumery and confectionery. 
Electricity* [Gk.] This name was originally ap¬ 
plied to certai n attractions and repulsions, but 
the subject has gradually widened so as to include 

various chemical heat¬ 
ing, luminous, mag¬ 
netic, and mechanical 
effects. Electricity is 
considered under the 
two heads of (1) Stat¬ 
ical or Frictional 
Electricity; and (2) 
Current or Voltaic 
Electricity. 

Statical Electricity. 
As early as 6so b.c., 
Thales and other 
Greek philosophers 
discovered that amber 
(hence the name elec¬ 
tricity, from Gk. elec¬ 
tron, amber) when 
rubbed with silk at¬ 
tracted light bodies; 
and about 1600 a.d., 
Dr. Gilbert found that 
glass, sulphur, sealing 
wax, resin, and many 
other bodies were pos¬ 
sessed of the same 
property. When glass 
is rubbed with silk, 
the glass is said to be 
electrified positively, 
and the silk, which 
has been the rubber, 
negatively; but wax 
flannel is negatively and 
The existence 



Diagram Showing: A, four cells in 
series ; B, four cells in parallel; 
and C, three in series with two in 
parallel. 


rubbed with silk or 
the silk positively electrified 
of two kinds of electricity is shown as follows : 
A small pith ball is hung by a silk thread from a 
glass support, forming an electric pendulum. 
When a glass rod which has been rubbed with 
silk is brought near the pith ball, the ball is at¬ 
tracted by the glass ; but as soon as it touches it, 
repulsion follows, and the two separate. If now 
a stick of sealing-wax be rubbed with silk, and 
brought up to the pith ball, the latter will be at¬ 
tracted towards the wax although it has just been 
repelled by the glass. This shows that a pith ball 
touched by electrified glass is afterwards repelled 
by the electrified glass, but attracted by electri¬ 
fied sealing-wax. This experiment shows two 
things: (i)that there are two kinds of electricity; 
(2) that two bodies charged with like electricities 
repel one another, and those charged with unlike 
electricities attract. The electricities here called 
positive and negative are also known respectively 
as vitreous and resinous. The electricity pro¬ 
duced by friction has great electro-motive force, 
and is thus capable of overcoming great resist¬ 
ance, and of producing powerful mechanical 
effects ; but it is deficient in quantity, and there¬ 
fore does not possess a large amount of energy. 



grove’s cell. 

Z, zinc plate in dilute sulphuric 
acid; P, platinum plate in 
strong nitric acid. 


Current Electricity. A galvanic or voltaic cell 
or battery is an arrangement in which electricity 
is yielded by chemical action. Such electricity 
is named current , because it is continuous while 
the chemical action lasts, and not intermittent, 
like the momentary discharge from a Deyden jar. 

A current may also be 
generated by heating the 
j unction of two dissimilar 
metals; the electricity 
obtained in this way is 
called the thermo-electric 
current, the heat being 
transformed into electric¬ 
ity. Another method of 
obtaining a current is by 
rotating a coil of wire 
between the poles of a 
magnet or of an electro¬ 
magnet, as in the dynamo 
which yields electric light 
and power. The chief 
I subjects which require to 
be considered under the 
head of Current Electric¬ 
ity are (i)the effect of the 
current in producing 
chemical decompositions; 
(2) in producing heat and 
light, as in electric light- 
ing ( q.v .) ; (3) the production of induced currents 
by the action of another current or of a magnet; 
(4) the measurement of the strength of the cur¬ 
rent, as with the galvanometer. (See Galva¬ 
nometer, Ether.) 

Electric Light. Two forms of electric light are 
used—the arc and the incandescent. When a 
strong current passes between two carbon points 
which have been first in contact and are after¬ 
wards separated a short distance, the interval 
between them is occupied by a luminous band 
(known as the voltaic arc). This constitutes the 
arc light. Its light is very intense. The com¬ 
mon street light is equal to about 800 candle- 
power, but the powerful search light may equal 
more than 50,000,000 candles. In the incan¬ 
descent lamp the current is made to pass through 
a strip of carbon which has been carefully pre¬ 
pared and formed into a loop. This becomes in¬ 
tensely hot, and gives out much light. It is en¬ 
closed in a small glass globe, from which the air 
must be removed or a vacuum formed, otherwise 
the heated carbon would unite with the oxygen 
and the air be consumed. This light is suitable 
for household use. The current is supplied by . 
an electro-magnetic machine. 

Elec/tric Telegraph. A system of con¬ 
veying intelligence to a distance by means of sig¬ 
nals produced by aid of the electric current. The 
two stations, which may be several thousand miles 
apart, are connected by a wire along which the 
electricity flows. The electric current, produced 
by a galvanic battery, passes along the wire with 
immense velocity, and is capable of acting upon 
an electro magnet at great distances. In the 
common Morse system the sender uses a small 

























































ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


3S7 


instrument, by tapping which with his finger he 
can break off th^ current at will. When this is 
done quickly the receiving instrument gives a 
quick sound, or makes a dot on paper. When 
slowly., there is a longer sound, or a dash on 
paper. These dots and dashes are variously com¬ 
bined to represent the letters of the alphabet. 
These are now caught by the ear, paper not being 
used. Telegraph lines are usually carried through 
the air on wooden poles, galvanized iron being 
used. Telegraphs also pass under the oceans, 
their wires being surrounded by insulating ma¬ 
terial , the whole being called a cable. Telegraph¬ 
ing without wires has recently been invented. 

Elec / tro=met / aIIurgy. The art of depositing met¬ 
als—such as gold, silver, copper, etc.,—from 
their solutions by a slow current of electricity, 



electrophorous. 

I, Ebonite plate; B and P, upper and lower plates of brass; R, 
insulating handle for upper plate. 

obtained either from a voltaic or a magneto¬ 
electric battery. The process is mostly confined 
to electro-typing and electro-plating.— Electro- 
typing is the method of securing copies of med¬ 
als, statuettes, etc. When copper, for example, 
has to be deposited upon a mould (made of plas¬ 
ter of Paris or gutta-percha), the mould is made 
a conductor by brushing it over with black-lead ; 
and, after attaching it to the negative pole of the 
battery, it is suspended in ithe solution of sul¬ 
phate of copper, the positive pole consisting of 
a plate of the same metal. By the electrolysis of 
the solution copper is deposited on the surface 
of the mould, while sulphuric acid is set free; 
and this, by dissolving a portion of the copper at 
the positive pole, keeps the solution at constant 
strength.— Electro-plating is the process of cov¬ 
ering forks, spoons, etc., made of the cheaper 
metals, with a coating of silver. The process is 
in reality electro-typing in silver instead of cop¬ 
per. The solution of silver (called the bath) con¬ 
sists of two parts of cyanide of silver, 10 of cyan¬ 
ide of potasssium, and 250 of water. By the 
electrolysis of this solution silver is deposited 
on the object which is placed in it. 


Electrophorous. An apparatus for generating 
frictional or statical electricity. By striking or 
rubbing the ebonite with dry flannel and then 
placing thereupon the upper plate of metal and 
touching the upper and lower metal disks simul¬ 
taneously, upon removing upper disk a discharge 
of electricity will be then felt upon touching the 
upper disk. 

Electrometer. An instrument for measuring the 
force or power of an electric current. 

Electroscope. An instrument for measuring or 

detecting pres¬ 
sure of electric 
current. By rub¬ 
bing a glass rod 
with a piece of 
silk and touch¬ 
ing the knob JV, 
the strips of 
gold leaf will 
part indicating 
pressure of elec¬ 
tricity. 

EKeme nts. 
[I,.] Substan¬ 
ces which can¬ 
not be decom¬ 
posed by chem¬ 
ical action, and 
which seem to 
be unit forms 
of matter, as dis¬ 
tinguished from 
comp ounds. 
They are rough¬ 
ly divided into 
two great classes 
gold-leaf electroscope. — the metals, 

G G, Glass shade ; L, gold leaves supported and tile HOU- 
by wire w ; gg, glass supports for w : v me tals Or metal- 
vessei containing sulphuric acid ; p, small . ... 

plug to be pressed down when instrument tOldS. 1 tie num- 
is not in use. ber of elements 

now known is about 75,but some of these may not 
be simple bodies, but compounds of simpler bodies. 

EEephant. [Heb. aleph , an ox.] The largest 
and most powerful of four-footed animals. 
It is clumsy and thick-skinned, but has a lithe 
and agile trunk. Some elephants have been 
found 12 feet high and over five tons in weight. 
They can carry great burdens at a rate of two or 
three miles an hour. Their legs are massive, 
but they can kneel and rise easily, and can use 
their fore feet as hands in holding down branches 
while the leaves are being stripped off by their 
trunks. The feet of the elephant are divided 
into toes, though externally gathered into a 
round cushion mass, protected by flattish nails. 
Compared with its body, its head is small, and the 
skull contains many hollow spaces, which lessen 
its weight. It has pendulous ears, gigantic tusks 
in the male, and a trunk which can reach 8 or 10 
feet. The tusks, which are the incisor teeth of 
the upper jaw, are weapons of defence or forks 
to dig up roots. The eye is small but brilliant, 
and its inability to look backward or upward is 
made up for by great acuteue»s of hearing. The 

















































3 83 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


trunk, which is the nose lengthened out, is of a 
tapering form, and is composed of thousands of 
minute muscles, which give it great power in 
feeling and grasping, or in pumping up or eject¬ 
ing water. The trunk conveys the food to the 
mouth or draws up water which is thrown over 
the back. The elephant is herbivorous, and Leds 
on grass, young shoots, and roots ; it is found in 
Central and Southern Africa, and in India. Ele¬ 
phants are captured by enclosing them in palisades 



of timber. They are intelligent and sagacious, 
and can be trained to do many kinds of work 
and many feats. The African elephant has great 
flapping ears, and is more fierce than that of 
Asia. Its tusks yield fine ivory, which is very 
valuable. The Asiatic elephant is smaller than 
the African. The tamed elephants in menageries 
are of the Asiatic kind. 

Elevator. [L.] A machine for raising grain, 
etc., to a higher floor—usually an endless chain 
with a series of scoops or buckets; also, a cage 
or platform or hoist for hoisting persons or goods. 
The passenger elevator is largely employed in 
the lofty buildings of recent times. By its aid 
buildings many stories high are easily used. It 
is called a lift in England. 

Elk. [Scand.] A large species of deer. The 
European elk has long, flat horns, and is closely 
allied to the moose. The American elk is known 
as the wapiti, and is of large size, being about as 
large as the horse. Its horns are the finest of all 
deer horns, being 5 or 6 feet long, and having 
many branches. 

Ellipse'. [Gk.] A curve of such form that every 
point on it has the sum of its distances from two 
fixed points always the same. The two points 
are called the foci. The orbits of the planets are 
ellipses, with the sun in one focus. 

Elm. [AS.] A large and graceful forest tree with 
thick foliage of dark-green leaves. It has smooth 
bark on the branches, but a rugged trunk. Its 
flowers are dark red, and bear an oval green pod 
with one seed. This tree is often planted in rows 
in parks, and is very common in England. Its 
wood is hard and tough, and used for water¬ 


wheels, building, shipbuilding, carving, etc. Its 
bark is used in tanning, dyeing, and sugar¬ 
refining. The American elm is called white elm; 
a red elm, called slippery elm, has a succulent 
inner bark, whose jelly-like juice is used in 
medicine. 

Embryol'ogy. The science of the development of 
the animal body from the germ to the mature 
state. It has been discovered that man, in the 
* embryo-grow'th, assumes con- 

/ \ ditions like those of some of 

/ \ the lower animals. Thus at 

j \ one stage there appear gill 

/ \ slits like those of the fish. 

From one of these the ear is 
developed. 



CONE CUT TO SHOW THE ELLIPSE. 


Em'erald. [Fr., from Gk.] A variety of the mineral 
beryl, of a beautiful green color; when trans¬ 
parent it is much prized as a gem. The finest 
stones come from Colombia, in South America, 
and fine ones are found in Peru. Inferior emer¬ 
alds come from Bavaria, India, and Mt. Zalvra, 
in Upper Egypt. Large crystals of emerald occur 
in North Carolina and Siberia. 

Em'ery. [Gk. sman , to rub.] A variety of corun¬ 
dum, occurring in grains or powder, and very 
hard. It is glued on cloth, paper, or the rim of 
a wheel, and used for grinding and polishing 
hard substances. It is found in the island of 
Naxos, in the Grecian Archipelago, and other 
places. 

E / mu or E / meu. [Port.] An Australian bird re¬ 
lated to the cassowary and ostrich, and, next to 
the ostrich, the largest of birds. It cannot fly, 
but runs swiftly. The emu kicks backward or 
sideways, while the ostrich kicks forward. Emu 
feathers are scarcely distinguishable from ordi¬ 
nary hair. The male bird hatches and broods the 
young. In its wild state it feeds on parrots or 
other birds ; but it is often made a household pet, 
though mischievous and cunning. It is the only 
running bird that wanders in pairs. Its eggs are 
of a beautiful dark-green color. 

Enam'el. [Fr., from Ital.] In pottery, a substance 
of a vitreous nature applied as a coating to the 
surface of pottery or porcelain. It is a fusible 
kind of glass, and iseith: r transparent or opaque, 
and when transparent it forms a glaze. An 
enamel of a similar kind is used as a lining for 
the inside of iron vessels used in cooking. In 
the fine arts it is a substance applied as a coating 
for decorative purposes on the surface of porce¬ 
lain or metal .—Enamel zvork. In this kind of 
work the chief decorative quality lies in the 
manner of its execution. There are distinct 
classes of it, as Cloisonnee , Champleve, translu¬ 
cent, and surface enamel. 









% 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 389 



EiEdogen. [Gk.] A plant that grows by adding 
new wood to the interior of the stem, as a palm, 

rush.o r orchid. Op¬ 
posed to e x o g e n 
( q.v .). The leaves 
have usually parallel 
veins, and their 
flowers are in three 
or multiples of three 
parts. Endogens 
have no bark, be¬ 
cause, the flow of sap 
being internal, bark 
is not required to 
defend the sap, as in exogens. The Endogens 
include palms, lilies, orchids, etc. 

ErEgine. [Fr., from E. ingenium.~\ A machine fit¬ 
ted to do work or set machinery in motion. There 
are various kinds—steam-engine, air-engine, fire- 
engine, pumping-engine, and donkey-engine. 
Military engineering includes the designing and 
building of fortifications ; civil engineering in¬ 
cludes the building of railways, canals, water¬ 
works, bridges, lighthouses, docks, and tunnels ; 
mining engineering has regard to the sinking and 
working of mines; electrical engineering includes 
all kinds of electrical work. 

ErEsigns. [E. insignis.~\ The flags of a regi¬ 
ment, usually two, and referred to as colors. In 
America they are carried by color-sergeants. 
The rank of ensign, formerly used in the British 
army, was abolished in 1871. 

Ep'aulet. [Fr., from E. spatula. ] A mark of an 
officer, naval or military, worn on the shoulder, 
formerly used. 

Ep'som Salts. The ordinary name for sulphate 
of magnesium ; so called because it occurs in a 
spring at Epsom in Surrey, from the water of 
which it was originally prepared. It is now man¬ 
ufactured from mountain limestone, the lime 
being separated by sulphuric acid. It is found 
native in America, and may be also prepared 
from sea-brine. It is used in medicine as a pur¬ 
gative. It has a bitter, saline, disagreeable taste, 
w T hich may be somewhat relieved by adding a 
little lemon syrup. 

EEmine. [Fr.] An animal like a weasel, having 
a thick, valuable fur, worn by judges and royalty 
as emblem of authority. In summer it is brown, 
but in winter it is white. The tail is always 
black ; and these tails are arranged at intervals 
through the fur when worn in state robes. It is 
named from Armenia, where it was first found ; 
but now it is found in the north of Asia, Europe, 


and America. 

Escape / ment. [Fr.] The means in a clock or 
watch by which the force of the weights or 
spring is checked and regulated by the motion of 
the pendulum, or balance acting on a wheel with 
sharp teeth. They are known as the verge or 
upright, the anchor-shaped, the cylinder, the 
duplex, and the lever. 

Essence. [E. essentia , being.] The volatile mat¬ 
ter forming a perfume. Essential oils, extracted 
from various plants, fruits, and flowers are used 
in essences and perfumery. 


EtcIEing. [Du.] A picture made from an etched 
plate, chiefly copper. In etching, the plate is 
covered or dabbed with a varnish, and is scored 
or scratched with a needle, so as to form the 
drawing ; it is then covered with nitric acid and 
water, which bites the metal in the lines laid 
bare. 

E / ther. [Gk. upper air.] A medium of extreme 
tenuity, which is assumed to pervade all space, 
and the interstices between the molecules of all 
bodies, whether solid, liquid, or gaseous. It is the 
medium by means of which light, heat, electri¬ 
city, and magnetism are transmitted, it being 
claimed that diffused matter cannot convey these 
forces, and that a very rare substance, differing 
in character, is needed. Sulphuric ether is ob¬ 
tained by distilling strong alcohol and sulphuric 
acid, and is an exceedingly volatile and inflam- 
able body, dissolving fats, resins, and oils, and 
useful in removing grease stains. It is also used 
as an anaesthetic. 

Eucalyptus. [Gk.] An Australian evergreen 
tree like the myrtle, which grows to a great 
height, and yields resins, oils, tars, and tannin. 
The leaves are rigid, with one edge turned to the 
zenith. They are called gum-trees. The timber 
is valuable. The Tasmanian cider-tree is a eu¬ 
calyptus, and yields a cider-like sap in spring. A 
eucalyptus tree in Cape Otway Range, Australia, 
is 415 feet high. These trees have been wddely 
transplanted and are thought to be of value in 
malarious districts, as in the Roman Campagna. 

Ex'ogen. [Glc.] A plant that grows by adding 

its new wood round 
the outside of the 
stem, under the bark, 
as is done by most 
‘forest trees of the 
temperate zones. The 
leaves are usually net- 
ted-veined, and the 
number of cotyledons 
is two, or very rarely 
several in a whorl. 
Exogens and endogens are the principal classes 
of the vegetable (q-V.) kingdom. 

Eye. [AS.] The human eye is a nearly spherical 
ball, which in an adult is about nine-tenths of an 
inch in diameter. The external coating, known 
in common language as the white of the eye, is a 
tough, horny membrane, having about four-fifths 
of its circumference opaque, and named the scle¬ 
rotica. The front portion of this coating, called 
the cornea , is transparent and more curved than 
the sclerotica. Behind the cornea is a flat circu¬ 
lar membrane called the iris. It is colored, and 
at its centre there is a circular opening called the 
pupil, which is capable of becoming contracted 
or enlarged on exposure to light or darkness. 
Ihe color of the iris gives the characteristic 
color to each person’s eyes. Behind the pupil is 
the crystalline lens. The cavity between the 
cornea and the crystalline lens is called the ante¬ 
rior chamber, and contains the aqueous humor. 
The cavity behind the crystalline lens, called the 
posterior chamber , contains vitreous humor . 


























39 ° 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


The sclerotica is lined by a dark-colored mem¬ 
brane called the choroid coat, saturated with a 
black mucus. The choroid is lined with a mem¬ 
brane called the retina, which is traversed by a 
system of nerve filaments coming from the optic 
nerve. Light falling on the retina produces the 
sensation of vision, and this is 
the only part of the eye which 
possesses this property. When 
the rays of light from an object 
enter the eye, they undeigo 
refraction at the cornea and the crystalline 
lens, and come to a focus on the retina ; if the 
image formed on the retina is distinct, the 
object is seen clearly. The eye can accommo¬ 


date itself so as to be able to see objects at differ¬ 
ent distances ; this is supposed to be brought 
about by a change in the focal length of the crys¬ 
talline lens. The prawn has a pair of gleaming 
eyes standing out upon short stalks, which are 
composed of a number of six-sided facets in the 
shape of a hemisphere, by which the praw T n keeps 
a sharp look-out. The snail also has eyes set on 
long stalks. Bees, butterflies, beetles, ants, flies, 
house-crickets, and other insects, have compound 
eyes. The eye of the grasshopper often consists 
of 12,000 lenses, with a glass-like cone and thread¬ 
like rods forming the image. Many of the mol¬ 
luscs and other low forms of life have eyes. 



F 


FakirL A member of an order of penitents or 
mendicants of Oriental lands, particularly India. 
Some of them live in communities, others win¬ 
der about, making unpleasant displays of self- 
torture and mortification and of filthy habits. 
The term has recently been applied to itinerant 
street salesmen. 

Fair'y. A fay; an imaginary being of tiny human 
form, supposed to dance in meadows, steal in¬ 
fants, and play a variety of pranks. They are 
regarded as sometimes benevolent, sometimes 
malicious, and to concern themselves greatly 
with human affairs. The popular belief in fairies 
has largely died out, but has left a literature of 
ceaseless charm to the young and imaginative. 

Fahrenheit. A method of marking thermome¬ 
ters ( q.v .) so called from the inventor, G. D. 
Fahrenheit. Its freezing-point is 32 0 , and boil¬ 
ing-point 212 0 . This thermometer is in common 
use in England and in the United States. 

Faith=Cure. A system in which it is claimed that 
the sick can be cured without medicine, needing 
only faith in certain persons or objects to produce 
this effect. Christian Science and some other 
systems seem based on a similar principle. 

Fal / con. [L. falx, a reaping-hook.] A bird of 
prey with claws like a hook. This bird used 
to be trained to catch other birds for hunters. 
Eagles, buzzards, and hawks, and most birds of 
prey, belong to the class of Falcons. All have 
the same tearing beak—a tootli-like lobe on the 
upper mandible—and all the same hooked claws. 
They lay from two to four eggs in the year. The 
peregrine falcon or hawking falcon is a trim, 
brave bird. Hawking wfith the falcon is still 
practiced in Persia and India. The gyrfalcon is 
an Arctic bird. 

FalFing Stars. The flashing meteors which dart 
across the sky at night and quickly disappear. 
At certain periods of the year they are seen in 
large numbers, and yield the impression of stars 
falling from their place in the heavens. 

FaFlow Deer. [AS.] A deer of a fallow or pale 
yellowish-brown color, smaller than the red deer. 
In summer both sexes are spotted with white. 
It is a native of Persia, but is now domesticated 
in Europe. 


Fan. [AS., from L.] An instrument for blowing 
away chaff, or for moving the air to cause cool¬ 
ness, or to blow a fire. Ladies’ French fans are 
made of ivory, mother-of-pearl, tortoise-shell, 
bone, gauze, or feathers. Cheap fans from India 
and China are palm leaves or split bamboo. 
Large machine fans, moved by steam pow T er, are 
used for many purposes, and electric fans to cool 
large rooms in summer. 

FarFna. [h. farina, meal.] Ground corn or fine 
meal made from cereal grains or from the starch 
extracted from vegetables, and used in cookery. 
—Farinaceous food, food consisting of meal or 
flour. 

Fat. [AS.] The soft, oily part of an animal’s 
body. Carbonaceous foods act both to yield 
animal heat and to form fat, which is of use to 
the animal in protecting it from the cold and 
forming a store of food. Some fats are solid at 
ordinary temperatures. These include beef suet 
from the ox, mutton suet from the sheep, lard 
from the pig, butter from milk, dripping (melted 
fat from meat). They become liquid when 
heated, and are chiefly composed of stearin. 
Liquid fats are commonly called oils, and include 
olive oil,cod-liver oil,etc. Oils {q.v.) arecomposed 
of olein, and contain less hydrogen than solid 
fats. Fat is lighter than w T ater, and is insoluble 
in water. Benzole or benzene will dissolve fat, 
and is much used to remove grease spots from 
clothing. 

Fea / ther. [AS.] A stalk of horn, hollow at the 
lower end or quill and filled with pith, and 
fringed at the other end, forming part of a bird’s 
wing or the covering of its body. Birds are the 
only animals that are clothed with feathers, and 
much of their beauty is due to the colors and 
markings of the feathers. Feathers grow from 
little sacs in the skin, and are horny and of much 
the same substance as the scales of reptiles. Soft 
downy feathers, which overlap one another, form 
the warm covering of the body. The large quill 
feathers of the tail and wings are useful for flying. 
On each side of the quill are barbs, which, 
cleaving closely to their neighbors by hooks or 
barbules, make up the web or vane. Lower barbs 
of a feather and downy feathers have no hooks 




ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


39i 


on them. The tail feathers of the ostrich and 
other such birds also have no hooks. Birds 
always preen or trim their feathers with oil 
taken from an oil-gland at the end of the tail. 
This oil is most abundant in water-birds, and 
makes their feathers waterproof. Partridges and 



FEATHERS. 

a, d shaft; b . aftershaft; c, barbs or web. 

scratching birds have dingy feathers like the 
ground on which they live; pheasants and 
brilliantly-colored birds blend with the bright 
flowers and pretty fruits upon which they feed. 
The feathers of various birds form an important 
article of commerce. Feathers are useful as 
articles of trimming and ornament, and for the 
stuffing of beds and pillows. The quills of 
feathers were formerly made into pens, but the 
extensive manufacture of steel pens has supplied 
their place. Feathers for ornament are obtained 
from the ostrich, marabout, peacock, pheasant, 
bird of paradise, heron, osprey, and other birds. 

Felt. [O.E] Cloth made of the shortest fibres ot 
wool, or of wool and fur of hares and rabbits, not 
woven but mixed with thin glue, and rolled or 
pressed together. After being switched up into 
fluff by bowing, it is carded and twisted into a 
soft, loose cloth, which is wound on a roller and 
carried to a felting machine, and then dyed. 
Fine felt is used for hats and coarser felt for 
table cloths, carpets, roofing, lining buildings to 
prevent dampness, and many other purposes. 

Fermentation. [L. fermentation A change 
which many organic liquids are capable of un¬ 
dergoing in the presence of certain substances 
termed ferments. The decompositions which 
take place are different from ordinary chemical 
actions, and the resulting products yary with the 


nature of the fermented body and with the kind 
of ferment used. There are two distinct kinds of 
ferments—(1) organized , and (2) non-organized, 
or soluble ferments. The former consist of 
minute vegetable organisms. One is yeast, which 
gives rise to the alcoholic fermentation, produc¬ 
ing chiefly alcohol and carbonic acid ; another, 
called bacterium lactis—a' rod-like form—is the 
cause of the fermentation in milk, or lactic fer¬ 
mentation, the chief product of which is lactic 
acid ; a third produces acetous fermentation, giv¬ 
ing rise to acetic acid, and there are many others. 

Fern. [AS.] An order of plants belonging to the 
class of acrogens. They are usually found in 
moist soil, sometimes they grow as parasites on 
trees, and in the tropics reach so large a size as to 
be called tree ferns. The brake or bracken, poly¬ 
pody, asplenium, maidenhair, are all well-known 
ferns. They bear clustered cells filled with spores, 
which germinate and form minute growths, on 
which are borne the true organs of reproduction. 
These spores are generally produced in rows on 
the back of the leaves, or fronds , as they are usu¬ 
ally called ; or sometimes on a central branch or 
spike. There are more than two thousand kinds 
of ferns in the world. 

Ferret. [Fr.] An animal of the weasel kind, 
about 14 inches long, used for hunting rats and 
rabbits out of their holes. It is like the weasel 
in form, has red eyes, and its fur is of a light 
browm, pale yellow, or white color. When used 
for rabbit-hunting its muzzle or jaws are tied 
together ; and as it cannot bite the rabbits, they 
are driven to the entrance of their burrows, where 
they are netted or shot. The ferret in winter 
must be protected from the cold. It is a native 
of Africa, but has been domesticated in Europe. 

Fe / ver. [Fr.] An illness causing great heat in 
the body and quick action of the heart. Remit¬ 
tent fevers subside at intervals; intermittent 
fevers entirely cease at intervals; continued 
fevers neither abate nor intermit. 

FFbre. [Fr., from ~b.fibra, a thread.] The thread¬ 
like parts in the flesh of animals; also those in 
the stalks of such plants as hemp, flax, agave, 
jute, cotton, etc., from which thread, string, rope, 
and paper are made ; also the hairs and wool of 
animals, the thread of the silkworm, and other 
substances used in weaving, etc. 

FFbrin. A substance which separates in a solid 
state from blood after it leaves the body. It is a 
white, stringy snbstance, which may be readily 
obtained by stirring newly-shed blood. It is 
tasteless, insoluble in water, but is readily digest¬ 
ible in gastric and pancreatic juice, and when 
dried forms a heavy mass resembling albumen. 

Fife. A small wind instrument used with the drum 
for military music. It is a short tube closed at 
one end, with holes in the side. It is very an¬ 
cient, having been used by the old Greeks, 

Fig. [Fr., from L. ficus, a fig-tree.] A small fruit- 
tree of from 12 to 20 feet high, with large leaves. 
The fig is a native of Syria, and grows wild on the 
Mediterranean coast. It bears two crops annu¬ 
ally, and when the fruit is picked it is spread out to 
dry. Fig-cake is used in the East instead of bread. 










392 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


File. [AS,] A piece of steel made rough for 
smoothing wood or metal. A file differs from a 
rasp in having the furrows made by straight cuts 
of a chisel, either single or crossed, while the 



FIGS. 

rasp has coarse single teeth. There are many 
shapes — flat, square, knife-edged, half-round, 
rat-tail or round, three-square, cross, and slitting. 

FiFigree. [Span.] Fine thread-like work of ara¬ 
besque pattern, made of gold or silver wire or wire 
used in decorating gold or silver. It is made 
mostly in India, Turkey, Italy, and Malta. 

FiFter. [From root of Felt .] Any substance, as 
charcoal, sand, or felt, through which liquid 
passes, and by which it is cleared of foreign sub¬ 
stances. Filters are much used for obtaining 
pure drinking water, and are employed on a 
large scale in purifying the water-supply of cities. 

Fine Arts. The arts designed to appeal to the 
artistic taste and give pleasure to observers, as 
distinguished from the useful arts, designed to 
benefit mankind. They are usually restricted to 
the arts of painting, sculpture, and architecture. 

Fins. [AS., from root of L. penna , a feather.] 
The parts of a fish by which it balances itself and 
moves forward in the water. The paired fins on 
the opposite sides of the body are the true limbs 
of the fish. Those near the gills behind the head 
are the pectoral fins, and represent the fore limbs 
of quadrupeds ; those below are the ventral fins, 
and represent the hind limbs ; those on the back 
are dorsal or first and second dorsal; those urn 
derneath near the tail are the anal fins, and the 
tail itself is the caudal fin. These are used as its 
means of motion and the tail also serves as a 
rudder. 

Finch. [AS.] The name of a family of song¬ 
birds, as chaffinch, goldfinch, bullfinch. Many 
of the finches are beautiful singers, and others 
are prized for their delicate flesh. They frequent 
fields, groves, hedgerows, etc., and feed chiefly 
on grain and seeds. The common sparrow, an 
European bird now abundant in the United 
States, is the true type of the Finch tribe. 

Fir. [AS.] The name of several kinds of conifer¬ 
ous trees, producing valuable timber or resin. 
Firs, such as the balsam fir, the silver fir, and 
the red fir, are large in size and elegant in shape, 
and belong to the genus Abies. The silver fir on 
the Pacific coast grows to a height of 200 feet. 

Fire=engine. A machine by means of which 
water can be thrown to a great height for the 
purpose of extinguishing fires. The principle of 


its action is the same as that of the force-pui> p 
(q.v .); but in a force-pump the stream of wawr 
is intermittent, flowing only at each descent of 
the piston. This is obviated in the fire-engine 
by employing a strong air-vessel, into which the 
water is forced, the compressed air reacting on 
the water so as to keep up a steady flow. In the 
force-pump there is only one cylinder, but in the 
fire-engine there are two, in which the pistons 
are worked simultaneously, one ascending while 
the other descends. Fire-engines were formerly 
w T orked by hand, but now steam fire-engines are 
widely employed. 

Fire'fly. A small insect which gives out a bright 
light in the dark. All glowworms are called fire¬ 
flies or firebeetles, but the American firefly, 
■which generally sparkles in humid districts, is 
called Photinus, and both sexes are winged. 

Fire / works. Preparations of gunpowder, sulphur, 
metallic filings, and salts, to be set on fire. The 
most common form of firework is a pasteboard 
tube filled with these explosive materials. A num¬ 
ber of these tubes are often arranged so as to make, 
when kindled, a great variety of figures in fire 
variously colored. Stars are made of nitrate of 
strontia and gunpowder. Rockets are used in 
war and as ship signals, as well as in pyrotechnic 
displays. The life-saving rocket consists of a 
drawn steel tube with a composition that expels 
the gases with a pressure of 60 tons to the square 
inch. It is used to carry a rope to a wrecked 
vessel near the coast. 

Fish. [AS.] A vertebrate animal covered with 
scales that lives almost entirely in water, has no 
lungs, and breathes through gills. It lays eggs, 
and, having a heart with only two chambers, its 



THE GLOBE FISH. 


blood is -cold or of the temperature of the air. 
All the seas and rivers abound in fish. The true 
fishes include the teleostei y or ordinary bonv 
fishes; the Ganoidei , as the sturgeon; the 
Dipnoi , or air-breathing fish, of which there are 
a few species ; the Selachians , or sharks and 
skates. Fishes are usually covered with scales 





















ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


395 


which overlap each other, and are moist¬ 
ened with a kind of slime. Many of them are of 
beautiful colors—gold, silver, and copper tints, 
and attractive shades ofblue, green,red, andblack. 
Fishes swim chiefly with the tail, and their fins 
(<7.z/.) help them to keep their upright position 
in the water. They are rich in nitrogenous 
material, chiefly albumen and fibrin. Some 
fishes—as salmon, herring, mackerel, and eels—■ 
also contain much oily matter, which makes 
them not so digestible as whiting, sole, etc. 
Among the fishes most useful as food for man are 
the cod, salmon, mackerel, pilchard, and herring. 

Fish=culture. A method now widely adopted of 
planting the eggs of fish and guarding the young 
against their enemies. In this way many mil¬ 
lions of young fish are raised and placed in the 
streams annually. The United States Fish Com¬ 
mission thus distributes over 250,000,000 young 
fish every year. The same principle is also ap¬ 
plied to the lobster, the oyster, and other food 
animals. 

Fish / hawk. The American fishhawk or osprey is 
found over nearly the whole country. It is a 
large bird, looking much like the eagle, some of 
them measuring over five feet across the wings. 
It lives on fish, darting into the water to seize 
them. It is often robbed by the bald eagle, which 
forces it to drop the fish and then swoops down 
and seizes it in its fall. 

Flag. [Scand. to hang loosely.] That which flies 
or flutters loosely in the wind, but more espe¬ 
cially a banner bearing a device or devices, and 
used to indicate nationality or to give informa¬ 
tion. Flag of truce is a white flag exhibited to 
an enemy to invite a conference. Yellow flag is 
the quarantine flag, and at the fore of a ship in¬ 
dicates that infectious disease is on board. 

Flame. [Fr., from L-] The illumination given 
by burning gas. Heat is produced by the chem¬ 
ical action which takes place during combustion, 
the temperature of the burning material being 
raised sufficiently high to give out light or to 
produce flame. The structure of flame can be 
most easily observed in a candle, lamp, or ordi¬ 
nary gas flame. When a gas flame is lit, it is 
seen that the part nearest to the burner is only 
feebly luminous. This consists of the gas which 
has just escaped from the pipe, and, though to 
some extent heated, has not begun to unite with 
the oxygen of the air. As the gas rises higher, it 
comes into contact with oxygen and unites with 
it. At first the hydrogen of the gas unites more 
rapidly with oxygen than the carbon, and in con¬ 
sequence a number of particles of carbon are set 
free, which, on becoming intensely heated, give 
rise to a bright flame. The illuminating power 
of the flame is due to the particles of glowing 
carbon, which, as they rise higher, are consumed 
on the border of the flame in contact with the 
atmosphere. In order to give out much light, a 
flame should contain solid matter ; but the most 
luminous flames are not necessarily the hottest. 

FlamiiFgo. A wading-bird of several species. It 
is of a brilliant red, and has a long neck and 
legs. In feeding, the head is bent downward and 



inward so as to reverse the position of the upper 
mandible. 1 he nest is made of mud scratched up 
two or three feet high, and two eggs are hatched, 
the bird standing so as to rest on the tall nest. The 
red flamingo posts sentinels, which give warning 
of danger with trumpet notes. 

Flax. [AS.] A plant about two or three feet in 
height, with small pointed leaves and blue flow¬ 
ers. The stems are hollow, and covered with 
fibrous material. The flowers grow in clusters 
at the top of the stalks, and are succeeded by 
round seed-vessels the size of a pea. Each seed 
vessel contains ten flat seeds of a brown color. 
It thrives in a rich, moist soil. The leaves drop 
off when the plants are ripe, and the 
stems turn yellow. The stalks are 
pulled up and tied in bundles to dry. 

They are then steeped in water until 
softened, so that the fibres of the out- 


—VKJ Tt«.y 


FLAX-WHEEL. 

side covering or bark can be separated. The fibre 
of flax is spun and woven by machinery into linen, 
and then bleached by chloride of lime. Flax is 
grown in Europe and the United States, where it 
was introduced from England in 1629. Linen, 
lawn, and damask cloth are woven from flax- 
thread, and linseed oil is made from its seeds. 

Flea. [AS.] A small insect without wings that 
moves by leaping, and whose bite is troublesome 
because slightly poisonous. The human-flea is 
abundant in Europe, but rare in America, where 
the dog-flea takes its place. The dog-flea infests 
dogs and cats, and is occasionally troublesome to 
man. 

Flints. [AS., a hard stone.] Amorphous lumps of 
dark silica which occur in nodular sheets in chalk 
and other limestones. They often enclose such 
organisms as shells and sea-urchins; spicules of 
sponges abound in flint. The process by which 
flint has been formed is uncertain ; but it is sup¬ 
posed to be due either to the abstraction of silica 
from sea-water by sponges, or to the decomposi¬ 
tion of animal remains. Flint-glass is dispersive 
of light, and consists of silicate of lead and 
potassium. It is used for table-ware, and prisms, 
and is called crystal glass. 


















394 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


Floun / der. [Du.] A flat fish found near the 
mouths of rivers. There are many different kinds 
both in Europe and America. 

Flour. [Fr., from L. flos , flower.] The finest 
part of meal or corn ground into fine powder. 
In milling, meal is separated into flour and bran, 
the meal being afterwards separated from the 
bran by bolting through a gauze-covered revolv¬ 
ing cylinder. There are various kinds of flour, 
some fine, others coarse, and of different grains, 
as wdieat, rye, etc. 

Flower. [Fr., from 'L,. flos, flower.] The part of 
a plant destined to produce seed. The flower is 
easily seen in such plants as the rose and the but¬ 
tercup in which it is large and brightly colored ; 
but grasses, too, and indeed all plants of a higher 
order have well developed flowers. In a buttercup, 
on the outside of each flower, are small greenish- 
yellow sepals , five in number, which form the 
calyx. Then come five large bright-yoMoMv petals, 
forming what is called the corolla. Inside this, 
looking like little pins with yellow heads, are the 
stamens. In the centre of the flower are some 
green bodies called carpels, which together form 
the portion of the flower called the pistil. Every 
part of the flower has its use. The calyx pro¬ 
tected the flower wdien it was a bud. The corolla 
attracts the insect to the flower. The stamens 
form pollen, which wdien placed on the pistil 
causes the carpels to swell and form seeds. The 
pollen is carried from the stamen of one flow r er 
to the pistil of another by insects. Flowers also 
contain nectar. It is the wind which carries the 
pollen of grasses and several other plants. (See 
Fruit.') 

Fluid. [Fr., from L,. fluidus, flowing.] A sub¬ 
stance; whose particles possess perfect freedom 
of motion among themselves, so that any force 
applied to it will, if not resisted, produce a 
change of shape. There are tw T o classes of fluids 
—liquids and gases —and each class has some 
properties peculiar to itself. 

FIucFrine. [L,.] A non-metallic element, never 
met with in nature in the uncombined state. It 
is the only element which does not combine with 
oxygen. It is most frequently found combined 
with calcium in the mineral fluor-spar. In 
minute proportions it is widely diffused in the 
w r aters of some springs, rivers, and the sea, and in 
the bones of animals. Combined with hydrogen 
it is used in etching glass. 

Flu / or=spar. A mineral found in veins, very often 
accompanying lead ore. It occurs both crystal¬ 
lized and massive. The crystals belong to the cubic 
system, and are either colorless, green, purple, 
or yellow. When heated it becomes phosphores¬ 
cent. It is used as a flux, and some varieties are 
employed for ornamental vessels. 

Flute, [Fr., from E. flare, to blow.] A light wind- 
instrument played by the mouth on a lateral hole, 
and by the fingers, which stop holes along its 
length or open keys. 

Fly. [AS.] A name applied to many of the winged 
insects, but scientifically restricted to the sub¬ 
order Diptera, which have two wings and whose 
mouth-parts are converted into a sucker, used for 


taking up fluids. The sucker acts as a lancet, by 
wdiich the skin of animals and vegetables is 
pierced so as to reach the blood 
or sap. The flies comprise many 
thousands of species, differing 
greatly in size, the best known 
being the common house-fly. 
■pjfBIFlying=fish. A fish that can 
leap into the air with a spring of 
mg-zM'l its tail, and keep itself up by 

I its fins for a time as if flying. 

/ its pectoral fins are developed 

fly’s foot magni- so as to act like wings. It can 
FIEU - fly for hundreds of yards, and 

is frequently attacked by sea-birds and dolphins 
(q.v.). It has a bladder that can be inflated to 
fill the whole cavity of the abdomen ; it has also 
a membrane that is inflated through the gills. 
The California flying-fish is said to fly for nearly 
a quarter of a mile, usually not rising more than 
four feet. There are several kinds, which are 
found in tropical seas. 

Fly=wheel. A contrivance for regulating the driv¬ 
ing power of a machine. In the steam-engine 
the power of the connecting rod to turn the 
crank varies w’ith their relative position. When 
the rod is at right angles to the crank its turning 
effect is greatest, and wdien they are in the same 
straight line this power is nil. There is thus 
introduced a cause of unevenness in the motion 
through the wdiole length of the stroke. To 
obviate this difficulty the fly-wheel is fixed on 
the axis. This is a large wdieel with a heavy rim, 
wdiich, when once started, requires little work to 
keep it in motion ; but, since it possesses much 
energy in consequence of its motion, it acts to 
make uniform the motion of the rod and crank. 
Fog. [Celt.] When the vapor iii the air reaches 
the point of saturation (see Dew) it condenses, 
and assumes the form of very small drops, which 
constitute fog if they are present in the low r er 
regions of the atmosphere, and cloud if in the 
higher. Fogs are therefore of the same nature 
as clouds (q.v.). Fogs maybe caused by the flow 
of a current of warm moist air over masses of 
ice, such as are sometimes encountered in the 
Atlantic, and are often seen on the Banks of 
Newfoundland. 

Fog Signals. Signals to prevent the collision of 
vessels in foggy w 7 eather. Many methods of 
signalling have been tried, the best being the 
whistle and the trumpet. The most powerful is 
the siren trumpet, whose sound can be heard for 
more than 20 miles. 

Folk=Iore. The study of ancient legends, rustic 
tales, superstitions, etc. This term has been 
used since 1846, and great collections of the 
beliefs, customs, and popular tales handed down 
from the far past have been made. 

Food. [AS.] All substances used for purposes of 
nutrition. The useful constituents of all foods— 
animal, vegetable, and mineral—are classified as 
(1) nitrogenous, including the animal and vege¬ 
table albuminoids and gelatin; (2) fatty, including 
animal and vegetable fats and oils; (3) carbohy¬ 
drates, including starch and the sugars ; (4) salts 





ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


395 


organic and inorganic ; (5) water. In addition 
to the vegetable and animal foods consumed for 
the support and growth of the body, there are 
also needed lime, iron, soda, potash, chlorides 
and phosphates, etc. Water is very necessary, 
since it forms two-thirds of the weight of the 
body. A very great variety of foods and com¬ 
binations of nutritive materials are used by man. 

FooIs / cap. A size of paper 16 by 13, which used 
to have as its water-mark a fools cap and 
bells. 

Foot. [AS.] That part of the body on which ani¬ 
mals stand and walk. There 
are 26 bones in the foot and 
ankles of man. To these are 
fastened a great number of 
ligaments and muscles, by 
which their movements are 
guided and varied. The foot 
of the chimpanzee is in many 
points like that of man, but the 
toes are longer, and it is not 
adapted for easy standing or 
walking. The feet of quadru¬ 
peds differ greatly. Some have 
live toes like 
man, some four 
or three, and in 
many cases— 
as in the oxen, 
deer, antelopes, 
camels, and 
others — there 
are only two 
toes, covered 
with horny 

hoofs. The horse has but one toe, climbing foot. 
covered with a strong hoof, which is really the 
nai) greatly developed. What is called the knee 
i n four-footed 
animals is usu¬ 
ally the heel, 
lifted above 
the ground. 

Some animals 
walk, like man, 

FOOT OF SCRATCHER. OU tile flat SOlC 

of the foot; some, like lions and 
cats, on the bent toes ; others, like 
the horse and 
ox, on the tip 
li^of the toe,' 
which is cov- 
erc d by the 
hoof. Birds 
have usually T0EWITHSPUR * 
four toes, three in front 
and one behind, the foot 
and toes differing as they 
are intended for perching, 
walking, wading, or swimming. 

Football. A game of kicking a ball with the foot 
between goals. The ball is usually made of India- 
rubber or a bladder, and is enclosed in a leather 
cover. 







FOOT OF PARROT. 


Foot-rule.. A measure of a foot, or 12 inches, in 
length. It differs in length in different coun¬ 
tries. In Britain and the United Stales it is .3048 
metre. 

Force=pump. A pump having a solid piston for 
drawing or forcing liquids like water through the 
valves. The force-pump delivers the water a 
considerable height above the pump. It is use¬ 
ful in draining cellars or low level places, and in 
fire-engines. 

Forecastle. [Pronounced by sailors fokslI\ An 
upper deck before the foremast in a war-ship, 
which formerly had a turret near the prow or 
the front part of the ships where are the sailors’ 
berths. 

ForCst. [Fr., from U. foris, out of doors.] A 
large piece of country covered with trees, or an 
unenclosed, uncultivated land on which wild 
animals are hunted. Forest-tree is a tree of the 
forest, grown for its timber, as distinguished 
from a fruit-tree. 

Forge. [Fr.] The furnace in which a smith heats 
the iron to be hammered. A portable forge 
is a light and compact blacksmith’s forge, with 
bellows, etc., that may be moved from place to 
place. In large forges steam-hammers are used, 
and the metal is moved by cranes. 

Forget / =me=not. A small plant of the genus My- 
osotis, with blue flowers, used as a sign of friend¬ 
ship and fidelity. 

Formic Acid. [U. formica , ant.] A sharp acid 
occurring naturally in ants, nettles, etc., and 



AMERICAN MASTODON, FOSSIL. 

produced artificially in several ways. It is the 
first member of the fatty acids in the paraffin 
series, and is similar in character to acetic acid. 

Fort. [Fr., from L. fortis , strong.] A strong¬ 
hold. Usually a small fortified place, occupied 
by troops, and surrounded with a ditch, rampart, 
and parapet, or with palisades or stockades. 

Fossilized Trees. In many localities collections 
of tree trunks converted into stone have been 
found. There are several of these in the United 
States, there being a remarkable ancient forest 
in Arizona, whose trees have been converted 
into opal or agate, with beautifully variegated 
colors. Some of them are six feet in diameter. 










39 ^ 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


Fos / sils. [Fr., from L. /ossus, dug.] Hardened 
remains of animals or plants found in rocks 
which have been dug out of the earth. Most 
fossils belong to extinct species, but many of the 
later ones belong to species still living. The geo¬ 
logical strata comprise three main divisions :— 
the Primary, the Secondary, and the Tertiary ; 
each of these including a number of minor divi¬ 
sions. In the Primary division we find corals, 
crustaceans, molluscs, fishes, and a few reptiles, 
and also an abundant flora of herbs and trees of 
the lower orders, found in the Carboniferous 
period. The Secondary age had its herbs and 
plants, its corals, its crustaceans, its molluscs, 
and its fishes ; but the leading animals of this age 
were its huge reptiles of sea and land. It was 
peculiarly an age of egg-bearing animals, winged 
and wingless. The first birds now appeared, 
with teeth in their jaws, also small marsupial 
mammals. In the Tertiary period the mammals 
were wonderfully developed in size and numbers. 
Its mammoths and its mastodons, its rhinoceri and 
hippopotami,its enormous dinotherium and colos¬ 
sal megatherium were much larger and more 
numerous than the largest of existing mammals. 
The fossil remains of one of its elephants are still 
so abundant amid the frozen wastes of Siberia, 
that what have been not inappropriately termed 
“ ivory quarries ” have been wrought amid their 
bones for more than a hundred years. The west¬ 
ern section of the United States is exceedingly 
rich in fossils of the Secondary and Tertiary 
periods, and new forms are found there annually, 
some of them of huge dimensions. 

Fowl. [AS.] A farm-yard bird used as food, as 
cock or hen, turkey or duck. Hens feed on 
grain and seeds, and also worms, flies and beetles. 
Farm-yard cocks and hens are a mixture of 
breeds. Game fowls are smaller, and have more 
delicate legs. Dorkings were first raised at Dork¬ 
ing, England, and are large birds and good layers. 
Spanish birds are large, with glossy black 
feathers. Cochin-Chinas are clumsy in shape, 
and usually reddish-brown, white, gray, or silver 
gray. Black-breasted Malays and Shanghais are 
large birds. Hamburgs or grays are silvery 
white and black speckled. Bantams are very 
small and courageous. Black and white Hou- 
dans are French fowls, and white Leghorns are 
Italian. The points of a fowl are the neck and 
saddle hackles, the wing coverts, tail, comb, ear¬ 
lobe, wattles, breast, thighs, and legs. 

Fox. [AS.] A carnivorous wild animal belonging 
to the Dog tribe, famous for its cunning. It has 
a fine coat of reddish-brown fur, low forehead, 
ears pointed, and wide at the base, and a splen¬ 
did bushy tail of the same color, tipped, like its 
breast, with white. The fox is very mischievous, 
and usually lives in holes on the borders of a 
farm, which it visits by night. Its food is poul¬ 
try, game, rabbits, but also frogs, mice, and 
insects. It is fond of berries and fruits, grapes 
and honey. Fox-hunting is a popular sport in 
Britain, fox-hounds being kept to scent and 
chase the animal, which leaves a strong odor. 
It tries to deceive the dogs, and passes over a 


marsh, or through a thicket, or jumps up a fence 
or tree, to break the scent. The skin of the fox 
is very useful ; that of the Arctic fox being much 
valued. This animal changes the color of its 
skin several times during the year, and in win¬ 
ter is white. The skin of the silver or black 
fox of North America is most valuable. The 
common foxes of Europe and America are very 
similar. Fox-brush is the tail of a fox. Fox- 
terrier is one of a peculiar breed of terriers, used 
in hunting to drive foxes from their holes. There 
are rough and smooth haired varieties. 

Fox / =glove. [AS.] A large plant with beautiful 

purple or 
white bell¬ 
like flowers, 
spotted i n - 
side. The 
common 
European 
plant is a 
han d s o m e 
per e n nia1 
or biennial, 
whose leaves 
are so useful 
in medicine, 
chiefly as a 
sedative i n 
heart dis¬ 
ease. 

Franc. 

[Fr.] A coin 
used in 
France 
worth a lit¬ 
tle less than 
20 cents. It 
has been 
used as the 
It is divided 

Freezing Mixture. When a substance changes 
from the solid to the liquid, or from the liquid to 
the gaseous state, heat is required to effect the 
change; and when heat is not supplied from 
without to produce the change, the body itself, 
and everything in contact with it, becomes colder. 
This is the principle of freezing mixtures. When 
ice and salt are mixed, the salt (from its tendency 
to absorb and dissolve in water) will cause the 
ice to melt. But ice in melting uses up a large 
quantity of heat, and the result is (since the heat 
lias in this case been withdrawn from the sub¬ 
stances themselves) that the mixture is rendered 
very cold, and water poured into a test-tube and 
placed in it will freeze. In practice, freezing 
mixtures are used for producing artificial ice in 
moderate quantities, and in freezing creams, etc. 

Freez / ing=point. That degree of a thermometer 
at which a fluid begins to freeze. Applied to 
water, the freezing-point is 32 0 F. and zero or 
o° C. Mercury freezes at 39°F. below zero. 

Fret/work. Work adorned with figures cut out 
by a fine saw. Fillets intersecting each other at 
right angles are classic designs, and those at 








ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


397 


oblique angles are often based on Oriental art. 
Fret-saw or scroll-saw has a long, narrow blade. 

Fric'tion. [L-] The rubbing of one body against 
another. It may be caused by a sliding motion 
or a rolling motion. Friction clutch or coupling 
is an engaging or disengaging gear for revolv¬ 
ing shafts, pulleys, etc. ; they being so pressed 
together as to revolve in company. Friction- 
wheel transmits motion by surface friction instead 
of by teeth. 

Frieze. [Fr.] Coarse woolen cloth with a nap on 
one side, used for outer garments ; also the flat 
band between the cornice and the architrave of a 
pillar, usually covered with carving. 

Frigate. A ship of war having two gun-decks, 
and carrying from 20 to 50 guns ; classed be¬ 
tween a sloop-of-war and a line-of-battle ship. 
The term frigate has nearly disappeared, being 
replaced by cruiser in naval terminology. 

Frigate Bird. [Fr.] A web-footed bird, called 
also man-of-war bird or frigate-pelican. Its beak 
and wings are long, and its power of flying very 
great. It feeds on fish, which it takes from gulls, 
terns, and other birds. 

Fringe. [Fr.] A border or edge of loose threads 
of wool, silk, or linen ; originally consisting of 
the ends of the warp projecting beyond the 
woven fabric, but now made separately and 
sewed on. 

Frog. [AS.] A small vertebrate animal, with a 
broad, squat body without a tail, that lives both 
on land and water. It has a smooth, slimy skin 
of a greenish-brown or reddish color ; it has teeth 
on the upper jaw, and by this is distinguished 
from the toad, which has no teeth. Its tongue is 
soft and fleshy, and fixed on the front of the 
mouth, but free behind, so that it can rollout and 
catch an insect. The tip of the tongue is always 
covered with a treacly, glutinous matter, to 
which any insect caught adheres. The frog 
flings its food down its throat with a very rapid 
motion. As with the rabbit, its fore limbs are 
less used than the hind limbs, and so are shorter 
and smaller. The hind legs are long, and sup¬ 
port the swimming web. It has four fingers in 
front and five toes behind. Frogs breathe slowly, 
and their blood is of a low temperature. The 
food of frogs is insects, snails, worms, and they 
swallow their food whole. Frogs cannot breathe 
in water, and so live much on land ; but water is 
needed to keep their bodies moist. They lay 
their eggs at the bottom of the water. The eggs 
are laid in a kind of jelly, which fastens them to 
a stick or plant in the water. After about a 
month the eggs hatch, when there appear 
small tadpoles, with head and tail and a pair of 
shoulders behind the mouth, and with gills for 
breathing. As they grow the gills and tails are 
lost and the fiog develops. Of frogs, the tree- 
frog, the pond-frog, and the bull-frog are the 
most familiar. Frogs are found all over the 
world, and are eaten as food in many places. 

Frost. [AS.] When the temperature falls below 
32 0 F., all superficial moisture changes into ice, 
and we have frost. Frost is one of the agents 
which play an important part in moulding the 


surface of the land, as it causes rocks to decay, and 
breaks up the materials of the soil. When rain falls 
it sinks into the pores of rocks, and soaks into 
the soil; and this moisture, in changing into ice, 
expands and pushes the particles of the rocks or 
of the soil more widely apart. Ten cubic feet 
of water give 11 cubic feet of ice. When a thaw 
sets in, the surface of the rock is loosened, and 
crumbles into soil, or is washed away by rivers 
to the sea, and the materials of the soil are broken 
up and rendered more fit to be made use of by 
plants. Black frost is where the cold turns vege¬ 
tation black without hoar or wliite-frost. 

Fruit. [Fr., from L- Jructus.'] The matured seed 
vessel and its contents. Thus the ears are the fruit 
of the corn plant, nuts are the fruit of the hazel 
tree, pods the fruit of the bean or pea, and the 



THE BANANA. 

acorn the fruit of the oak. In the apple, orange, 

' etc., the seeds are imbedded in a soft, juicy, 
fleshy substance ; in dry fruits, such as nuts, the 
seed or kernel is surrounded by a hard shell; in 
drupaceous or stone fruit, as peaches, the fruits 
are stony within and fleshy without. Small 
fruits include currants, gooseberries, raspberries, 
strawberries, etc. 

FuiFgus. [L-] An order of soft plants, including 
truffles, toadstools, and mushrooms. More par¬ 
ticularly the growth on an animal or plant caused 
by decay or disease, as mildew. Some kinds of 
fungi are used for food. Lichens are now believed 
to be fungi existing as partners with algae. 

Fur. [Fr.] The fine hairy covering of certain 
animals found in cold regions. In the hairy 
covering of the cat two kinds of hair grow—one 
short, soft, silky, and barbed lengthwise, which 
is the fur; and longer smooth hair, which is 
called the over hair. The best-known fur-bearing 















398 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON THINGS 


animals are the seal, beaver, sable, fox, mink, 
marten, otter, ermine, and musk-rat. After the 
skins have been removed from the animals, and 
before they are cleaned, they are called pelts. 
Fur forms the chief clothing of the inhabitants 
of Arctic regions, and in temperate regions is 
also used for trimmings or for outdoor garments. 
In seal-skins for ladies’ jackets the overhair is 
usually removed. The furs of the rabbit, hare, 
and beaver are used to make felt. 

Furnace. [Fr., from I,. fornax, oven.] A close 
fireplace for melting metals, baking bricks, etc. 
In air or wind furnaces the fire is urged by the 
natural draught; in a blast-furnace a forcible 
current of air is thrown into the fire; in a 
reverberating furnace the flame, in passing to 
the chimney, is thrown down by a low arched 
roof on the materials in the furnace. 

Furniture. [Fr.] Things supplied or needed for 
any purpose, as sails, tools, and fittings, and 
more particularly the articles needed to fit a 


Gad-fly. [O.E. gad , sting.] An insect that 
deposits its young in the nostrils of sheep ; a 
species infests cattle, depositing its eggs on the 
skin and causing sores ; another kind produces 
intestinal parasites in horses. 

Gai / ter. [Fr.] A covering of cloth or leather for 
the ankle and the instep, or for the leg from the 
knee to the instep, fitting down on the boot or 
shoe. 

GaFaxy. The Milky Way, or zone of milky light 
which is seen in the sky on clear nights, and is 
made up of millions of stars. The term is also 
used for any assemblage of splendid things or 
persons, as a galaxy of beauty. 

Gale 7 na [L ], or Sulphide of Lead, occurs native, 
and constitutes the chief ore from which most of 
the lead of commerce is obtained. (See Lead.) 
It possesses a bright bluish-white metallic lustre. 
It is sometimes found in Transition rocks, but 
more frequently in the Secondary rocks, 
especially in compact limestone. It occurs in 
beds and veins, and is found in almost every 
country. It is very abundant in Britain and in 
the United States. It is prepared artificially by 
adding sulphuric acid to a soluble lead salt. 

Gall. [AS.] A fluid of a greenish-yellow color, 
and very bitter, found in the gall-bladder beneath 
the liver, and consisting of bile mixed with the 
secretion of the mucous membrane of the gall¬ 
bladder. 

GalLnuts. Nuts produced by small insects which 
puncture the bark of the Lusitaniau oak in 
Southern Europe and Western Asia, and lay 
their eggs in the wounds. They contain much 
tannin and are used in making tannin, ink, dye, 
and in medicine. Oak-apples are formed on 
other oaks in the same way. 

GaFlon. [Fr.] The standard unit of cubic 
measurement. The British gallon contains 
277.274 cubic inches, and a gallon of distilled 
water weighs 10 lbs. (avoir.). The gallon of the 


house for being lived in. Certain articles, as 
kitchen-ranges, cupboards, shelves, and blinds 
are called fixtures. In printing, the furniture 
consists of pieces of w T ood or metal, lower than 
the type, placed round the pages or form to 
secure the type in its place. 

Fuse or Fusee 7 . [U. fusus, poured.] A tube 
filled with explosives, used for firing mines, etc. 
Fusee also means a match for lighting a pipe or 
cigar. 

Fusee 7 . [h. fusus, spindle.] The cone-like wheel 
in a watch for the chain to be rolled on, in such 
a manner that the diameter of the wheel at the 
point where the chain acts may correspond with 
the degree of tension of the mainspring. 

Fu 7 sel=oil. [Ger.] An acid volatile oil obtained 
in the manufacture of potato brandy and whiskey. 
Its chief constituent is amyl alcohol. It has a 
powerful and suffocating odor, and is supposed 
to be a product of the fermentation of sugar. It 
is an undesirable ingredient in alcohol. 


United States is the standard Winchester wine 
gallon of 231 cubic inches. The New York State 
gallon contains 221.184 cubic inches, or 8 pounds 
of pure water. 

Galvan 7 ic Battery. [Ital., from Galvani , the 
discoverer in 1791] It consists of a number of 
zinc and copper plates connected together, tlieir 
purpose being the production of a current of 
electricity. These are arranged in cells, the 
copper-plate of one being joined to the zinc- 
plate of the next, and the final copper connected 
by a wire to the zinc of the first cell. The cells 
contain a dilute acid, which acts chemically on the 
metals, and generates an electric current which 
flows around the circuit of cells and wires. The 
connecting wire may be many miles in length, as 
in a telegraph line. The zinc of the first cell is 
called the negative electrode and the copper of 
the last cell the positive electrode, the current 
being supposed to flow from positive to negative. 
There are many varieties of galvanic batteries in 
use, and other metals than copper and zinc are 
employed. Formerly all electric currents were 
produced by the battery ; now it is used only for 
weak currents, powerful currents being produced 
by the dynamo \q.v.) (See Electricity .) 

GaFvanized Iron. The name given to sheets of 
iron which have been coated with zinc. True 
galvanized iron is first coated with tin by a gal¬ 
vanic process, and afterwards with zinc by im¬ 
mersing it in a bath of melted zinc containing 
sal ammoniac mixed with mineral matter. 

Galvanometer. An instrument for measuring 
the strength of an electric current by means of 
the deflection which it produces in a magnetized 
needle. The galvanometer is constructed by 
using a coil of insulated copper wire, in the cen¬ 
tre of which is suspended the magnetized nee¬ 
dle. It is frequently named the multiplier. 

Gamboge 7 . [ Cambodia , in Asia.] A reddish- 
yellow gum used for coloring and in medicine. 




ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


399 


It is got from several trees in Siam, Malabar, 
and Ceylon. It is brought in masses from Cam¬ 
bodia. The best kind is of a dense, compact 
texture. The gamboge tree of Western India 
yields, in addition to gamboge, a kind of oil 
called gamboge butter. 

Game. [AS.] Sport of any kind ; animals kept 
or hunted for sport. In Europe game includes 
grouse, black game, pheasants, partridges, and 
hares, ptarmigans, quails and larger game as the 
moose and wild boar. In the United States 
game includes a great variety of animals. 
These are rarely kept in enclosures for sport, as 
in Britain, but they are protected from indiscri¬ 
minate slaughter by game laws, confining hunt¬ 
ers to fixed seasons and means of capture. 

Games. [AS., games, joy, pleasure.] A term ap¬ 
plied to certain physical exercises and mental 
recreations, distinguished as games of chance and 
games of skill. The physical games are such as 
cricket, football, billiards, golf, etc., the mental 
are card games, chess, draughts, backgammon, 
etc. 

Gan / grene. A term applied to the first stage of 
mortification of the flesh. It may result from 
severe cold, from violent inflammation, erysipe¬ 
las, and other causes, or may attack open 
wounds or ulcers. The part attacked loses 
sensibility and becomes cold and dark in color, 
while great! languor and debility supervene. It 
may come in old age from a diseased state of the 
blood-vessels and general weakness. 

Gam'ut. [Gk. letter gamma; and E. uti\ The 
notes of the musical scale, arranged by Guido 
d’Arezzo in the tenth century, with lit and 
gamma at the ends. The sol-fa words were 
taken by D’ Arezzo from the first syllables of six 
lines of a hymn to St. John the Baptist: 

Ut queant laxis 
A^sonare fibris 
Mira gestorum 
Adzmuli tuorum 
6<?lve polluti 
Ldb'n reatum 
Sancte Joannes. 

GarUnet. [AS.] A web-footed sea-bird, found in 
Europe and America, and also called the solan 
goose. It is a bird of passage, and is very strong 
on the wing. The gannet follows shoals of her¬ 
ring, on which it feasts. Its skin, feathers, and 
eggs are much valued. 

Garbage. Kitchen refuse. In small towns and 
rural districts this is fed to swine, but in large 
cities it is difficult to dispose of. In Philadel¬ 
phia and some other cities it is burned in close 
furnaces. In others it is utilized in various ways. 
Thus in St. Eouis the oil and grease are removed 
by the use of naphtha, and employed in soap 
making. From the remainder a good fertilizer is 
made. 

Gargoyle. [Fr.] A projecting spout for carrying 
off water, often cut grotesquely into human and 
other figures. 

Garlic. [AS.] A bulbous plant with a strong 
smell and spear-shaped leaves, used as seasoning. 
Each root is composed of several smaller bulbs, 


cloves of garlic , enclosed in a common mem¬ 
branous coat. 

Gar'net. [Fr.] The name of a mineral ispecies 
which includes numerous varieties, differing in 
composition, color, and fusibility. It is hard, 
brittle, and more or less transparent. The red 
variety is the most common, but brown, and 
sometimes green, yellow, and black sorts are 
found. The variety which includes th precious 
garnet consists of silicate of alumina together 
with oxide of iron. It is transparent, and of a 
deep-red color, and is much prized as a gem. 

Gar / ter. The band to prevent tne stocking from 
slipping down ; the badge of the highest order of 
knighthood in Britain, instituted by Edward III. 

Gas. [Du.] Matter is capable of existing in the 
three forms known as solid , liquid , and gaseous. 
The gaseous condition of matter is defined as 
that which is capable of unlimited expansion— 
that is to say, that a very small quantity of any 
gas, if introduced into a large empty space, will 
always expand so as to fill the entire space. A 
gas may therefore be defined as matter in the 
gaseous state. An important property of gases 
is that they may be liquefied, and all gases, even 
the volatile hydrogen, have been reduced to the 
liquid state, and many of them to the solid. 
Illuminating gas is an inflammable gas pro¬ 
duced by distillation from coal, petroleum, or 
other carbonaceous material. It is very largely 
used in cities for lighting and heating purposes, 
being conveyed in pipes from a central generat¬ 
ing station, carried into houses, and burned at a 
small opening in a gas burner. Natural gas 
arises from wells in the earth in petroleum dis¬ 
tricts, and is similarly burned for house lighting, 
heating, and manufacturing purposes. Gas was 
first used for lighting in England about 1800, in 
the United States, at Boston, in 1822 ; New York 
in 1827, and Philadelphia in 1835. 

Gas=engine. An engine in which the piston is 
worked by the alternate admission and condensa¬ 
tion of gas in the cylinder. When a mixture of 
coal-gas and common air or of oxygen and hy¬ 
drogen is used, condensation is produced by 
an explosion caused by an electric spark or a 
gas jet. 

Gas=meters. As coal-gas enters each house it is 
made to pass through an iron box called a gas- 
meter. Within this box are wheels, which are 
turned by the gas; and connected with the wheels, 
but on the outside of the box, are three dials, on 
which is recorded the number of cubic feet of gas 
entering the house in any given time. The 
figures on the left-hand dial stand for hundreds 
of thousands, those on the middle dial for tens 
of thousands, and those on the right-hand dial 
for thousands of cubic feet. To read the index, 
put down the figure next behind the pointer on 
each dial, and add two ciphers. In this way, if 
the index is found to record 16,700 cubic feet of 
gas, and at the next examination it records 18,300 
cubic feet; then by subtracting we find that 1,600 
cubic feet of gas has passed through the meter 
in the interval.— Gasometer , a large tank for 
holding gas. 



46o 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


Qas / tric Juice. The thin watery fluid, with an 
acid reaction, secreted by a set of glands in the 
mucous membrane of the stomach. It is the 
most important digestive fluid in the body. 

Gauge. [Fr.[ A class of measuring instruments, 
whereof each has a specific name to indicate the 
kind of measurement for which it is to be used. 
Instruments of this nature are used for a variety 
of purposes, such as finding the capacity of a 
vessel (as in gauging a barrel), or in ascertaining 
the pressure of steam or the force of the wind or 
the amount of rainfall. 

The standard gauge, or distance between the 
rails, in railways is 4 feet 8)4 inches. Broad 
gauge is 7 feet in England and 6 feet in the 
United States. Any gauge less than standard is 
called narrow gauge. 

Gauze. [Fr.] A fine, thin silk cloth first brought 
from Gaza ; cloth of linen, cotton, fine wire, or 
thin fabric like silk gauze. There is a flannel 
called gauze flannel. 

Gazelle'. [Fr., from Arab.] A small, beautiful 
and graceful kind of antelope found chiefly in 
Arabia and Syria, also in Africa, -with black, 
incurved lyre-shaped horns, and soft eyes. They 
roam in herds, and are the prey of the lion and 
the panther. When attacked they arrange them¬ 
selves in a circle and present their horns like the 
bayonets of a regiment of soldiers. 

Geiss'ier’s Tube. A glass tube in which an almost 
perfect vacuum is produced, and through which 
an electrical current is sent. In passing through 
the vacuum it yields a soft light. These tubes, 
as modified by Sir William Crookes, yield the 
light from which the Rontgen ray or X-ray is 
produced. 

Gel'atine or Gelatin. [Fr., from L,. gelatus , 
frozen.] An animal substance of a nitrogenous 
nature, supposed to be closely connected w T ith 
the albuminous substances. It does not exist 
already formed in the animal tissues, but is ob¬ 
tained by the action of boiling water on connec¬ 
tive tissues, cartilage, ligaments, and tendons. 
When its solution in boiliug water cools, it forms 
a tremulous jelly. It is nutritious, and much 
used in soups and jellies. It dissolves in hot 
water and in acetic acid, but is insoluble in 
alcohol. It is largely used in many photographic 
processes. A powerful explosive known as explo¬ 
sive gelatine is made by dissolving 5 parts of 
gun-cotton in 95 parts of nitro-glycerine gently 
heated in a w r ater-bath. (See Isinglass .) 

Gems'bok. A South African antelope with long, 
sharp and nearly straight horns. 

Geol'ogy. [Gk.] The science which treats of 
the history and structure of the earth. The rocks 
which compose the crust of the earth have not 
all been formed in the same way. Some have 
cooled from a state of fusion, and are known as 
igneous rocks. This class is represented by 
such rocks as granite, syenite, traps, and lavas. 
Metamorphic rocks are those which have either 
originally been deposited in water and have be¬ 
come changed into crystalline rock, or those 
which,originally crystalline, have become foliated 
in structure under great pressure. Sedimentary 


rocks comprise the various deposits which are 
laid down on the bed of the sea or on the land. 
They have all been formed from sediment 



washed by rain and streams from the land,and, be¬ 
ing thus derivative, imply the existence of older 
rock. This division forms the larger part of the 
earth’s crust, and is the most important for the 
geologist, since it contains most of the materials 
from which the geological history of the earth 
is worked out. These rocks are arranged in 
strata or layers, w’hich have been much lifted, 
contorted and broken. When they are bent 
with curve upwards, they are called Anticlinal. 
They include sandstones, limestones, slates or 
claystones, etc., their ages depending on their 
relative position. When the age of a rock strata 
is in doubt it is frequently learned from the 
animal or plant fossils it may contain. 

Gera'nium. [Gk. geranos , a crane.] A genus of 
plants with seed-vessels like a crane’s bill. Most 
of them have showy flowers and a pungent odor. 
This group includes the commonly cultivated 
“geraniums ” ( Pelargoniums ) which are mostly 
natives of South Africa. 

Germ. [Fr., from L .germen, a sprout.] The first 
form of anything living, from which the egg and 
the embryo develop. Disease germs are minute 
spores or organisms called bacteria, bacilli, and 

microbes, which are 
now known to cause 
disease. Most forms 
of microbes are 
healthful and many 
of them very useful, 
the hurtful species 
being few in num¬ 
ber. Dr. Frankland 
found 20,222 mic¬ 
robes in one cubic 
centimetre of 
Thames water, and 
a ter filtration 401 in 
the same quantity 
of water. In the air 
after high winds 
germs are numer¬ 
ous, but after rain 
their number is 
small. Bacillus is a 
long rod form and 
^ bacterium a smaller rod form of germ. 

Ger'man Silver. An alloy of zinc, nickel, and 
copper. It is used in the manufacture of nume¬ 
rous articles, such as spoons, forks, jugs, teapots, 
dish-covers, salvers, etc. The proportion of each 









ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


401 


ingredient is differentin different alloys. Spoons 
and forks are made from two parts copper, one 
nickel, one zinc. It is hard, and can take on a 
bright polish. 

Geyser. [Icel. geyser , from geysa , to gush.] 
The name applied to hot springs, such as were 
first observed in Iceland, which eject hot water 
violently either at irregular intervals or periodi¬ 
cally. The Great Geyser in Iceland throws up 
water to a height of from 80 to 120 feet. There 
are numerous geysers in the Yellowstone region 
of the United States, some of which throw jets 
of water to a height of 200 feet. They are also 
met with in New Zealand and in California. 

Gi 7 Ia Monster. A large lizard found in the sandy 
deserts of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. It 
is covered with scales of brilliant orange and 
jet-black hues, is one of the largest of North 
American lizards, and has a poisonous bite, its 
fangs being like those of venemous snakes. Its 
bite is injurious but rarely fatal to man. 

Bill. [Scand.] The opening by which fishes 
breathe ( q.v.), and the flap which covers it. Gills 
are usually thin fringes or plates, through which 
the blood circulates, and in which it is exposed 
to the action of the water, from which it absorbs 
oxygen. The gills of shrimps are the bag-like 
flaps that hang down where the legs join the 
body. The gills of an oyster are a delicate trans¬ 
parent frill of four-striped bands. 

Qim / let. [Fr.] A small instrument, with a cross 
handle, grooved body, and a sharp screw at the 
point, used for boring holes. 

Gimp. A kind of trimming used on dresses, 
curtains, and furniture. It is made of silk, wool, 
or cotton, stiffened by a fine wire or cord twisted 
among the threads. 

Gin. [Contraction of juniper.'] A liquid distilled 
from fermented wort and flavored with juniper 
berries. Often called hollands because greatly 
made in Holland. Common gin is flavored with 
turpentine. 

Ginger. [Fr., from L- Zingiber .] The root- 
stock of a plant which grows in the East In¬ 
dies, Africa, and the West Indies. The finest 
ginger is from Jamaica. Ginger is useful for 
headaches and asthma, and for flavoring cakes, 
puddings, ginger-bread, etc. The pale-yellow 
ginger is the finest; black ginger is of an inferior 
quality, and is sometimes made into ground 
ginger. When whitened by chloride of lime, 
ginger is called bleached ginger. Preserved 
ginger is the ginger preserved while soft in a 
thick syrup. It is imported from India and 
China. 

Gin / ger=bread. Sweet bread seasoned with 
ginger. There is a palm in Egypt called the 
ginger-bread tree, because its bark looks like 
ginger-bread. 

Ging / ham. [Fr.] A kind of cotton cloth made 
in Guingamp, in Brittany. Some ginghams are 
of one color, but others are woven in stripes or 
checks. The origin of gingham is also given as 
from a Javanese word, and the cloth so called is 
said to have been first made in India. 

26 C 


Giraffe 7 . [Fr., from Arab.] A ruminant animal 
with permanent horns in both sexes, and dis¬ 
tinguished by the length of its legs and the 
remarkable length of its neck. It has points of 
affinity with the deer, the antelope, and the 
camel, and others peculiar to itself. It is the 
tallest animal in existence, measuring in some 
cases from 18 to 20 feet from the top of its head 
to the ground. Its home is in the woods of 
South Africa. Eeaves of acacia trees are its 
chief food. It also eats green herbs, but to do 
this it stretches out its fore feet and bends its 
neck to collect the grass. Its eye is very beauti¬ 
ful and large, and shaded with long eyelashes. 
Its enemy is the lion, which watches for it when 
drinking on the margin of rivers and pools. It 
fights by kicking with its hind legs, delivering 
blows with great rapidity, and often wounding 
and driving off the lion. It is not easily over¬ 
taken even by a fast horse. It is also known as 
the Camelopard , (from Gr. kamelos , camel; and 
pardalis , leopard.) 

Gir 7 der. [AS.] A strong beam in a building, 
supported at both ends, for binding the others 
together. Half-lattice girder, a girder consist¬ 
ing of horizontal upper and lower bars connected 
by a series of diagonal bars sloping alternately 
in opposite directions, so as to divide the space 
between the bars into a series of triangles. 

Gir'dle. A narrow band of cloth or leather for the 
waist. Venus girdle is a long, flat, ribbon-like, 
transparent, comb-like marine animal which 
lives in the open sea. 

Giz'zard. [Fr.] A bird’s stomach. A hen swal¬ 
lows food without chewing, which is at once 
stored in the crop, where it remains till it is 
softened. The food then passes into the gizzard, 
where it is rubbed and ground between tough, 



THE MER-DE-GLACE GLACIER. 

hard ribs, like the grooves of a wash-board. To 
help in this, the gizzard is filled with sharp stones 
and bits of gravel. These are the hen’s teeth. 







402 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


and they do their work while she is gathering 
food or roosting. The gizzard of the grasshopper 
has over two hundred teeth or ribs for grinding 
its food. 

GIa / cial Age. A geological period of late date in 
which low temperature continued for many cen¬ 
turies and vast glaciers made their way down¬ 
wards from the polar regions into the temperate 
zone, leaving their marks in scratched rocks, 
terminal heaps of stones, and other indications. 

Gla' ciers. [Fr., from E., glacies , ice.] Slow- 
moving rivers of ice, which derive their origin 
from the snow w 7 hich falls on the higher slopes 
of lofty mountains. As the snow accumulates on 
the steep slopes, it acquires a tendency to de¬ 
scend under the influence of its own weight. In 
some cases it slides down slowly, and in others it 
breaks off in large sheets, which rush down 
rapidly, forming what is known as an avalanche. 
These snows, as they descend, gradually become 
compacted into ice and form glaciers, which ex¬ 
tend along channels in the mountain sides to the 
valle}^s below. They are widely distributed, being 
met with in different parts of the American con¬ 
tinent, and in Greenland; in Europe they occur 
in the Alps, in Norway , and in the Pyrenees ; and 
in Asia in the Himalayas. 

Gland. [Fr., from L. glans, acorn.] A knot of 
nerves, blood-vessels, and flesh in the body for 
drawing off certain substances from the blood. 
Each of the thousands of pores of the skin is 
really an outlet of a tube which connects with a 
sweat-gland absorbing water from the blood. Two 
oil-glands are attached to each hair, and the 
natural oil ought to be sufficient for the hair. 
The oily matter runs out of the skin and mixes 
with the sweat. The sweat produced by the skin 
of an ordinary man in twenty-four hours meas¬ 
ures a pint and a quarter, and weighs \ x / 2 lb. 

Glass. [AS.] A substance composed of a mixture 
of two silicates—one being a silicate of an alkali 
metal, and the other a silicate of an alkaline 
earth. There are four different kinds of glass, 
each of which possesses special properties suited 
to the particular purpose for which it is used, 
i. Crown glass, sheet glass, and plate glass are 
each composed of the same materials—namely, 
silicates of sodium and calcium ; but the method 
of manufacture is different in each case. Crown 
glass was at one time the only kind used in Eng¬ 
land for windows, but it has been superseded by 
sheet glass. For plate glass great care is taken 
in the selection of the materials, and the-propor- 
tion of lime used is somewhat less than in the 
other two kinds. 2. Bohemian glass consists of 
silicates of potassium and calcium. This glass is 
very hard and difficult to melt, and is much used 
for chemical apparatus, or whenever a glass is 
required which can withstand heat. 3. Flint glass, 
or crystal, contains silicates of potassium and lead. 
It is employed for table glass, globes, ornaments, 
etc. Glass for optical purposes is made both of 
flint and crown glass. 4. Bottle glass is an im¬ 
pure mixture of various silicates, such as sodium, 
calcium, iron, and aluminium. In this variety 
the color and quality of the glass are not of the 


same importance as in the other three kinds. In 
glass manufacture the materials are melted to¬ 
gether in a highly heated crucible. A portion of 
the melted mixture is then taken up by the glass- 

blower on the end 
of a long tube, 
and blown by him 
into a hollow pear- 
shaped bulb. It 
is then given the 
desired shape by 
various processes 
of handling. 
Many articles of 
glass are formed 
in moulds, and 
other methods of 
manufacture are 
employed. The 
grinding and cut¬ 
ting of glass are 
subsequent pro¬ 
cesses for the pur¬ 
pose of ornament¬ 
ation. 

Glass=sponge. 
A sponge which 
forms a frame¬ 
work of spicules 
of silica, which, 
when the fleshy 
parts are washed 
away, looks like 
the finest spun 
glass. One species is thehandsome Venus flower- 
basket, another is the Japanese glass rope sponge. 

Globe. [Fr., from L. globus , ball.] A round 
body imitating the earth and made of some light 
material. At two opposite points are fixed two 
pins, round which it turns ; these are called the 
poles. The two pins produced through the cen¬ 
tre represent the axis of the globe. The pins 
turn in two holes made in a brass circle surround¬ 
ing the globe, called the brass meridian. Round 
the middle of the globe, at an equal distance 
from the poles, a circle is drawn, and divided 
into 360°, called the equator. Another great 
circle drawn round the globe, and inclined to the 
equator at an angle of 23^°, is called the ecliptic.. 
It indicates the sun’s line of apparent annual 
motion. 

Glove. [AS.] A covering for the hand, with a 
separate place for each finger. Gloves are made 
of worsted, cotton, silk, or of different skins. 
The finest kid gloves are made from skins of 
kids, but coarser kinds are made from lamb, rat, 
and other thin skins. They are prepared and 
dyed, and punched into different shapes for the 
different pieces of the glove. The two edges to 
be sewn are placed in a vice having fine teeth 
like a comb. They are then damped and pressed. 

GIow=worm. [AS.] An insect that gives out 
light in the dark. The female is without wings, 
and emits the light to attract the male, which is 
winged. To keep the light bright, this insect 
has a brush attached to its tail, with which it 





































































ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


keeps its back clean. The light is emitted from 
segments of the abdomen. 

Glucose. [Gk. glykys , sweet] or Grape Sugar. 
A kind of sugar found in grapes, less sweet than 
cane sugar. In the United States it is chiefly 
prepared from corn starch, where the syrup is 
known commercially as glucose , and the solid 
product from the same source as starch sugar. 
In Europe it is made from potatoes. Glucose is 
used chiefly in the preparation of table syrups 
and confectionery, in brewing, in the prepara¬ 
tion of artificial honey, and as food for bees. 

Glue. [Fr., from L. gluten , glue.] A sticky ani¬ 
mal substance or kind of impure gelatine, hard, 
and of a bright brown color. When melted 
it is adhesive and tenacious. It is made from 
the horns, hoofs, and sinews of various animals, 
or from scrapings and cuttings of their skins. 
These are cleansed, boiled, strained, boiled again, 
poured into layers or cut into squares and dried. 
Glue is very useful to the joiner and cabinet¬ 
maker. 

Glu / ten. [L.] A mixture of various vegetable 
albuminous substances found in the flour of 
wheat and other grains. It is a very tenacious 
substance, and contributes much to the nutritive 
properties of flour. 

Glycerine. [Gk. glykys , sweet.] A colorless, in¬ 
odorous, syrupy liquid, having a very sweet taste, 
soluble in water and alcohol, but insoluble in 
ether and chloroform. It is obtained from fats. 
It has numerous uses both in the arts and in 
medicine. It is used in calico-printing, in per¬ 
fumery, in leather-making, and in the manufac¬ 
ture of copying ink. When added to water, it 
lowers the freezing point, and has in this way 
been serviceable in preventing the freezing of the 
water in gas-meters. In medicine it is applied 
externally for softening the skin, and it may be 
used as a substitute for cod-liver oil. Dissolved 
in a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids, it 
yields the powerful explosive called nitro-gly- 
cerine (q.v.) 

Gnat. [AS.] A small insect with a sting ; a blood¬ 
sucking fly which undergoes changes of form in 
water. The females have a needle-shaped pro¬ 
boscis for penetrating the skin of plants and ani¬ 
mals. The mosquito is a gnat which injects 
poison into the wound it makes, and is very 
annoying in many localities. 

Gneiss. [Ger.] The name of a .species of rock 
closely resembling granite. Like granite, it is 
composed of mica , quartz , and feldspar , but in 
separate layers. Its texture varies from a fine¬ 
grained rock up to a coarse crystalline. 

Gnu. A singular kind of antelope, sometimes 
called the horned horse, and found in South 
Africa. It is about the size of a half-grown colt. 
It has short brown hair and a white tail, and a 
mane on its neck. It has low bent horns and 
cloven feet, which have all the lightness of those 
of the stag. Its flesh is like venison, and is much 
esteemed. 

Goat. [AS.] A hoofed animal, closely related to 
the sheep, and found either wild or tame in 
almost every part of the world. It is easily tamed, 


4°3 

and is a hardy, healthy animal. Its horns curve 
outward, its chin is bearded, its covering is of 
hair rather than wool, and its tail is short. It 
thrives on scanty pasture, where a sheep could 
not find support. Goats roam on hills, and in 
many countries are very numerous. Large flocks 
may be seen on the mountains of France, Swit¬ 
zerland, and Italy. The skin of the goat makes 
excellent leather ; that of the young goat or kid 
is used for gloves. Goat-skin also makes morocco * 
leather. The fleece yields two kinds of hair, long 
and short. Ropes and lawyers’ wigs are made 
of goats’ hair. The hair of Cashmere goats is 
woven into fine shawls. The Angora goat re¬ 
sembles the Cashmere, and its hair is used in 
making zephyr cloth. 

Gold. [AS.] A precious metal,' one of the metal¬ 
lic elements. It is distinguished by its bright- 
yellow color, its great ductility and malleability. 
It is nearly as soft as lead. It has always been 
highly prized for its beauty of color and lustre, 
and its power of resisting oxidation (not. tarnish¬ 
ing in the air), and for the ease with which it can 
be worked into artistic and ornamental articles. 
Its scarcity has led to its adoption as a convenient 
medium of exchange. Gold is always found in the 
metallic state. It occurs in grains and strings, 
and occasionally in lumps or nuggets, and is 
found dispersed through the gravel deposits in 
districts where gold-bearing quartz veins traverse 
the solid rocks. In order to obtain the gold from 
the gravel or placer deposits, the sand contain¬ 
ing the metal is washed in an apparatus called a 
cradle; by this means the lighter materials are 
washed away, and the gold being heafy, sinks to 
the bottom. Much gold is also obtained from 
quartz veins in the rocks, by costly processes of 
mining and extraction. Gold is found in nearly 
all countries. It occurs abundantly in Australia, 
North America, and Africa. Very rich deposits 
were discovered in Australia and California about 
fifty years ago, and in South Africa at a much 
later date. Much gold is now obtained in 
Alaska. 

Goldfinch. A beautiful song-bird of Europe, 
with gold-colored wings, and known as the 
yellow-bird. It has a black cap and wings, and is 
some times called American canary. (See Finch.) 

GoId=fish. A small domesticated fish of reddish- 
golden color, kept in ponds or in glass jars. It 
is a native of China, and was introduced into 
Europe in 1691. Many varieties are known. A 
monstrous variety of gold-fish, with protuberant 
eyes, is called the telescope fish. 

Gold = leaf. This is gold hammered until it forms 
a very thin leaf. It can be beaten so thin that it 
would take a pile of 200,000 leaves to make an 
inch in height. It is used for gilding, by spread¬ 
ing it on wood and other substances. Leaves 
not so fine are used by dentists for filling teeth. 

Golf. [Du.] A game played with a variety of 
clubs and a ball, the object being to drive the 
ball into each of a number of holes (usually nine 
or eighteen) with the fewest strokes of the club. 
It is a Scotch game, which has of late years be' 
come very popular in the United States. 



404 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


Gong. [Malay.] A round piece of bronze, with 
a rim round the edge, giving a loud sound when 
struck. Gong-metal is 78 parts of copper and 22 
of tin. 

Goose. [AS.] A swimming-bird of the same 
family as the swan and duck. It is common in 
most parts of the world. The gander is usually 
white and the female gray. The goose is larger 
, than the duck. It feeds chiefly on rushes and 
insects. The common European goose is sup¬ 
posed to have been derived from the gray lag 
goose. The bean goose, the American wild goose, 
and the Arctic goose are the best known kinds. 
The Cape Barren goose of Australia, though 
web-footed, never swims, but is a grazing-bird. 



Wild geese are of a grayish-brown color, and 
migrate from the tropics to northern regions and 
the reverse. They fly in two lines like the sides 
of a triangle, in flocks of from ten to one hundred. 
They nest in swamp grass, and, though undis¬ 
turbed by natural sounds, are quickly on the 
alert on the approach of the hunter. 

Goose'berry. [Fr. grose, meaning curled or 
hairy.] A fruit or berry, often rough with hairs, 
growing on a bush with sharp prickles. 

GoriFla. [African.] A remarkable animal; the 
largest of the ape or monkey tribe. It has 
immense canine teeth, powerful muscles, and 
great strength, and does not hesitate to attack 
the lion, yet it is a vegetarian. It lives in the 
dense African jungle. It walks in a peculiar 
way, swinging its body between its long arms. 
The females and young live much in the trees 
and the males on the ground. It is very fierce 
and difficult to capture and tame. 

Gossamer. [O.E., goose summer, or Mary’s 
yarn or threads.] Thin webs or threads of webs 


floating in the air, specially in fine weather or in 
the autumn. 

Gourd. The family of plants which includes the 
pumpkin, squash, melon, cucumber, etc. The 
bottle or calabash gourd, growing wild in Asia 
and Africa, bears a fruit like a water-bottle, 
whose rind is very hard when dry. It is used 
for bottles, dippers, and other purposes. 

Governor. An instrument used to regulate the 
supply of steam to the cylinder of a steam-engine. 
It consists of two heavy balls at the end of two 
rods, whose other ends are jointed to a shaft, 
turned by a strap from the engine. When the 
engine moves these balls revolve and separate by 
centrifugal force, becoming wider apart the faster 
the engine moves. They act upon a rod which 
operates the throttle-valve of the engine. When 
the engine is going too fast this valve is partly 
closed and the supply of steam reduced, when 
going too slow it is opened wider and more steam 
let in. By this means the supply of steam and 
speed of the engine are kept uniform. 

Graft. [Fr.] A bud or branch of one tree put 
into another, the stock of which is to support 
and nourish it. There are various kinds of graft¬ 
ing—cleft, rind, saddle, side, skin, splice, root, 
and tongue. 

Grain. [Fr., from E. granum .] A single hard 
seed of corn. The lines of fibres running aloug 
the length of a piece of wood. The grain is the 
unit of the English system of weights. The 
pound avoirdupois is 7,000 grains ; the pound 
troy is 5,760 grains. A grain is .0048 of a gramme. 

Gramme, The weight of one cubic centimetre of 
distilled water at the temperature of 4 0 C. (39.2 0 
F.), weighed at Paris. It is the unit of weight 
in the metric system. 

Gram / ophone. A kind of phonograph invented 
by E. Berliner about 1S95. It has a circular 
plate of metal covered with a thin film of grease, 
which the tracing point scratches in a sinuous 
spiral line. The record is then etched into the 
plate by acids, and is reproduced in the usual 
manner. 

GrarFite [Ital. from E. granum .] A crystalline 
rock composed of mica, quartz, and feldspar. In 
granite each of these minerals is in fragments 
large enough to be recognized by the naked eye. 
It occurs in large masses, which have been in¬ 
truded in many other kinds of rock, and also in 
smaller masses and veins. It belongs to the class 
of eruptive rocks, or those which have been 
pushed up from beneath to the surface by the 
action of heat. It is met with in great abundance 
both in Europe and America, and is much used 
in public buildings, in making docks, and in 
paving streets. 

Grape. [Fr. from O. Ger.,a hook or cluster.] The 
berry or fruit of the vine (as one of a cluster). 
The berries are smooth-skinned, and have a 
juicy pulp, and are grown for table use and for 
making wine and raisins. The principal wine¬ 
making countries in Europe are France, Spain, 
Italy, Portugal, and Germany. Much wine is 
made in the United States. Many grapes are 
also grown in Greece, Australia, Cape of Good 






ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


405 


Hope, and other countries. The grapes of Greece 
and Asia Minor are made into raisins. 

Grape Sugar, (See Glucose.) 

Graphite. Native carbon in six-sided crystals or 
in granules, with a black color and metallic lus¬ 
tre. It is used for pencils, for crucibles, and as a 
lubricator. 

Graph / ophone. A modification of the phonograph, 
which uses, instead of tin-foil, a mixture of wax 
and paraffine spread upon paper. For commer¬ 
cial purposes this instrument may take the place 
of the stenographer, correspondence being dic¬ 
tated into it and reproduced by the copyist. For 
entertainment it will yield a great variety of 
speech, song, and music. 

Grass. [A.S.] Herbage; green fodder; the plant 
which forms the food of cows, horses, and other 
hoofed animals; also the class of grain plants 
with narrow leaves and hollow stems, as wheat, 
oats, barley, rice, etc. A meadow is a field per¬ 
manently occupied by grass. When the grass is 
eaten off by animals it is called a pasture, and 
when allowed to grow and made into hay it is 
called meadow hay. Bamboos, though high, are 
also jointed like grasses. Grasses produce flour, 
meal, starch, sugar, beer, whiskey, paper and 
everything made from straw. 

Grass 'hopper. [A.S.] A small insect that hops 
among and feeds on grass in summer. Most 
grasshoppers are colored like the leaves and 
grasses 011 which they feed. They do not move 
in flocks, and are more active at night than by 
day. They cannot walk, but move by leaps. 
They have large wings, but do not fly far. The 
males make a shrill sound with their wings. The 
katydid makes a sound which is sometimes heard a 
quarter of a mile distant. The eggs of the grass¬ 
hopper are covered with a thick skin, and lie all 
winter in water. Turkeys and other fowls devour 
many grasshoppers. 

Grate. [Bow L., a framework of bars.] A set of 
bars within which the fire burns. In ordinary 
fire-places most of the heat goes up the chimney, 
and to prevent this the back and sides of the 
grate are lined with fire-clay or made of fire¬ 
bricks, which reflect the heat into the room. 

Grav'd. [Fr.] Loose, rounded, water-worn frag¬ 
ments of rock in which the pebbles range in size 
from a pea to a walnut. When smaller, they 
form sand ; and when larger, shingle. Gravel is 
formed by the action of rivers and of the sea ; 
and, since the pieces of the harder species of 
rocks are best able to withstand the action of 
water, gravel is found to consist chiefly of frag¬ 
ments of quartz and other silicious materials. 

Gravitation. The name given by Sir Isaac New¬ 
ton to his law of attraction, by which every atom 
in the universe attracts every other atom, with a 
force varying with distance. It is this force 
which holds the heavenly bodies in their places, 
causes the planets to revolve round the sun, and 
makes falling bodies descend to the earth. The 
force of attraction is called gravity. On the 
earth it causes a body to fall 32.2 feet a second. 

Grebe. A crested swimming-bird about the size 
of a duck. When swimming it steadies its legs 


at the rear end of its body, and paddles with its 
lobate toes in the water. Its nest is a light raft, 
and floats on the lakes and ponds, where the tall 
rushes and reeds grow. If an enemy discovers 
the nest, the bird puts one foot out, and, using it 
as a paddle, guides the nest to safer waters. As 
soon as the young are hatched the male leads the 
little ones into the water. When they are tired of 
swimming they mount upon the backs of the old 
birds. The mother bird induces them to dive by 
holding food in her beak, going backwards as 
they come near, until she gets them to go under 
the water to catch it. 

Grippe. (See Influenza). 

Grouse. [Fr.] A game-bird that lives among 
heather on hills. It inhabits Europe, Asia, and 
North America. It has a plump body, strong, 
well-feathered legs, and mottled plumage. Among 
the varieties are the red grouse, the hazel grouse, 
the ruffed grouse, the pine grouse, and the spruce 
partridge. 

Grub. [AS.] A worm or larva produced from 
the eggs of moths, beetles, etc. Grubber is a 
machine or tool for uprooting stumps or break¬ 
ing roots. 

Gua'no. [Span.] The dung of a sea-fowl, used as 
a manure, because it contains an abundance of 
the silicious skeletons of animalcules, and is rich 
in phosphates and ammonia. Guano was first 
brought to Liverpool in 1839, from the Chincha 
Islands on the coast of Peru, but is now exhausted 
there. It is now obtained from the Macabi and 
the Huauape Islands. Countless numbers of sea¬ 
birds have lived on these islands for thousands of 
years, and as rain seldom falls their excrement 
has accumulated to a depth of 200 feet. Gnano 
has a pungent smell, due to the ammonia it con¬ 
tains. By adding to the guano some sawdust 
wetted with sulphuric acid, the ammonia is fixed, 
so that its loss is prevented. Guano is an excel¬ 
lent manure for wheat, potatoes, and green crops 
on strong clay soils. In the great bat caves of 
San Antonio, Texas, a shaft has been sunk some 
hundreds of feet back from the mouth, by means 
of which it is possible to dig out the guano of the 
bats without disturbing the enormous number of 
sleeping bats that doze there during the day. 
The guano of these bats is the finest exported, 
because never exposed to rains, which wash out 
much of the virtue of Peruvian guano. 

GuiFlemot. [Fr.] One of several northern sea¬ 
birds allied to the auk. It has short legs placed 
far back, and is expert at diving and swimming. 
The common guillemot or murre is abundant 
on the northern coasts of Europe and America, 
and lays one or two eggs on the barren rocks with¬ 
out any nest. 

GuiFlotine. [Fr.] An instrument with an up¬ 
right frame and a heavy axe, used in France for 
executions; also a paper-cutting machine with 
descending knife worked by hand or steam. 

Guin'ea. [African.] A coin first made in 1663 of 
gold from Guinea in Africa, w 7 orth 21s. No 
guineas have been coined since 1817. 

Guinea-fowl or Guinea-hen. A bird somewhat 
like a turkey, of a dark-gray color and with white 



406 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


spots. Its neck is long, and its head has*a top- 
knot, and a fleshy horn on each side. It is noisy 
and quarrelsome in the farm-yard, but its noise 
protects poultry from the hawk. Its flesh is a 
delicacy, aud its eggs are valued for their richness. 

Guin / ea=pig. A small rodent animal from South 
America, somewhat like a pig, but also like a 
rabbit. It has short glossy fur, dark brown or 
white, with black, white, or yellow patches, or 
tortoise-shell colors. It feeds on vegetables, 
especially parsley and carrot tops. It is also called 
cavy, ( L. Cavia.) 

Guitar / . [Fr., from Gk.] A musical instrument 
with six strings, the three highest of which are 
of catgut, and the three lowest of silk covered 
with silver wire. 

Gulf Stream. A great ocean current of warm 
water, which flows in the Atlantic from the 
equatorial region, through the Gulf of Mexico, 
aud along the eastern coast of the United States 
at some distance from land. Its waters cross the 
ocean and reach the shores of Europe, whose 
climate is made warmer by its heat. 

Gull. [Celt.] A web-footed sea-bird. Gulls live 
upon fish, but many follow ships for long 



COFFEE ADULTERATED WITH CHICORY, MAGNIFIED. 


distances to pick up the pieces of food thrown 
overboard. They also rob weaker birds of their 
food, and have been knowm to snatch fish from 
the beaks of pelicans. They vary in size, some 
being small like pigeons, others about 17 inches 
long. Tne bill is yellow, and the feet and 
legs of a greenish-white color. Xhe back and 
wiugs are gray, but the head, breast, tail, and 
under part of the body are pure white. The gull 
lays three eggs of brownish-olive color, nearly as 
large as those of the common fowl. All gulls 
have weak feet and three webbed toes. The 
largest gulls are the burgomaster or glaucus gull, 
and the skua or Arctic gull, which frequent the 


Arctic regions. The tern or sea-swallow has long 
slender wings. The albatross ( q.v .) is another 
large gull. The stormy petrel (Q-V-) is the 
smallest of web footed birds. 

Gum. [Fr., from Gk. kommi.'] The sticky or 
adhesive juice of certain trees or plants. Vege¬ 
table resins are insoluble in water, but soluble in 
spirits. Gum resins are soluble in either water 
or spirits. Gum copal is a fossil dug out of the 
ground in various parts of the earth. It is 
brought in large quantities from the east coast of 
Africa. It is found in the sandy plains about a 
foot from the surface, and is derived from trees 
of recent times, while amber is from forests of a 
past geological period. Gum arabic is the juice 
of several acacia trees that grow in Arabia, India, 
and Africa, and dissolves in water. Dextrin is 
made from starch by mixing it with nitric acid, 
and is now used instead of natural gums. It is 
used in calico-printing and for postage-stamps. 
The Gum tree of Australia is the eucalyptus 
(q.v.), with rigid leaves turned to the zenith, and 
secreting resinous gums. Two American trees 
are known as the sour gum and the sweet gum. 

Gun. An instrument made of a hollow tube for 
firing shots by means of explosives. The word 
is applied to the ordinary musket and rifle, and 
also to cannon of all sizes. Guns increased 
enormously in size during the past century. 
The heaviest cannon on Nelson’s ship, the Vic¬ 
tory , had a 68-pound ball. Cannons are now 
made which will send a ball of more than a ton 
weight. 

Gurt=Cotton. An explosive prepared by steeping 
cotton-wool in a mixture of equal volumes of 
strong nitric and sulphuric acids. The cotton, 
after drying, is not perceptibly altered in appear¬ 
ance, but its weight has increased about 70 per 
cent., and it has become very inflammable. It is 
largely used instead of gunpowder, over which 
it possesses several advantages. The explosive 
power of one pound of gun-cotton is more than 
three times that of the same weight of gunpow¬ 
der. Collodion, used bv photographers, is gun¬ 
cotton combined with alcohol and ether. Cellu¬ 
loid is gun-cotton combined with camphor and 
other substances. 

Gun=metal. A bronze usually composed of nine 
parts of copper and one of tin, used for cannon. 

GunTiy. A cloth made of jute fibre. Gunny cloth 
is a coarse bagging in which pepper, ginger, 
sugar, etc., are shipped from India. It is also 
brought to the United States and used to cover 
cotton bales. 

GuiTpowder. A well-known explosive, consisting 
of an intimate mixture of nitre, charcoal and 
sulphur. In the manufacture of gunpowder the 
ingredients selected must be perfectly pure, and 
they must be reduced to powder separately. 
They are then roughly mixed, sprinkled with 
water, and formed into a cake, which is after¬ 
wards broken up, granulated, and separated into 
classes by sieves of different sizes of mesh. The 
violence of the explosive power of the substance 
is due to the sudden evolution of large quantities 
of gas. Gunpowder is supposed to have been 








ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


4°7 


known to the Chinese before the Christian era, 
but is believed to have been first used in warfare 
in the seventh century by 
the Byzantine emperors in 
the defence of Constanti¬ 
nople. 

Gurnet and Gur'nard. 

[Fr., from L- grunnire , to 
grunt.] A kind of marine 
fish, supposed to make a 
grunting noise when taken 
out of water by the vibra¬ 
tion of the muscles of its 
air-bladder. It has a large 
and spiny head, with mail¬ 
ed cheeks and large eyes. 
Some gurnards are highly 
esteemed for food. The 
flying gurnard is found 
in the Atlantic, and is able 
to fly like the flying-fish. 
It has large pectoral fins 
filled with nerves, by the 
aid of which smaller animals 
are detected. Thus they 
serve as food-providers. 

[Fr., from Ital. guscio , a husk or pod.] 
piece of cloth let into a garment for 



Gusset. 

A small 


strengthening or widening it, especially under 
the arm-hole of a shirt. 

Gut / ta=per / cha. [Malay.] The hardened juice or 
gum of a tree called percha, common in the Malay 
Islands. ^ (See Caoutchouc and India Rubber.) 

Gymnastics. [Gr.] A series of exercises ar¬ 
ranged according to method for developing and 
strengktening the muscles and bodily organs. 
These include work with dumb-bells, Indian- 
clubs, wands etc. 

Gypsum. [Gk. gypsos, chalk.] Sulphate of 1 ime 
a common mineral, of which there are large beds 
in many parts of the United States. When 
burned and ground it becomes plaster of Paris. 
Ground gypsum is often used by farmers as a 
manure. Alabaster is a fine grained white or 
light-colored gypsum. Satin spar, a beautiful 
fibrous variety, is used for necklaces and inlaid 
work. 

Gy / roscope. [Gk. gyros , a circle ; and skopein , 
to see.] An apparatus consisting of a heavy ro¬ 
tating disk mounted on gimbals, so that it can 
turn in any direction. When rotating it will 
constantly point to the same star, and may 
therefore be employed to show that the apparent 
rotation of the heavenly bodies is due to the 
rotation of the earth on its axis in the opposite 
direction. 


H 


Haddock. ( Gadus czglefinus.') A food fish of 

the Cod family, found in large shoals not far from 
the shore. It weighs from 2 to 4 lbs., and is 
distinguished by a large black spot on each side, 
fabled to be the prints of the finger and thumb of 
St. Peter when he took the tribute-money from 
its mouth. The haddock is found off the Irish 
and Scottish coasts, and from New York to the 
Arctic Circle in the Atlantic. Large quantities 
are cured in the fishing villages of the east coast 
of Scotland. The method employed is to cleanse 
the haddock, steep it for a short time in brine, 
and smoke it over a wood fire. This was first done 
in the village of Findon, Kincardineshire, and 
the fish cured in this way are now known by the 
name of Findon or “ Finnan ” haddocks. 

Hail. [AS. hagel.~\ Frozen water falling from the 
clouds. There are two kinds of hail, the small 
grains, which often fall in winter, and generally 
come before snow; and larger hail, which falls 
usually in hot weather. The first kind is caused 
by the freezing of rain drops as they fall through 
air colder than that from which they started. 
How the second kind is formed is not well known. 
It is supposed to be the result of a tornado whirl 
in the upper air. Sometimes the particles of hail 
meeting congeal into large masses called hail¬ 
stones. These hailstones often do great harm to 
crops. 

Hair. A fine thread-like substance, of various 
forms and colors, developed from the outer skin 
of mammals. Each hair consists of a shaft and 
root. The shaft or part above the skin does not 
grow, but the bulb or part under the skin, which I 


is made up of little cells, grows by forming new 
cells, the old ones being pressed forward, and 
becoming a part of the shaft. Its color is said to 
be caused by a kind of oil which comes from the 
cells in the bulb. Porcupine quills, hedgehog 
spines, and rhinoceros horn are all developments 
of hair. Straight hair is nearly round, but curly 
or crisp hair, like that of the negro, is flattened, 
and the hair of the Bushman in Africa is nearly 
as flat as a ribbon. Hair is very strong and very 
lasting. It is also very elastic or springy, and for 
this reason is much used for stuffing cushions, 
mattresses, sofas, etc. Horse hair 
is used for making hair-cloth and 
other purposes, and the hair of 
cows, camels, goats, and dogs is 
used for weaving, and the hair and 
fur of beavers, rabbits, and other 
small animals for making felt. 
Hogs’ hair and bristles are largely 
used in brush-making. Human 
hair is used chiefly for making 
wigs, curls, etc. Most of it comes 
from France, Italy, Germany, Rus¬ 
sia, and South America. Young 
peasant women sell their hair to 
wandering dealers, who go round 
to collect it. These sell it to hair- 
merchants, who partly dress it, and 
hair magnified, se q again to the wig-makers. 

E ’ ^Fat^eHs. 01, Human hair is also plaited into 
ornamental work, such as chains, 
brooches, and pictures and this has in some 
countries become a kind of art. 

















40S 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


Halibut. [O.E. Hali, holy ; and butte , flounder.] 
A large, flat sea-fisli eaten on holidays. It weighs 
from ioo to 400 lbs., and is caught by hook and 
line from Spitzbergen to Iceland, and from Fin¬ 
land and Scandinavia to the British and French 
coasts, and along the Atlantic coast from New 
York northwards. The bait used is small herring. 

Hallow=even or Hallowe’en 7 . This is the even¬ 
ing of the 31st of October, so called as being the 
eve of All-Hallows, or festival of All-Saints, 
which falls on the 1st of November. It is a night 
on which spirits, good and evil, are supposed to 
be abroad and witches to hold high holiday. 
Then nuts and apples are in great demand, and 
are used for the purpose of foretelling future 
events in love affairs. In the north of England 
Hallowe’en is known as Nutcrack Night. 

Ha'lo. [Gk. halos , a round threshing-floor.] A 
white or colored circle of light round the sun or 
moon. Ihese circles are due to the presence of 
ice crystals in the air. In paintings, the heads 
of holy persons are sometimes surrounded by a 
ring called a halo. 

HarrFmer. [Sax. hamer.'] A well-known tool 
used for driving nails, beating metals, etc. 
Hammers are of various sorts, but nearly all 
consist of an iron head fixed crosswise to a handle 
of wood. Almost every kind of trade has a 
hammer of its own. Power hammers are those 
which are worked by machinery. Among them 
are forge-hammers, used for hammering into 
shape heavy masses of red-hot iron ; and tilt- 
hammers, used for lighter work, such as forging 
bars of steel. The steam forge-hammer was in¬ 
vented by James Nasmyth in 1839. 

HairFmock. [Span, hamaca.'] A kind of hang¬ 
ing bed, chiefly used by sailors. It consists of a 
piece of hempen cloth or of strong netting, 6 
feet long, and 4 feet wide, gathered together at 
each end and hung to hooks under the deck. 
Hammocks of netting are often swung from trees 
in gardens as a pleasant place for resting in fine 
weather. 

Hand. The extremity of the arm, consisting of 
the palm and fingers, connected with the arm at 
the w T rist. In all there are 27 bones in the hand. 
Eight of these are carpal bones, and form the wrist; 
5 are mcta-carpal bones, found in the palm ; and 
14 are phalanges—2 in the thumb and 3 in each 
of the fingers. The hand is the organ of touch, 
and there is no part of the body where the sense 
of touch is so acute as at the tips of the fingers. 
The activity and pliancy of the movements of 
the hands are remarkably displayed in the play¬ 
ing of the pianist and violinist. A skillful pianist 
produces about 960 notes a minute in quick time; 
and this gives a fair idea of the rapidity of move¬ 
ment which can be attained by the hand. 

HarFdicapping. A term used in various sports 
and games to indicate the position of competitors, 
so that all shall have as nearly as possible an equal 
chance of winning. In horse-racing, weights are 
put upon horses not less than three years of age 
in proportion to their recorded performances. 
In foot racing, cycling contests, etc., competitors 
are started at different distances in proportion to 


previous performances. In chess and draughts, 
certain “ men ’ ’ are given up by the better player; 
and so on in other cases. 

Hanging Garden. A series of magnificent gardens 
laid out on elevated terraces at Babylon. They 
were said to be 400 feet square, thus containing 
nearly four acres, and over 300 feet high. Water 



HANSOM. 

was forced up irom the Euphrates to cool the air, 
water the soil, and supply the fountains. 

Hansom. A low two wheeled cab closed in front 
by a lid-like apron and having a driver’s seat 
perched back of the top. It is drawn by one 
horse and used extensively in large cities to 
convey passengers from one point to another. 

Har'bor. [Sax. here-berga .] A port or haven 
for ships. A general name given to any bay or 
inlet affording ships protection from the wind 
and sea. Some of these are natural, but many 
are constructed by breakwaters. In connection 
with harbors artificial docks are constructed, in 
which the water is kept nearly at the same level, 
which gives facility in loading and unloading. 

Hard'pan. A stratum of hardened clay, sand, or 
gravel, from one to three feet under the soft soil, 
which it serves as a foundation. 

Hare. ( Lepus .) [Sax. haraJ\ A well-known 

animal, with long ears, a short tail, soft hair, and 
a divided upper lip. Hares are found almost all 
over the world. They differ from rabbits chiefly 
in their habits. Rabbits live together in burrows 
dug under the ground ; but hares live separately, 
each one making a nest of grass for itself. They 
pass the greater part of the day in sleep, and in 
the evening creep out to feed. Green vegetables 
and root crops are their chief food. Hares are 
very timid, and move swiftly by leaps. They 
afford fine sport to the hunter, and in some 
countries are hunted with hounds. Their flesh 
is very good, and is much used for making soup. 

Harlequin. The name of one of the characters 
in a pantomime ; of Italian origin. The harle¬ 
quin is the trickster and the wit of the play, and 
commits all sorts of knavish acts. 

HarmcFnium. A musical keyed instrument in 
which the tones are produced by forcing air 
by means of a bellows so as to cause the vibration 
of free metallic reeds. The first instrument of 




ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


409 


a really useful kind was the invention of Debain 
of Paris, in the year 1840. This instrument has 
now become one of the most common for use in 
homes, schools, and places of worship. 

Har'ness. [Fr. harnois.~\ The trappings of a 
draught-horse, whether for a wagon, coach, gig, 
etc. It may be said to consist of four parts : (1) 
the driving part, or bridle and reins ; (2) the 
drawing part, consisting of the collar, hames, 
and traces; (3) the supporting part, for holding 
up the shafts, made up of the saddle and its parts; 
and (4) the holding-back part, or breeching. 

Harp. [Sax. hearpa.'] A musical stringed instru¬ 
ment. It 'was very much esteemed by the 
ancients, and is pictured on the Egyptian monu¬ 
ments. The modern harp is in form nearly 
triangular, and the wires stretch from the upper 
part to one of the sides. It stands erect, and is 
played with both hands by pulling the strings 
with the fingers and thumbs. The harp is now 
sometimes used in an orchestra. 

Harpoon 7 . [Fr. harpon .] A spear or javelin used 
for the capture of whales and other large fish. 
It is made of iron, about 5 feet long, with a 
sharp flat point with barbs. The edges of the 
point are made sharp, so that it will go into the 
whale easily, and then the barbs keep it from 
pulling out. It is thrown by the hand, but some¬ 
times is discharged from a gun. The gun- 
harpoon is a short bar of iron, with a ring at the 
end to fasten a rope to. This is fired from a 
small cannon in the bow of the boat. 

Har 7 row. [Sw. harf.~\ An implement of agri¬ 
culture chiefly used for breaking up lumps of 
earth and smoothing ploughed land, and for 
covering the seeds previously sown. It consists 
of a frame of varied form, now chiefly made of 
iron, in which are fixed rows of iron spikes. 

Hat. [Sax. hczt.~\ The principal outdoor covering 
for the head. Hats are chiefly made of felt, silk, 
or straw. For felt hats the fur of rabbits and 
hares is used, and for commoner kinds sheep’s 
wool. Silk hats are made of two or three layers 
of calico saturated with varnishes, moulded into 
shape on wooden blocks, and covered with fine 
silk plush. In the manufacture of straw hats 
the straw commonly used is that of wheat or 
barley. 

Hawk. [Sax. hafoc.~\ A name common to many 
species of birds of prey belonging to the Falcon 
family. Hawks differ from true falcons by hav¬ 
ing shorter wings and an unnotched bill. (See 
Sparrow Hawk.) 

Hawk 7 ing. The art of training and flying hawks, 
to capture other birds. This practice, called 
falconry , is of high antiquity, and in old times 
was a favorite amusement with the rich, and to 
some extent with the poor. It has now gone out 
of use. 

Haw 7 thorn. [Sax. hczgthorn. ] A shrub or small 
tree which bears the haw. It is a native of 
Europe, Siberia, and the north of Africa. In 
Britain it is largely planted both for hedges and 
for ornament. 

Hay. [Sax. heg, hig .] The stems and leaves of 
grasses cut and dried for fodder. After being 


mown, the grass is shaken up and spread abroad 
evenly over the ground, to be dried by the sun. 
This is continued for several days, the hay being 
raked into windrows at night and into small 
heaps if rain threatens. 

Hay Fever. A warm weather disease; its symptoms 
are those of common catarrh, yet very difficult 
to cure, and recurring annually at a fixed time. 
It is thought to be due to the pollen of certain 
plants. Some persons are very susceptible, but 
most people not at all so. 



HAWK. 


Ha 7 zel. [Sax. hczsel.~\ A genus of nut-bear¬ 
ing plants or small trees of the order Coryleae. 
The hazel is a native of all the temperate parts of 
Europe and Abia. It is also common in North 
America. In England the hazel is cultivated for 
its nuts [filberts), from which, on pressure, a 
valuable oil is obtained. The wood of the hazel 
is largely used—the smaller kind for making 
crates, baskets, hoops, whip-handles, etc. ; and 
the larger wood for charcoal, which is in great 
demand for forges, for the manufacture of gun¬ 
powder and of artists’ crayons. 

Heart. [Sax. heort.~\ A hollow muscular organ, 
with four chambers, in the higher animals. It is 
the centre of the blood’s motion in an animal 
body, and is situated in the thorax. The blood 
flows from the veins to the two right chambers of 
the heart (auricle and ventricle), then to the 
lungs, next to the two left chambers, from which 
it is driven into the arteries. Thus the circula¬ 
tion is carried on and life maintained. The heart 
of a reptile has only three chambers, and of a 
fish only two, so that the blood is imperfectly 
aerated, and there is little animal heat. 

Heat. A force in nature known by its effects in 
fusion and evaporation. Formerly it was sup¬ 
posed to be a subtle fluid, which was known as 
caloric. It is now regarded as a kind of motion, 








4io 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


being in general a form of vibration or disturb¬ 
ance of molecules. One of the most important 
effects of heat is to alter the temperature of 
bodies. A piece of iron put into burning coals 
becomes hot, because the heat passes from the 
coals into the iron, until both have reached the 
same temperature. Heat also alters the dimen¬ 
sions of bodies. For example, the tire of a wheel 
is made a little too small, and when heated it en¬ 
larges so as to slip on easily. It cools down to 
the same size as it was at first, and then fits so 
tightly that it binds all parts of the wheel firmly 
together. The ends of rails are always left a lit¬ 
tle w r ay apart on railroads ; for if rails were laid 
close together the heat of the sun might expand 
them, and push them out of place. Heat is com¬ 
municated to different bodies in at least three 
distinct wavs. First, by convection, as when 
water is heated in a kettle (over the fire). Second, 
by conduction—that is heat traveling from one 
end of a substance to the other end. Hence we 
have good and bad conductors of heat. Metals 
are good conductors, glass is a bad conductor, 
and wood is a still worse one. This is the reason 
w T hy iron tools for heating in fires have wooden 
handles fitted to them. A third way is called 
radiation. This may be best illustrated by plac¬ 
ing some substance near a fire. The heat passes 
over to it or is radiated to it from the fire. 

Heath. [AS. hozth.~\ A genus of narrow-leaved 
evergreen shrubs of many species (from 400 to 
500 are known). Over a dozen inhabit Europe, 
and have small pink flowers ; the remainder are 
natives of South Africa, many of them bearing 
brilliantly-colored flowers. Heather is a species 
of heath. 

Hedge. [AS. hege.~] A fence of thorn bushes or 
other shrubs or small trees planted round a field, 
or in rows to separate the parts of a garden. 
Hedges are very common in many parts of Bri¬ 
tain and Italy, but comparatively rare in France 
and Germany, as well as in America. They are 
usually of one or more of the following species : 
hawthorn, blackthorn, privet, holly, beech, ma¬ 
ple, alder, poplar, wallow, yew, sweet-brier, etc. 

Hedge / hog. [L,. Erinaceus.~\ An insectivorous ani¬ 
mal, with the power of rolling itself into a ball, 
jss^^6\rw.i and with its 

hairs devel- 
oped into 
sharp, strong 
spines. Few 
animals care 
to attack it, 
and those 
that do are 
usually driv¬ 
en off by the 
armor of 
spines. Four¬ 
teen species 
are found 


throughout Europe, Africa, and most of Asia. The 
common hedgehog is about 9 or 10 inches long, 
the spines on the back measuring about an inch. 
It is nocturnal in its habits, hibernates, and feeds 



on insects, mice, and worms. It is useful in a 
garden, and has been rendered domestic, and 
used to destroy cockroaches. 

HeFmet. [AS. helan, to cover.] A head cover¬ 
ing formerly largely in use as a defensive armor. 
It is new chiefly used for ornament, but firemen 
wear it as a protection from falling materials at 
fires, and in hot countries helmets of white felt 
covered w r ith rolls of linen are worn as a protec¬ 
tion against the sun’s rays. 

Hem / atite. An abundant and valuable ore of 
iron, the sesqui-oxide. Vast quantities of it exist 
in the United States, especially in Michigan and 
Missouri. In the latter, tw r o mountains, Pilot 
Knob and Iron Mountain, consist chiefly of this 
ore. 

Hemlock. [A S. hemleac.'] A plant of the genus 
Conium , whose leaves and root are poisonous. 
The common or spotted hemlock is from 2 to 7 
feet in height, and grows by waysides and on 
heaps of rubbish. It is common in Europe and 
in some parts of Asia, and is now also a natural¬ 
ized plant in North America and Chili. A valu¬ 
able medicine is obtained from the leaves and 
fruit. Water hemlock grows in ditches, on the 
margins of ponds and on wet«grounds in Europe 
and the north of Asia. It is a very poisonous 
plant, and is the cause of many deaths. Hemlock 
spruce is an evergreen cone-bearing tree, com¬ 
mon in North America. It is a beautiful tree, 
often growing to the height of 100 feet. The 
bark is largely used in tanning leather. 

Hemp. [AS. henep.~\ A fibrous plant of the genus 
Cannabis. It is cultivated in many parts of the 
world, but most largely in Poland and in the 
centre and south of European Russia. Hemp 
varies from 4 to 12 feet in height. The stem is 
hollow or filled with pith, and the bark contains 
a useful fibre, which is extracted and used for 
making canvas, ropes, sail-cloth, bagging, and 
other articles. The seed is often used to feed 
poultry and small birds, and it also yields an oil 
very good for burning, and also a narcotic resin 
called hasheesh. 

Herb. A plant with a soft stalk, and which bears 
flowers and fruit only once, and then dies. Some 
live one year only, others two or more years. 

Herbarium. [U. lierba , a plant.] A collection of 
specimens of plants, carefully dried and pre¬ 
served. These collections are very valuable for 
the scientific study of plants, and there are some 
in existence which are centuries old. 

Her on* [Fr.] The name of a large tribe of wad¬ 
ing birds found in almost every part of the globe. 
The body is small in proportion to the length of 
the neck and the legs. The legs are very long 
and slender, and the bill is longer than the head, 
and comes to a sharp point. Herons feed mostly 
on fish, frogs, crabs, and other water animals. 
These they greedily devour. They build their 
nests in high trees near the water, and feed their 
young with fish until they are old enough to care 
for themselves. The European heron is remark¬ 
able for its directly-ascending flight, and was 
formerly hunted with the larger falcons. 





ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


Her'ritig. ( Clupea harengus.) [AS. hiring, 
from the root here , an army.] A well-known 
sea food-fish. Herrings are found on the shores 
of the North Sea, the North Atlantic, the Baltic, 
and the White Sea. They approach the coast 
every spring in order to spawn, and then the 
great herring-fishing season commences. They 
move about in immense schools—the main body 
often divided into columns of from five to six 
miles in length and from three to four in breadth 
—swimming near the top of the water, and fol¬ 
lowed by multitudes of larger fishes and by gulls, 
fisli-hawks, and other sea-birds, which feed on 
them. Drift-nets are employed in catching her¬ 
ring. These are let out from boats, usually in 
the evening; and when the fish are taken to the 
shore they are cleaned, salted, and packed in 
barrels. The fish locally known as herring in 
the American rivers south of Maine is the ale- 
wife, of the same genus as the shad. It is very 
abundant and much esteemed. There is talso a 
Pacific herring whose abundance resembles that 
of the Atlantic species, and whose fishing is of 
growing importance. 

Hick / ory. A tree belonging to the Walnut family, 
found only in North America. The wood is 
tough and elastic, and is largely used to make 
hoops for casks. Handspikes, carriage shafts, 
wheel spokes, handles of axes and golf clubs, 
large screws, etc., are made of it. The trunk is 
slender and has a very rough bark, and the tree 
grows to a height of from 60 to ioo feet. The 
hickory-nut has a delicious flavor. One .southern 
species yields the esteemed pecan-nut , others 
yield th o. pig-nut, bitter-nut, and mocker-nut. 

Hieroglyphics. The name applied to the ancient 
Egyptian writing, in which the forms of animals 
and natural objects stand for words, and some¬ 
times for syllables or letters. Chinese writing is 
similar in character, and all systems of writing 
are thought to have begun with hieroglyphics. 

Hippopotamus. [Gk. hippos, a horse ; and pota- 
mos, a river.] A large animal about 12 feet in 
length and 5 feet high at the shoulders, with 
short legs and four toes on each foot, a skin on 
the back and sides more than two inches thick 
—of dark-brown color and destitute of hair. It 
is found only in Africa, and lives mostly in lakes 
and rivers, and can remain a long time under 
water. At night it comes up on the banks of 
rivers, and feels on plants and herbage. It lives 
in herds of from twenty to forty individuals. 
The hippopotamus is much hunted by the Afri¬ 
cans for its flesh, of which many of them are 
very fond. The hide is converted into shields, 
helmets, whips, and canes, and the large canine 
teeth are much valued for their ivory, and form 
a very considerable article of African commerce. 

Hive. [AS. hyfel\ See Bee. 

Hog. The common name of the animal also called 
pig, and collectively swine. The eyes of the hog 
are very small and sunken, his nose is mobile, 
his form without beauty, his motions clumsy, 
and his appearance slothful and stupid. The, 
hog is highly prized for its flesh, which supplies 
a chief article of food to many nations in the form , 


411 



1 SHOULDER 

2 LEG AND HAM 

3 HIND LOIN 


4 BRISKET 

5 SPARE-RIB 

6 HEAD 


of pork, bacon, ham, sausage, etc. Its fat is made 
into lard, its skin into leather for the saddler and 
trunk-maker, and its bristles are largely used in 

the manufacture 
of brushes. Wild 
hogs are com¬ 
mon in many 
countries, and 
are hunted in 
various places. 
They are dan¬ 
gerous on ac¬ 
count of their 
expert use of 
7 fore loin their tusks or 

long canine 

teeth. Wart-hogs have large lobes on each side 
of the face, and remarkably modified teeth. The 
African river-hog is of a gray color, and the 
West African red river-hog is remarkable for 
vivid coloring and long pencilled ears. 

Hogs / head. Formerly a measure of capacity in 
use in England, containing 63 wine gallons and 
54 ale gallons. In the United States the measure 
is still in use, and the term there signifies a 
large cask containing from no to 140 wine 
gallons. 

HoFly. [AS.] A shrub or tree with shining, 
prickly, and smooth and wavy leaves and scarlet 
berries. The common holly grows in Europe, 
and in some parts of Asia. It is largely used for 
hedges, and forms an excellent fence. The 
American holly is found along the coast of the 
United States. It grows to be a tree of consider¬ 
able size. The wood of both kinds is very hard, 
fine grained, and almost as white as ivory, and is 
much used by cabinetmakers, turners, and 
musical instrument makers. The bark yields a 
substance from which bird-lime is made, and is 
used as a febrifuge, while the berries are a 
violent purgative. Branches of holly are largely 
used at Christmas for decoration. The Brazilian 
or Paraguay holly yields leaves from which the 
mate or Paraguay tea is made. It is more 
exciting than ordinary tea, and if taken to excess 
produces a kind of intoxication. 

Holly / hock. [AS. holihocI\ A well-known hardy 
plant, the Althaea rosea , cultivated in garden; 
for its spikes of large and beautiful flowers. It 
is called also rose-mallow. 

HorrEiny. [W. Ind.] Maize hulled and crushed ; 
prepared for food by boiling in water. 

Hone. [AS. //««.] A hard stone of very fine grit, 
used in sharpening knives, razors, and various 
sharp-edged tools. The best stone for hones is 
found in Arkansas and Turkey, and when in use 
is wet with oil* Coarser hones are usually called 
whetstones, and are wet with water. 

Hon / ey. [AS. hu?iig.~\ A very sweet substance 
collected by honey-bees from the juices in the 
flowers of plants, and deposited in the cells of 
the honeycomb. Heather honey is of a rich 
yellow color. Narbonne honey is white, and is 
made from rosemary flowers. The fine aroma of 
Maltese honey is due to orange blossoms. In 
the United States the finest is from forests of 






412 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


basswood and white-clover pastures ; also honey 
from buckwheat is abundant. Honey is largely 
used as an article of food, in sweetmeats, in some 
kinds of ale, and also as a flavoring in medicines. 
The old intoxicating drink called mead was made 
from honey. 

Honeysuckle. A genus of flowering and climb¬ 
ing plants or shrubs, often planted in shrubberies 
and trained against walls on account of the 
beauty and delicious fragrance of their flowers. 

Hoof. [AS. ho/.'] The horny substance which 
incases the feet of horses, cows, sheep, etc. 
Horses’ hoofs, which are harder, are made into 
glue and ground up for artificial manure. 
Prussiate of potash, used for making Prussian 
blue for dyeing and calico printing, is made from 
horses’ hoofs. (See Horn.) 

Hop. [Du- hop .] A well-known climbing plant, 
very extensively cultivated in the south-east of 
England. It is a native of Europe, and is now 
grown in the United States and in Australia and 
New Zealand. It is largely grown in some of the 
American States, especially in New York. The 
plant is cultivated for its flowers, which are 
gathered or picked dried in kilns, bleached with, 
sulphuric acid, and then used in making beer. 
They give it a bitter taste, and help to make it 
bright and clear. Hop bitters are used as a tonic. 

Horebound. [AS. harhune.] A small plant 
with whitish stem and flowers. It has an 
aromatic smell, and is a popular remedy in cases 
of coughs and asthma. 

Hori'zon. [Gk. horizon."] A circular line touch¬ 
ing the earth, and formed by the apparent meet¬ 
ing of the earth and sky. This is called the 
visible or sensible horizon , while the great circle 
parallel to the sensible horizon, and passing 
through the earth’s centre, is the rational or 
celestial horizon. 

Horn. [AS.] A hard substance, usually of con¬ 
siderable length, growing on the heads of some 
animals, and also as the hoofs, claws, or nails of 
animals generally. The horns of the Ox family 
are never shed ; the antler of the deer is bone, 
and is shed annually. Horn is a tough, flexible, 
semi-transparent substance, and is softened by 
heat. It is composed of thickened albumen, 
with small portions of gelatine and phosphate of 
lime. Horn when heated may be moulded into 
almost any shape, which it will keep when cold. 
The horns of the ox, cow, bison, buffalo, sheep, 
goat, and antelope are made into many highly 
ornamental and useful articles—such as handles 
for knives, forks, umbrellas, and walking-sticks ; 
also into spoons, snuff-boxes, buttons, etc. 
Combs are made from flattened sheets of horn, 
which are got after the horn has been steeped in 
water for a considerable time. 

Horn / bill. A bird of ungainly appearance, with 
large bill, helmet crowned, and found in India and 
Africa. By curious habit the male bird plasters 
the female in the hole of a hollow tree during 
nesting time. 

Horn or French Horn. One of the most important 
of wind musical instruments, much used in or¬ 
chestral music and in military bands. It gets its 


name from the first horns having been made of 
the horns of animals. It produces a soft and 
peculiar tone, due to the length of the tube, 
which is coiled up into several rings, and has a 
large bell-shaped end. 

Hornblende. A tough mineral of black color, 



THE HORNBILL. 

due to a large percentage of oxide of iron. It 
forms part of several rocks, as trap, syenite, and 
hornblende slate, which is excellent for flagstone 
purposes. 

Horbet. An insect belonging to the Wasp fam¬ 
ily, but much larger and stronger than the ordi¬ 
nary wasp, and whose sting gives severe pain. 
It is fully an inch in length. It forms its nest of 
a kind of paper-work made from bits of wood 
and bark, which it places in hollow trees and 
walls. It feeds on fruits, honey, and insects. 
Hornets, like bees, live in societies made up 
of males, females, and workers. The females and 
workers do all the work, and sting when disturbed. 
Their sting inflicts a painful wound, usually ac¬ 
companied with considerable swelling. The best 
applications for it are grated potatoes and sweet 
Oil. 

Horn / pipe. An instrument of music formerly 
very common in Wales. It is also the name of 
a characteristic lively British dance much in 
favor among sailors. 

Horse. [AS. hors. ] A beautiful animal, useful 
for carrying loads or drawing wagons. It is a 
most intelligent animal, knows its master well, 
and if kindly treated will always do its work 












ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON THINGS 


4'3 


willingly and cheerfully. The horse belongs 
to the genus Equus , which contains several 
species, including the horse, the ass, the 
<l ua gg a > a *id the zebra. Horses in a wild state 
are found in many countries, and are very 
numerous in South America. Almost every 
country has its own breed of horses, which is 
generally suited to the climate. The horses of 
Iceland are small, with thick shaggy hair. The 
Arabian horse is much larger, and is one of the 
finest of all breeds. The Barbary horse of North¬ 
ern Africa is much like the Arabian, but smaller. 
The British horse, from -which the best horses in 
the United States have come, has much Arabian 
and Barb blood in it. It resembles the Arabian 
in appearance, but is much taller and longer. 
The best trotting-horses are found in the United 
States and in Canada. Draught horses, or horses 
used in drawing heavy loads, are reared in many 
countries. The Percheron breed, common in 
France, has been noted for hundreds of years. 
They are large, heavy horses, with large heads, 
and are much used for drawing business wagons. 
The principal parts of the body of a horse are— 
(i) the chest, (2) the withers, (3) the barrel, or 
part enclosed by the ribs, (4) the flanks, (5 ) 
the loins, and (6) the buttocks. The age of a 
horse ma}^ be ascertained from an inspection of 
its teeth. Horses sometimes live 30 years, but 
the average age is from 15 to 16 years. 

liorse=chest / nut. A large and ornamental tree, 
with large compound leaves, and bearing white 
flowers and a fruit or nut with a prickly shell. 
The nuts have a bitter taste, and are sometimes 
used as food for cattle. In some countries chest¬ 
nuts are ground, and mixed with the food of 
horses ; hence the name horse-chestnut. They 
are also made into a strong paste for bookbinders 
and shoemakers, and in France and Switzerland 
they are used in cleaning woolens and in the 
washing aud bleaching of linen. The bark of the 
tree is sometimes used in tanning leather. 

Horse=power or H.P. The power of lifting 33,000 
lbs. weight one foot high in a minute ; it is enti¬ 
tled indicated or nominal. 

Horse=rad / ish. A small plant with a stem about 
two feet high, but having a deeply-penetrating 
root, for which it is chiefly cultivated, and from 
which a highly valuable seasoning, of strongly 
acrid taste, is obtained. 

Horse=shoe. A shoe for horses, consisting of a plate 
of iron of a circular form. Horse-shoes are neces¬ 
sary as a protection to the foot on stony or hard 
roads, and they vary in size, shape, and strength 
according to the formation of the foot and the 
kind of work the horse has to perform. They 
were formerly all made by the hand, and many 
still are, but machinery is now largely employed 
in their manufacture. Modern farriery requires 
light, small shoes, with few nails, and that the 
shoe be put on without overheating, which is 
cruel, and injures the horn. 

Hosiery. A name given to hose or stockings, and 
used now to include all kinds of knitted articles. 
Stocking-knitting was all done by the hand, until 
William Lee, ofWoodbridge, in Nottinghamshire, 


invented a knitting-frame. Many additions and 
improvements have since been made, so that now 
not only stockings and socks but nearly all articles 
of hosiery are made by a knitting-frame of one 
kind or other. 

Hos / pita!. [Fr., from L. hospitalia , apartments 
for strangers.] A building used for the reception 
of sick persons, or for those who are unable to 
supply their own wants. Some hospitals are set 
apart entirely for the treatment of those suffering 
from disease, others for incurables ; some for the 
education of children, and others as homes for 
•the poor and helpless. Naval and military hos¬ 
pitals are provided in all countries for the care of 
sailors and soldiers. 

Hjs / tage. [Fr. Otagei] A person left with an 
enemy or hostile power as a pledge to secure the 
performance of the articles or conditions of a 
treaty. 

Hot= House. A building warmed by stoves or fur¬ 
naces for rearing exotics or tender plants. A 
hot-bed is a garden bed covered with glass, to 
rear plants early in the season by the heat of the 
sun. 

Hound. [AS.] A dog used for hunting. The 
bloodhound, staghouud, and foxhound hunt only 
by scent, and may be termed true hounds. To 
this class may be added the harrier and the bea¬ 
gle ; but the greyhound and the deerhound run 
by sight alone, and strictly speaking are not true 
hounds. 

Hour. [Fr., from U. hora , an hour.] A space of 
time equal to 60 minutes, or to i-24th part of a 
day. The hours of the civifday begin at midnight. 
Since 1885 the hours of the astronomical day 
begin at midnight, and are counted from o to 24. 

Hour-glass. A kind of chronometer or instru¬ 
ment for measuring intervals of time. It is con¬ 
structed of glass, and consists of two bulbs, one 
above the other, connected by a narrow neck. 
The time is measured by the running of dry sand 
from the one bulb to the other, the quantity 
being adjusted to the time which each glass has 
been constructed to indicate. In the case of an 
hour-glass, as much sand is placed in one bulb as 
will take an hour to pass from it to the other. 
Hour-glasses were very much in use in churches 
during the 16th and 17th centuries, and speci¬ 
mens of very fine workmanship are still to be 
seen in several churches in England. (See Log.) 

Huck 7 aback. A kind of linen with raised figures 
on it, used for table-cloths and towels. 

Huckleberry. A shrub of the Heath family which 
grows wild over most of the United States, and 
yields a palatable berry. There are several kinds, 
some being low bushes, while the swamp blueberry 
grows several feet high, and bears a much larger 
berry. The billberry is the same as the blueberry. 
(See Whortleberry.) 

Hum / ble=bee. [Ger. hummel .] It is often called 
bumble-bee. (See Bee.) 

Hum / ming=bird. The smallest and most beautiful 
of all birds, found only in America, and almost 
exclusively tropical. They get their name from 
the peculiar humming noise made by the rapid 
vibration of their wings. The muscles of their 



414 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


wings are very strong. This enables them to fly 
with great swiftness, and to hover over a flower 
while they capture the minute insects in it and 
perhaps sip the nectareous juices. They do not 
sing, having only a kind of shrill chirp. Their 
nests are very pretty, made of mosses and lichens, 
and lined with cotton and any soft thing they 
can find. They are unsurpassed by any birds for 
their brilliant plumage, and some are ornamented 
with crests, tufts, or frills. Many fruitless attempts 
have been made to domesticate these beautiful 
birds. i 

Hur / dle. [AS. hyrdel.] Twigs, osiers, and sticks 
woven together; a frame of split timber or 
sticks for gates and fences. 

Hy / acinth. [Gk. hyukinlhos , an iris.] A plant 
with a large rounded root and a beautiful flower 
of different colors. 

Hydraulics. The science of fluids in motion. Of 
its applications may be named the hydraulic 
ram, which pumps water by the force derived 
from a moving stream ; the hydraulic or hydro¬ 
static press, in which the pressure of a column of 
water exerts a powerful force ; and the hydraulic 
engine, which is operated by water pressure. 

Hydrogen. [Gk. hydor , water ; and the root of 
gennao , to produce.] The lightest of the chem¬ 
ical elements. Hydrogen is a colorless and, when 



HRDROGEN GENERATOR. 


pure, tasteless gas. It is very inflammable, gives 
little light, but its flame is one of the hottest 
known. It is never found alone, but is always 
present in water. Pure hydrogen gas is about 
14 ]/ 2 times lighter than atmospheric air. It is 
generated by pouring dilute sulphuric acid upon 
zinc and collecting the gas in a receiver over 
water. 

Hydrometer. [Gk. hydor , water; and metrom , 
a measure.] An instrument for measuring the 
weight of a liquid as compared with an equal 
amount of water. 

Hye / na. [L,. hyena.'] A genus of carniverous 
quadrupeds, about the size of a large dog, and of 
fierce and almost untamable character. The back 
and neck of the hyena are covered with coarse, 


shaggy hair, forming a sort of mane. The hinder 
parts are lower than the fore parts, and it has a 
large head and ears. Hyenas live in caverns and 
rocky places, and at night prowl about in search 
of food, which generally consists of dead ani¬ 
mals, but when very- hungry whatever living 



THE HYENA. 


prey they can seize. The common or striped 
hyena is a native of Southern Asia, while the 
spotted hyena is found in Southern Africa. 

Hydropathy. [Gr. hydor , water ; and paskein, 
to suffer.] A mode of curing disease by the 
application of water. This is applied in various 
forms of the bath, also by enveloping the patient 
in a wet sheet. It has a bracing and tonic effect 
upon the system. 

Hydropho'bia. [Gr. hydor , water ; fobos, fear.] 
A disease caused by the bite of a rabid ani¬ 
mal, and so called from the great dread which 
those who suffer from it have of water. Sonie 
doctors say that no such disease exists, the symp¬ 
toms being due to fear and nervous excitement. 
Pasteur claims that it is a bacterial disease, and 
can be cured by inoculation with attenuated virus. 

HypTiotism. [Gr. hypnos } sleep.] The science 
of what was once called mesmerism and ani¬ 
mal magnetism. The subject in a hypnotic 
state comes under the sole control of the opera¬ 
tor, and acts under his suggestions, which 
seem reality to the patient. It is said that 

. suggestions to perform a certain act at some 
future time will be obeyed, and in this way 
a criminal act might be done for which 
only the operator was responsible, the patient 
ceasing to be a free agent. Hypnotic sugges¬ 
tion is now used as a remedial agent, patients 
being induced to give up drinking, to cease 
other hurtful practices,to perform useful exercises 
or become diligent in study, etc. Also painful 
sensation is obviated, so that surgical operations 
can be performed without suffering. 


























4iS 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 

I 


Ice. [AS. is, isai] Water freezes into ice when 
its temperature falls to the freezing-point, which 
is 32 0 on the Fahrenheit thermometer, and zero 
on the Centigrade. Ice forms on the surface of 
water, which expands in freezing—that is, any- 
given quantity of water makes a larger volume of 
ice. The ice is therefore lighter than water, 
and this is the reason it floats. The expansion 
of water by freezing produces very remarkable 
effects on rocks and stones, splitting the rocks 
open and cracking the stones. Ice is found all 
the year round in the Polar regions, and on the 
tops of very high mountains. Glaciers are vast 
bodies of compressed snow and ice which move 
slowly down mountain sides. Icebergs are large 
masses which break away from glaciers on the 
Arctic coasts, and, falling into the w r ater, float into 
warmer seas. Ice is now an important article of 
commerce, and is shipped in large quantities to 
warm countries, chiefly from the United States. 
Norway sends ice to Great Britain. Large 
quantities of ice are now made by freezing 
machines, in which cold is produced by chemical 
action. 

Ichneu'mon. An animal of the Civet family, 
though it closely resembles the weasels in form 
and habits. It is about 18 inches long and very 
slender. It feeds on birds, rats, reptiles, etc., 
and, though destructive to poultry, is valued 
for its slaughter of snakes, and destruction of 
their eggs, of which it is very fond. It also digs 
up and sucks the crocodile’s eggs, and on this 
account the Egyptians places it among their gods. 
Ichneumon files are a family of insects which 
deposit their eggs in the bodies of other insects. 

Igua'na. A reptile abundant in South America 
and the West Indies, of about 5 feet in length. 
It is of a green color with a bright yellow crest 
along the back. Though formidable in appear¬ 
ance, it is very timid, and is hunted for its 
delicate flesh, which tastes much like chicken. 

In 'cense. [L. incensum. ] The perfume produced 
by the burning of spices and gums. It is the 
symbol of prayer in churches. The powder, 
made up of benzoin, storax, and other resins, 
cascarilla bark, etc., is placed in a silver vessel 
hung by chains. As it burns, the smoke escapes 
through little holes, and fills the church with 
sweet odors. 

Inclined Plane. A sloping surface up which a 
weight can be pushed or rolled that could not be 
easily lifted. It is believed that the pyramids of 
Egypt were built by the use of great inclined 
planes, up which their heavy stones were dragged. 
It is now used on railroads in hilly countries and 
on many canals instead of locks, the boats being 
drawn up the sloping plane from one level to 
another. 

Incubator. [L. Incubo. ] An apparatus for the 
artificial hatching of eggs, heat being applied in¬ 
stead of the natural warmth of the body. Several 
hundred eggs may be hatched in a single incuba¬ 
tor. 


India=rubber. The hardened juice of several 
kinds of trees, It is also known by the names 
caoutchouc and elastic gum or resin. The india- 
rubber of commerce comes chiefly from Mexico, 
South America, Madagascar, and the East Indies., 
The East Indian rubber is the juice of a kind of 
fig-tree, while the South American is that of the 
syringe-tree. A hole is made in the bark, and 
the juice is caught in a cup. It is pale yellow in 
color, and about as thick as cream, but when 
spread out it hardens and becomes nearly pure 
white. Previous to the beginning of this century 
india-rubber was used only for rubbing out pencil 
marks, but now its uses are very numerous. All 
kinds of elastic and waterproof goods are made 
from it. It is woven with silk, cotton, or woollen 
threads into a great number of fabrics. The discov¬ 
ery of the art of vulcanizing rubber by the addition 
of sulphur, which was made by Charles Good¬ 
year, an American, in 1839, has largely added to 
its uses. Tubes, fire-hose, and gas-pipes, elastic 
rings or bands, door and window springs, mats, 
boots and shoes, machinery belts, and many 
other useful things are made out of vulcanized 
rubber, which does not soften in hot weather like 
common rubber. Hard rubber or ebonite is 
made out of india-rubber and sulphur heated 
much hotter than 'vulcanized rubber. Canes, 
combs, backs of brushes, buttons, surgical instru¬ 
ments, picture-frames, knife handles, and a 
great variety of other things are made from 
ebonite. India-rubber mixed with sulphur and 
coal tar makes a substance so hard and black that 
it resembles jet. This may be cut and polished 
and made into bracelets, breast-pins, sleeve- 
buttons, studs, watch-guards, and other useful 
and ornamental things. 

Indian Corn. (See Maize.) 

Indian Summer. A term applied in the United 
States to the period of mild weather which nearly 
always comes at the close of October, extending 
sometimes to the middle of November. It is 
rainless and the atmospere is apt to be hazy. In 
Europe a similar season is known as St. Martin’s 
Summer. 

In'digo. [L. indicum , from India. ] A well- 
known and beautiful blue vegetable dye, obtained 
from the leaves of several species of plants which 
grow in the East and West Indies, India, Ceylon, 
Mexico, Brazil, Egypt, etc. Indigo is very 
extensively employed in dyeing and calico-print¬ 
ing. White indigo , discovered by Chevreul, 
results from the action of hydrogen on indigo. 
Indigo is made artificially in great quantities 
from cinnamic acid and isatin, which are derived 
from benzine. 

Influen'za, An epidemic disease which conies 
suddenly, produces severe catarrh, and is very 
apt to develop into pneumonia or serious affec¬ 
tions of other parts of the body. In France it is 
known as la grippe, which name has become 
common, and many occurrences of it are upon 
record, one of the most persistent of which 



416 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


appeared in Europe and the United States in the 
winter of 1889-90, and was still active more than 
ten years later. The disease is believed to be of 
bacterial origin, and is often fatal. 

Induction. An important electrical phenomenon, 
in which a charged conductor causes unlike 
electricity to appear in an insulated conductor 
' on the end near it, and like electricity on the 
other end. In the same way a magnet induces 
the opposite magnetic charge in iron, and an 
electric current induces a momentary current in 
the opposite direction in a neighboring wire. In 
practice, the induced current is often used instead 
of the primary current. In long telegraph wires 
and ocean cables induction acts to check the 
rapidity of movement of the current. 

Ink. [Fr. encrei] A liquor or substance used for 
writing or printing. Writing ink is made of 
gall-nuts, sulphate of iron, gum, and water. 
Copying ink has more gum than writing ink ; 
while blue ink is made of Prussian blue, oxalic 
acid, and water; and red ink is got from Brazil 
wood, but now generally from potassium eosin. 
Black printing ink is much thicker than writing 
ink, and is usually made of lamp black or ivory 
black mixed with burnt linseed oil. 

InlayTng. The art of ornamenting flat surfaces 
with pieces of wood, ivory, pearl, precious 
metals, etc., by inserting them into spaces cut 
out of the body of the substance in which they 
are to be inlaid. 

Insectivorous Plants. A name given to various 
plants whose leaves are developed into traps for 
catching insects, upon w T hose juices the plant 
seems to feed. Well-known forms of these are 
the Venus fly-trap, the sundew, and pitcher plants. 


IiFsects. [U. insectus , 


cut into.] In point of 
number and variety of 
species by far the lar¬ 
gest class of animals. 
The body, made up of 
a number of rings or 
segments, is divided 
into three parts — the 
head, forming one ring; 
the thorax, with three 
divisions; and the ab¬ 
domen, with eleven 
rings. The head has 
two jointed feelers, 
called antenna ?, which 
are used in smelling 
and as organs of touch 
and guidance, and 
three pairs o f mouth 
appendages. The first 
pair, called mandibles , 
is used for cutting the 
figure showing the parts food. Next come the 

«,head: bcd^t^e abdomen;^ P air oi maxilla, 
f f, antennae or feelers; gg 11 , 3 . 110 . below tneS6 t ll 6 

•wings; ithlikk legs. second pair of maxillae. 
Insects feed on different kinds of food, some living 
on animal and some on vegetable substances, while 
others suck juices. Hence arises a difference in 
the shape of their mouths—some being formed for 



biting and chewing, some only for sucking, and 
some for both. Three pairs of legs grow on the 
thorax, one pair on each ring; and they have 
usually either two or four wings also on the 
chest. The majority of insects are hatched from 
eggs, and these vary in number according to the 
kind of insect. Some kinds of insects, such as 
the hive-bee, the silk-moth, the cochineal and 
lac-insects, are very useful to man, other kinds, 
such as the locust, the grasshopper, the potato- 
bug, and many flies, are very harmful, destroying 
herbage and crops. 

Fodine. [Gk. ion, a violet; and eidos, form.] A 
simple substance obtained from the ashes of sea¬ 
weed ; its vapor is of a rich violet color. Though 
an irritant poison, it is used medicinally in small 
doses. 

Ipecacuanha. [Peruvian ipi , root; and Cacuanah , 
the district from which it was first obtained.] A 
plant found in the forests of Brazil, the root of 
which is used as an emetic. 

Fron. [AS. iren. ] The most common and most 
important of all metals. Iron possesses proper¬ 
ties so varied and useful as to give it the highest 
rank among the mineral productions of the earth. 
It is very hard and yet malleable; can bear a 
great strain or be made very brittle; is inflex¬ 
ible, but from it the most elastic springs can be 
made ; it may be used for the heavy sides of a 
man-of-war, or the slender blade of a surgeon’s 
knife. 

Native-Iron. Of this there are two kinds :—i 
Telluric iron , found in small grains in some 
basaltic rocks, and generally associated with other 
metals. 2. Meteoric iron —that is, masses of nearly 
pure iron which have fallen from outer s.pace 
to the earth in the form of meteors. Some 
of these masses are of great weight, one found 
in 1871 near Disco Bay in Greenland weighing 
nearly 20 tons. 

Iron Ores.—Iron is found chiefly in the earth’s 
crust in combination with oxygen. There are 
several kinds of ores from which iron is made, 
but the most important are the various oxides, 
the carbonates, and the sulphides. From the two 
former almost all the iron of commerce is 
obtained. Magnetic ore is the richest of all the 
ores, and from it are made the finest iron and the 
best steel. It is found in large masses in Swe¬ 
den, Norway, Russia, and North America, and 
in some parts of England. Some specimens of 
this ore form natural magnets. Magnetic ore 
when pure contains fully 72 per cent, of metallic 
iron. Hematite ore in its pure state contains 
about 70 per cent of iron. This ore is found in 
great abundance in Chili and other parts of South 
America, in Algeria, England, Norway, Sweden, 
and in large beds in Canada, Pennsylvania, Mis¬ 
souri, Michigan, Wisconsin and Wyoming. In 
addition to the ores mentioned there are many 
other kinds, such as brown ore , bog ore or 
limonite , spathic ore , etc. 

Cast-iron, or pig-iron, as it is commonly called, 
is made by smelting or melting iron ore in a 
blast furnace. Iron smelting is necessary to free 
the ore from all foreign ingredients, to reduce 









ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


4i7 


the iron oxide to metallic iron, and to allow the 
reduced iron to combine with such an amount of 
carbon as to form therewith a fusible compound. 
Cast iron is used for making gas and water pipes, 
lampposts, pillars and fronts for buildings, rail¬ 
ings and many other things. It contains from 3 
to 6 per cent, of carbon, and cannot be ham¬ 
mered, as it is brittle. To make it into wrought 
iron —that is, softer iron which can be hammered 
or rolled into plates—the cast iron is melted in 
another kind of furnace, and stirred up so that 
the air can get to it. In this way the carbon is 
burned out, and it contains only per cent, of 
carbon. Wrought iron is easily hammered into 
bars, rolled into plates, drawn out into wire, or 
made into steel. Iron plates for steam boilers 
and ships, anchors, chain cables, ploughs, wheel- 
tires, horseshoes, shovels and spades, nails and 
spikes, wire, the iron part of most tools, etc., 
are made from it. Pieces of wrought iron can be 
welded or joined into one by hammering them 
together when red hot. (See Steel.) 

Irrigation. The watering of the earth to increase 
its fertility. The word is applied to flooding 
fields directly from streams, and to the digging 
of long canals and ditches to spread the waters of 
a stream over a broad section of land. It was 
practiced in very early times by the Egyptians 
and Babylonians, and is now much in use in 
many parts of the earth. It is being widely 
applied in the Western United States. 

Fsinglass or Fish=glue. [Corrupted from Du. 
huizenblas, the bladder of the sturgeon.] A 
substance consisting chiefly of gelatine, prepared 
from the sounds or air-bladders of certain fresh¬ 
water fishes. The finest is obtained from the 
sturgeon, which is very plentiful in the Caspian 
and Black seas and the rivers flowing into them ; 
but isinglass is also made from the bladders of 
the cod and other fish, and quantities are pro¬ 
duced in Brazil, North America, and the East 
Indies. It is much used in making jellies, ices 
and other kind of desserts, and in clarifying beer. 
It is the chief substance of Russian glue, noted 
for its strength, and used in stiffening linens, 
silks, gauzes, etc. Isinglass dissolved in acetic 
acid is a useful cement for repairing glass, pot¬ 
tery, etc. 

Isothermal. Having equal heat or temperature. 
Isothermal lines are those which pass through 
points of equal annual temperature upon the 
earth’s surface. They are irregular in shape, the 


J 

Jack. A hoisting or lifting device, consisting of a 
screw arrangement by which a heavy weight may 
be lifted with small power. The hydraulic jack is 
the most powerful of lifting machines. In its use 
water is forced through a small hole into a cham¬ 
ber of considerable dimensions. By its aid a 
man may lift 10 tons 1 foot in a minute and a 
half, or 100 tons in 15 minutes. The term jack 
is applied to many other tools used in the arts. 

27 C 


temperature of a place being not closely gov¬ 
erned by its latitude. Thus in passing from 
western Europe to eastern America the lines may 
differ 10 or 11 degrees in latitude. In crossing 
the United States they reach higher latitudes on 
the Pacific than on the Atlantic coast. 

Fvory. [Fr., from L- ebur , ivory.] The hard, 
fine-grained substance of a fine white color 
obtained from the tusks and teeth of the ele¬ 
phant. The name is also given to the tusks and 
teeth of certain other animals, as the hippopota¬ 
mus, walrus, narwhal, etc. The tusks of the 
African elephant yield the best ivory, on account 
of tlieir superior density and whiteness. They 
are of all sizes, but the largest weigh from 180 
to 200 lbs. Indian and Ceylon elephants also 
yield much ivory, but the ivory used by Russian 
ivory-workers is that of mammoths found buried 
in the soil of Northern Siberia. Ivory is used in 
the manufacture of knife-handles, billiard balls, 
chess-men, dice, fans, combs, paper-knives, nap¬ 
kin-rings, brooches, organ and pianoforte keys, 
etc. Great taste and skill are often shown in 
working ivory, and some of the carved boxes, 
ornaments, and toys made of it are very beauti¬ 
ful. The Chinese and Japanese are very skilful 
in carving ivory. Ivory obtained from the hip¬ 
popotamus is very white, and not grained like 
that of the elephant, and is used by dentists for 
making artificial teeth. 

Vegetable ivory is the nut of a palm-like tree 
which grows on the plains of Peru, and on the 
banks of many of the rivers of South America. 
The nuts, about the size of hens’ eggs, are ex¬ 
ceedingly hard and white when ripe, and resem¬ 
ble ivory so much that they are used in the manu¬ 
facture of buttons, umbrella handles, and small 
trinkets. 

Fvy. [AS. ifig.~\ An evergreen plant of the genus 
Hedera , which creeps along the ground or climbs 
trees, rocks, walls, etc. Its leaves are very pretty, 
of a dark-green color, smooth and shiny. It is 
found almost throughout the whole of Europe, 
and especially in Great Britain. In North Amer¬ 
ica it does not succeed very well, but on the 
Pacific coast it grows luxuriantly, and it is popu¬ 
lar in Virginia and some of the Southern States. 
Various substances are got from the different 
parts of the plant. The stem yields a gum resin 
and the seeds a bitter substance called hederin . 
Poison ivy is a poisonous, climbing plant of the 
Sumach family. It is common on trees, etc. 


Jack'al. This animal belongs to the genus Cants , 
and has a close resemblance to the dog and the 
fox. The common jackal is of a grayish-yellow 
color, about 3 feet in length and 14 inches in 
height, with short ears and small eyes. Jackals 
sleep during the day in holes and burrows, and 
go out at night to hunt in packs, sometimes more 
than a hundred together. They keep up a con¬ 
stant howling, making the night hideous in the 





ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


418 


regions where they abound. Their food consists 
chiefly of carrion and decaying matter, but they 
also enter houses or tents, and are the pests of 
the poultryyard. The common jackal is found 
in Africa, from Barbary southwards to the Cape of 
Good Hope, and in Persia, Syria, and the south¬ 
ern regions of Asia. The striped jackal, the 
jackal-wolf, and the black-backed jackal are dif¬ 
ferent species, all found in Africa. 

Jackdaw. [ Jack and daw.~\ A bird of the crow 
kind, smaller than the rook and carrion crow, 
in length about 12 inches. Its plumage is of a 
glossy black, and it has a short black bill and 
black legs. Tt is common in the British Islands, 
and is found over nearly all Europe, also in Asia 
and the north of Africa, but not in America. It 
builds its nest in cliffs, ruins, towers, and ele¬ 
vated situations, and in chimneys and in hollow 
trees. Its food consists of worms, snails, and 
insects. Jackdaws lay from five to six eggs of a 
greenish color, covered with small dark-brown 
spots. They are easily domesticated, and soon 
become familiar and imitate the human voice. 

Jack Plane. A Carpenter’s cutting and surface 

smoothing tool, from 12 
to 17 inches in length 
and used to take off the 
roughtest surface of the 
board. 

Jaconet. A light soft 
muslin, used for dresses 
neckcloths, etc. 

Jade. [Span, ijada , 
flank.] A mineral, called 
also ox stone, of a green¬ 
ish color, compact, and 
with a fatty lustre. It 
was believed to cure pain 
of the side, hence its 
name. Chinese jade is 
wrought into beautiful 
vases and other objects. 

Jag'uar. A large and 
ferocious animal, of the 
cat family, found chiefly 
in South America, and 
often called the American 
tiger. It is found in North 
America as far north as 
the borders of Texas. It 
is larger than the leopard 
and is very strong. Its 
fur is of a brownish- 
yellow color, beautifully marked with dark 
ring-like spots, each ring enclosing several small 
black points. It resembles the leopard in color 
and general appearance, and, like it, can climb 
trees with great ease. The jaguar lives in thick 
forests near large rivers and lakes. Wild horses 
and mules are its favorite prey, and it feeds on 
turtles. South Americans hunt the jaguar in 
various ways, but chiefly with the aid of dogs 
and the lasso. Jaguar skins are very handsome, 
and are largely imported into Europe, and made 
into valuable robes, etc. It will not attack man 
unless impelled by hunger, or self-defense. 



JACK PLANE. 


JaFap or Julep. [So called from Jalapa in 
Mexico.] ( Rose-water .) The root of a plant 
much used in medicine as a purgative. 

Japan / ning. The art of covering wood, metal, 
leather, paper, etc., with a thick coating of 
colored varnish. It was first practised by the 
Japanese, hence the name. Tea-trays, tin canis¬ 
ters, cash-boxes, coal-boxes, etc., are japanned 
in iron and tin works in large cities. 

Jasmine. A genus of long twining shrubs, bear¬ 
ing sweetly-scented flowers. 

Jas / per. [Gk. iaspis. ] A hard precious stone of 
various colors (usually red or brown), which 
takes on a high polish, and is used for rings, 
seals, vases, and other ornaments, and also for 
the decoration of costly buildings. It is one of 
the varieties of quartz, and is found in veins and 
embedded masses in many rocks. 

JauiFdice. [Fr. jaunisse.) A disorder of the 
liver, causing bile to mix with the blood, when 
the skin becomes yellow. 

Jay. ( Garrulus .) A genus of short-winged birds 
of the Crow family. The jay frightens small 
birds with its cry, and robs nests of their eggs. 
The European jay is of a yellowish-brown color, 
and resembles an ordinary pigeon in size. Its 
food consists chiefly of berries, seeds, fruits, and 
nuts, but it is also fond of worms, insects, and 
young mice. The American jay, or blue jay, has 
a far more brilliant plumage than the European 
jay, with a crest of feathers. The Florida jay is 
blue. The Canada jay is plain colored, and with¬ 
out a crest. 

JeFly. A translucent juice which thickens when 
cold into a soft and trembling mass. The juice 
of currants and some other fruits thickens to 
jelly after boiling with sugar. A jelly is also 
made from Iceland moss, and there are various 
jellies made from animal substances,—as calves’ 
foot jelly. 

JeFly=fish. ( Medusae .) Soft-bodied ocean animals, 
which form a disk of an umbrella shape, with a 
mouth in its centre, opening downwards, and 
long tentacles surrounding the mouth or depend¬ 
ing from the margin of the disk. They have 
stinging powers, and move by opening and 
shutting the umbrella disk. Their flesh resembles 
jelly, some of them being small and transparent, 
others quite large. 

Jerboa or Jumping Mouse. (Dipus.) A genus 
of rodent mammals allied to the mouse, having 
very short fore legs and remarkably long hind 
ones, and noted for their power of jumping by 
the aid of a long muscular tail. The average 
length of the body is about 8 inches, the tail 
often measuring 10 inches. They are common 
in Asia and Northern Africa, and a few species 
are found in Russia and North America. They 
live in burrows, are nocturnal in their habits, and 
hibernate. 

Jeru / salem=ar / tichoke. [Jerusalem, corruption 
of Ital. girasole , or sunflower.] A plant whose 
root is sometimes used for food. 

Jet. [From Gagas , a town in Asia Minor.] A 
hard black mineral, easily cut and carved, and 
capable of receiving a very beautiful polish. Jet 
























ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


419 


appears to be a kind of bituminous coal, but 
much harder and smoother than that used for 
burning. Much of it is found near Whitby, 
Yorkshire, where it has been worked for cen¬ 
turies. It is made into buttons, mantel orna¬ 
ments, necklaces, earrings, brooches, bracelets, 
and other trinkets. Jet is also found in France 
and Spain, and in these countries it is made into 
rosary beads, crosses, etc. Sometimes called 
black amber. 

Jetty. A landing-place carried out so far that 
vessels may discharge their cargoes at all states 
of the tide ; a breakwater for the protection of 
river or harbor mouths. Jetties are built out in 
pairs into the ocean so as to confine the outflow 



JERBOA OR JUMPING MICE. 


of streams and prevent the formation of bars. 
The Mississippi jetties, begun in 1875, deepened 
the South Pass of that stream from 14^4 to 23 
feet, the confined water sweeping the mud from 
the bottom. 

Jew / el. [Fr.] Any ornament cf precious stone, 
metal, or other valuable material. A diamond or 
other stone in a watch on which the pivot turns. 

Jew’s=harp. A simple instrument of music, made 
of metal, and shaped like a harp. When played 
it is placed between the teeth, and by means of a 
little spring, which is made to vibrate by being 
struck with the finger, it produces a sound which 
is modulated by the breath of the performer into 
soft melody. Also called Jew's-trump. 

Johan'nisberger. The finest kind of Rhine wine, 
made at Johannisberg monastery. 

John=dory. [John, and Fr. dorer, to gild.] A 
flat sea-fish of a golden-yellow color, with a 


small round spot on each side ; hence called St, 
Peter's Fish. 

Joists. [Fr., to lie.] Pieces of timber, laid hori¬ 
zontally in parallel rows,‘resting on walls and 
girders, and sometimes on both, and to which the 
boards of a floor or the laths of a ceiling are 
nailed. 

Jol / ly=boat. A small boat belonging to a ship. 

Journal. [Fr. journal.'] A diary; a book con¬ 
taining an account of daily transactions and 
events ; a business book in which every particular 
article or charge is entered ; a paper published 
daily or at regular times. 

JiFjube. The name of a small tree or shrub and 
of its fruit, sometimes called lotus. The tree is 
a native of Syria, and is now cultivated in many 
parts of Asia and in Europe, chiefly for its fruit, 
which is dried as a sweetmeat. The common 
jujube paste is really a mixture of gum arabic 
and sugar, slightly colored. 

JiFniper. [L,. juniperus.] A hardy evergreen 
tree or shrub, with dark-purple berries, which 
have a strong and peculiar flavor, and are much 
used for flavoring gin. The common juniper is 
found in Europe, the north of Asia, and the 
northern parts of North America. It attains no 
great height, being in general only a shrub from 
2 to 6 feet high, but in favorable circumstances it 
becomes a tree from 15 to 30 feet in height. The 
fruit takes two years to ripen. Virginian 
juniper, or the red cedar of North America, 
attains a height of from 30 to 50 feet; and the 
wood, which is of a beautiful red color, is highly 
prized by turners, and is also largely used for 
cigar-boxes and lead pencils. 

JiEpiter. The largest planet of the solar system. 
It is about 88,000 miles diameter, eleven times 
that of the earth, and rotates in less than 10 
hours, its surface at the equator moving 28 times 
as fast as the earth’s surface. Its distance from 
the sun is 485,000,000 miles. 

Jute. The fibre of the inner bark of two plants, 
which are very extensively cultivated in India, 
especially in Bengal. /Both plants 9 .re annuals, 
in height from 10 to 14 feet, with yellow flowers 
and smooth leaves. The stem is erect, smooth, 
and cylindrical, and the inner bark is separated 
from it by steeping in water. The fibre is of 
a yellow or buff color, comparatively strong, 
easily spun, and possessing a shining surface. 
It is largely used for making coarse cloth for 
bagging and sacks, and in the manufacture of 
carpets, tarpaulin, backings for floorcloth, manilla 
paper, etc. Jute has been woven into various 
fabrics in Bengal from a remote period, and there 
are now many jute factories in India. (See 
Gunny.) 


E 


Kaleidoscope. [Gk. kalos , beautiful; eidos, a 
form; and skopein, to see.] An optical instru¬ 
ment invented by Sir David Brewster in 1817. It 
consists of a tube containing two glass mirrors, 
making an angle of 6o° with one another, and 


extending the whole length of the tube. One 
end of the tube has a small opening to serve as 
an eye-glass, and the other end has two glasses, 
one of ground and the other of clear glass, with 
little pieces of colored glass lying loosely between 









420 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


them. These colored bits of glass are reflected 
in the looking-glasses, and regular figures of the 
most beautiful form, which change whenever 
the instrument is shaken, are seen on looking 
through the instrument. It forms a cheap and 
pretty toy, and is also used, in a more expensive 
form, by pattern-drawers and others, who get 
from it an endless variety of designs. 

Kangaroo. An animal belonging to the Mar¬ 
supial order of mammals, and found only in 
Australia, New Guinea, and the neighboring 
islands. Its distinguishing features are very 
short fore legs, which are not used for walking, 
remarkably long hind legs, by means of which 
it makes long leaps, and a pouch in which it 
carries its young for a certain period after birth. 
The kangaroo has a long, thick, and strong tail, 
and when resting and feeding it supports itself 
on its hind legs and its tail. Kangaroos live 
on vegetable food, mainly grass, which they 
consume in large quantities, two kangaroos 
eating as much grass as three sheep. They are 
hunted in various ways, chiefly by dogs, upon 
which they turn and strike heavy blows with 
their tails. The skin is much prized, and makes 
a valuable leather for shoes and gloves ; and the 
flesh is largely eaten by the natives in Australia, 
and is said to be nutritious and to resemble 
mutton. 

Ka'olin. A pure white clay, resulting from the 
decomposition of felspar in granite rocks. The 
finer kinds of porcelain are made from it. 

Kelp. A dark-gray powder or ash, got by burning 
seaweed, used chiefly in the manufacture of 
iodine, and formerly of glass. 

Kestrel. A small bird of the genus Falco or hawk 
kind, like the sparrow-hawk. 

Kid / neys. Two peculiarly-shaped glands w 7 hich 

secrete the 
urine from the 
blood and send 
it into the blad¬ 
der. In the hu¬ 
man body they 
are situated one 
on each side of 
the abdominal 
cavity, and are 
spoken of as the 
right and left 
kidney. Their 
average length 
is fully 4 inches, 
and they weigh 
from 4 to 6 
ounces each. 

Kindergar¬ 
ten. [Ger. kind¬ 
er , chi ldren ; 
and gar ten, a 
garden.] A 
school or train- 
i ng-place for 

young children, in which instruction is given by 
means of games and other amusements ; so called 
because first carried on in rooms opening on a 


garden. The system was devised by Friedrich 
Froebel in 1826. Since that time it has been 
gradually developing and extending. 

Kine'toscope. An apparatus for taking and after¬ 
wards exhibiting a rapid series of photographs 
of moving scenes. By its use life-like pictures 
can be displayed. Various names have been 
given to modifications of this instrument, as 
Biograph, Vitascope, Mutoscope, etc., ail based 
on the one principle. 

King / bird. Also known as the Tyrant Fly-catcher 
and Bel-martin. It is found only in America 
east of the Rocky Mountains, and during the 
nesting season is very fierce. It will attack the 
largest bird that comes too near its nest, even 
eagles and hawks being driven off by this little 
tyrant. It will dart upward, alight on the back 
of its enemy, and with its sharp beak make him 
suffer for his temerity. 

KingTisher. A genus of perching birds noted for 
their brilliant plumage. The kingfisher is 
usually found alone, perched on the bough of a 
tree 011 the banks of rivers. Here it will sit for 
hours watching for fish. It dives the moment it 
perceives its prejq carries the fish to the perch, 
kills it, and swallows it whole. The kingfisher 
makes its nest of fish-bones, ejected by the bird 
itself. It is found all over the world. The wood 
kingfisher of Africa feeds largely upon insects, 
snails, and fishes. The belted kingfisher of North 
America is slate-blue, with white breast, and 
feeds on fishes. The giant kingfisher of Austra- 

# lia feeds on lizards and insects. 

Kite. [AS. cytai] The name of a very active 
bird of the genus Falco or hawk. Its bi«ll is short 
and strong, its wings are long, powerful, and 
pointed, and its tail is forked. The kite spends 
the greater part of the day on the wing, some¬ 
times flying so high that it can scarcely be seen, 
and coming down at night to roost on tall trees. 
When in the air it lives mostly on insects, but 
its food consists also of moles, mice and carrion. 
The common kite and the black kite are found 
throughout Furope ; the swallow-tailed kite is 
common in America. The carrion-feeding 
habits of this bird are seen to perfection in the 
birds found in Asia, and particularly in India. 

Kite. A light frame of wood and paper constructed 
for flying in the air, chiefly for amusement. 
Kites get their name from the kind of hawk called 
kite, which has just been described, and which 
is often seen in the air, almost as still as a paper 
kite, gliding along without moving its wings. 
Kites are made of many different shapes, but the 
most common are the cross-kite, the house-kite, 
and the bow-kite. The natives of India, the 
Chinese, and the Japanese are very skilful in 
making kites, and often make them to represent 
animals, ships, castles, trees, and flowers. Kites 
are used to carry lines across deep chasms or 
over the tops of steeples and high chimney- 
stacks, and are now employed in the study of the 
weather, being sent very high into the air 

Kit'tiwake. A bird of the gull kind. 

Knife. [AS. cnif .] Primitive men used shells, 
flints, and sharp-edged stones for knives. These 





ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


421 


were followed by bronze knives made of copper 
and tin ; but knives made of iron and steel 
gradually took their place, as they were found to 
be more lasting and stronger. The best knives 
are now made of steel. In the manufacture of 
table-knives a bar of shear-steel is heated white 
hot and then hammered into 
shape on an anvil. This is called 
forging the blade. Penknife 
and razor-blades are made of 
cast steel. After forging, the 
blades are stamped with the 
maker’s name, and then tem¬ 
pered by heating them red hot 
and cooling them quickly by 
dipping them in water. They 
are then ground and polished 
and fitted with handles. 

Knight. A title of honor, 
originally adopted during the 
’ feudal system, and given to 
soldiers of courage and experience. The knight 
took the title of Sir before his name. Knight¬ 
hood was conferred of old by laying the blade 
of a sword on the shoulder of the one to be 
honored and repeating a formula declaring him 
a knight. There were several Orders of Knight¬ 
hood. Knighthood is now a civil, not a mili¬ 
tary, rank. 

Knot. In nautical language a division of the log¬ 
line serving to measure the rate of a vessel’s 
motion. The log-line is divided by knots into 



sections, and the number of sections wnich run 
off in half a minute show the number of geo¬ 
graphical miles or knots per hour at which the 
vessel is going. A geographical mile or knot is 
6,086 feet, while an English statute mile is 5,280 
feet. (See Log.) 

Knots. There is an almost endless variety of 
knots, most of them in use on board ship, though 
different occupations using ropes, cordage, etc. 

have special kinds 
of knots. Knots 
used by sailors dif¬ 
fer in form, size, 
and name accord¬ 
ing to their varied 
uses; as the dia¬ 
mond-knot, over¬ 
hand-knot, bowline-knot, buoyrope-knot, reef- 
knot, shroud-knot, stopper-knot, etc. 

Ko / dak, A form of photographic camera adapted 
to take instantaneous negatives by the “ snap¬ 
shot ” process. It is made in the form of a 
small box, with a lens and shutter on one side, 
and a reflector on top to aid the operator. The 
negative is taken by pressing a button, which 
opens the shutter for an instant. (See Camera.) 

Kou / miss. A fermented drink made from mare’s 
milk originally, though it may be made from the 
milk of any animal. The article usually sold 
under this name is made from cow’s milk, yeast 
being used to cause it to ferment. It is esteemed 
a nutritious beverage and an aid to digestion. 



L 


La r bel. A narrow slip of silk, paper, metal, or 
parchment, containing a name or title, and 
affixed to anything, to tell what 6r whose the 
thing is. 

Labur / num. A small tree, a native of the Alps, 
much planted in shrubberies and pleasure-grounds 
on account of its glossy leaves and clusters of 
beautiful yellow flowers. The laburnum is a 
very hardy tree, and though of rapid growth its 
wood is hard, fine-grained, and very durable, and 
is highly valued by cabinetmakers and turners. 
It is used also for wedges, pulleys, pegs, bows, 
handles of knives, and other instruments. The 
seeds are poisonous. 

Labyrinth. A building or ground space full of 
winding passages, which are very difficult to 
traverse. There were three famous ones in 
ancient history. One at Arsinoe in Egypt had 
3,000, apartments, half of them underground. 
There was a similar one in Lemnos, and a 
smaller but famous one in Crete—though this is 
traditional and its existence doubtful. 

Lac. A resinous substance found on certain trees 
in different pa-rts of the East Indies. It is pro¬ 
duced by punctures made by a very small insect 
called Coccus lacca. These insects live on the 
sap of the trees, and soon become fixed to the 
branches by the juices which ooze out. The 
twigs containing the deposit are broken off, and 
form the stick-lac of commerce. Seed-lac is the 


deposit broken off from the twigs, while shell-lac 
is obtained by placing the twigs in hot water, 
which melts off the gum. It is then purified by 
straining through cotton bags, and dried on strips 
of wood. The water in which the lac has been 
melted is colored red by the bodies of the insects, 
and after the melted lac is taken out this water 
is strained and evaporated, and the sediment is 
cut up into small cakes and sold as lac-dye. Lac- 
dye is largely used in dyeing silk and wool. 
Shell-lac is used in the manufacture of hats to 
stiffen the calico frame, and in makk g sealing- 
wax and different kinds of varnish—“Lac” is 
the same as the numeral lakh—a hundred thou¬ 
sand—and is indicative of the countless hosts of 
the lac insects. 

Lace. [Fr., from L. laqueus , a noose.] A fabric 
formed of threads of cotton, wool, flax, silk, 
silver, or gold, us*ed chiefly for ornamenting 
dresses. Lace is made either by hand or machine. 
To that made by the hand the term real lace is 
sometimes applied, and also pillow or bobbin 
lace, from being woven upon a pillow or cushion 
by means of bobbins. Much of the lace now 
used is made by machinery, the machines at 
present in use being modifications and improve¬ 
ments on the bobbinet machine invented by Mr. 
Heathcote of Tiverton in 1809. Nottingham in 
England, and Alen^on, Brussels, Mechlin, and 
Valenciennes are centres of this industry 











422 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


Lac / quer. [From lac , a gum or resin.] A var¬ 
nish composed of shell-lac dissolved in alcohol 
with gamboge, and used for coating metals, 
chiefly polished brass, to which it gives a golden 
bronze color, preserves their lustre, and secures 
them against rust. The name is also given to a 
varnish made by the Japanese and Chinese from 

the juice of the 
J laquer or varnish 
tree found in 
these countries. 
L a c q uer-ware 
consist of vari¬ 
ous articles,such 
as boxes, trays, 
cabinets, etc., 
many of them 
decorated by in¬ 
laying, gilding 
with gold or sil¬ 
ver, designs in 
color,or carving. 
The Japanese 
and Chinese excel in this work, and give the 
articles a beautiful finish. 

Lacrosse-. [Fr. la crossc, the hooked stick.] A 
game of ball, first played by the North American 
Indians, now common in Canada. 

Lady=bird. ( Coccinella .) A small kind of beetle 
of a brilliant red, orange, or yellow color, with 
black spots, or sometimes black with white, yel¬ 
low, or red spots. It lays its eggs in little collec¬ 
tions under the leaves of plants, among the plant- 
lice, on which both the larvae and the full-grown 
insects feed. 

Lamp. [Gk. lampas.'l A vessel used for giving 
light by means of a wick dipped in oil and 
lighted. In ancient times lamps were simply 
flat vessels made of earthenware or stone. Speci¬ 
mens of these have been found in the ruins of 
Pompeii and Herculaneum. In later times they 
appear to have been formed from various metals, 
more particularly bronze. Lamps are now made 
to give an excellent light, and are also used for 
heating and cooking. Rushes, animal fats, and 
fish oils were first used for 
burning in lamps. These 
were followed by vegetable 
oils, which in turn have 
been largely superseded by 
mineral oils, such as par- 
raffin, petroleum, kerosene, 
crystal and mineral sperm. 
The safety-lamp invented 
by Sir Humphrey Davy in 
1815 is of great use in min¬ 
ing. It is covered with wire 
gauze, and gives the miner 
sufficient light without the 
danger of setting fire to in- 

CLANNY LAMP. DAVY LAMP. flammable gaSeS . ArdUmpS 

and incandescent lamps are devices for producing 
light by electricity. 

Lamp-black. A fine soot formed by burning resin, 
petroleum, pitch, tar, and oils and fats in close 
iron vessels. During combustion the dense smoke 


passes into a chamber covered with a coarse 
woolen cloth, and a thick coating of lampblack 
is soon formed, which is shaken off and put up 
in barrels for sale. Lampblack is used by artists 
and painters, and is the chief ingredient in China 
ink and printing ink. 

Lam-prey or Rock=sucker. A species of fish 
somewhat resembling the eel in form. Its body 
is destitute of the paired fins found in most other 
fishes, is without scales, and covered with a 
glutinous mucus. The mouth is circular in form, 
and by it and the tongue, which acts like a 
piston, the animal attaches itself firmly to fixed 
objects. Formerly the lamprey was highly es¬ 
teemed as an article of food, and even of luxury, 
but is not so commonly used now. 

Lance. [L- lancea.~\ A weapon much used by 
the ancients, consisting of a long shaft witii a 
sharp point. It was an important weapon of war 
in the Middle Ages, and though now differing in 
form is still used by European cavalry. Lances 
are now made of ash or beech wood, about 12 
feet long, with a steel point 8 or 10 inches long. 
Near the point is a small flag, intended to frighten 
the horses of the enemy. When not in use the 
lance is carried in a leathern shoe by the right 
stirrup, a leathern thong on the right arm keep¬ 
ing it in position. In use it is carried under the 
right arm. 

Lancewood. The wood of a tree found in the 
West Indies, chiefly in Jamaica, of which it is a 



ANCIENT LAMPS. 

native, and possessing great toughness and elas¬ 
ticity. It is used by coach-builders for shafts and 
carriage poles. 




















































ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


4 2 3 


Land=crab. Land-dwelling crabs, of which there 
are many species. The Black or Mountain Crab 
of the West Indies lives from one to three miles 
from the sea, to which it travels, in immense 
numbers, in April or May, for the purpose of lay¬ 
ing its eggs. It is chiefly active at night. 

Lapis Laz'uli. [L-, azure stone.] The name of a 
mineral of a rich blue color, consisting chiefly 
of silica and alumina, with sulphates of soda, and 
iron in spots or veins. It is found in Persia, 
China, Chili, and Siberia, and is used for orna¬ 
mental purposes, especially for inlaid work. In 
the marble palace built by the Empress Catherine 
at St. Petersburg there are entire apartments in¬ 
laid with lapis lazuli. It was much esteemed by 
the ancients, who used it for engraving and for 
vases. 

Lap'wing. A bird of the Plover family, with long, 
broad wings, which from their regular, slow 
flapping have gained for it the title Lapwing. It 
is also known by the name Peewit , from its 
peculiar cry. Lapwings are common in Britain 
all the year, and are also widely distributed in 
Europe and Asia. They frequent marshy pas¬ 
tures, feed on worms, slugs, and insects, and are 
hunted for their flesh. Their eggs, W’hich are 
known as plovers’ eggs, are highly esteemed, and 
fetch good prices in the British markets. 

Larch. [L. larix.~\ A cone-bearing tree, common 
in Europe, Asia, and North America. The Euro¬ 
pean larch attains a height of from 60 to ioo feet, 
with a trunk of from 3 to 4 feet in diameter. The 
larch grows rapidly, and is considered to be fit 
for every useful purpose in forty years’ growth. 
The wood is compact and strong, of a reddish or 
brown tinge, and is used for railway sleepers, 
hop-poles, scaffold-poles, and for ship-building. 
The bark is used for tanning leather. The Ameri¬ 
can larch, or hackmatack, or tamarack, as it is 
sometimes called, is a slender tree, but its wood 
is heavy and cross-grained, and highly valued for 
ship-building and for railway ties. 

Lard. [Fr. lard .] The fat of the hog after being 
separated from the flesh and melted. It is largely 
used for culinary purposes. Lard consists chiefly 

of stearin, 
which is a solid 
and olein, 
which is a liquid 
fat. The former 
is used in can¬ 
dlemaking, and 
the latter as a 
valuable lubri- 
c a 11 t for ma¬ 
chinery. 

Lark. [AS. 
laferc or lave¬ 
rock.^ A well- 
A,\h t ilk known bird of 

the lark. the family Al- 

auda. The best-known species is the skylark, 
a familiar songster, remarkable as one of the very 
few birds which sing freely while on the wing. It 
begins to sing when it rises from the ground, and 
though its notes are feeble and interrupted at first, 



they swell out to their full tone as the songster as¬ 
cends, and may be heard long after the bird has 
passed from the range of vision. The larks may 
be considered as especially birds of the fields and 
meadows, the nest being made of dry grass, in a 
hollow in the ground. 

Larynx. [Gk. larynx. - ] The upper part of the 
windpipe or trachea forming the organ of voice. 
It is situated between the windpipe and the base 
of the tongue, at the upper and front part of the 
neck, and opens above into the throat ( q . v.), 
and below into the windpipe. The skeleton of 
the larynx is composed of five principal car¬ 
tilages, and these are connected by ligaments 
known as vocal cords, the movements of the 
organ being regulated by two sets of muscles. 

Las-'so. [Span, lazok] A rope or long thong of 
leather with a running noose, used for catching 
horses, cattle, etc. 

Lathe. A machine by which wood, ivory, metals, 
and other materials are turned and cut as they 
revolve by a tool held in the hand or fixed in a 
slide-rest. All the rounded parts of furniture, 
such as legs of tables, chairs, and stools, the 
balusters of staircases, tool handles, round rulers, 
etc., are made on the lathe. Billiard balls and 
chess-men, and all the round parts of engines and 
other machines, are made on various kinds of 
lathes. Articles of irregular form, such as the 
stocks of guns and pistols, and hollow things, 
such as wooden bowls and dishes, bread platters 
and boxes, are also made on the turning-lathe. 

Laths. The name given to thin, narrow strips of 
wood, rarely longer than four feet, used for nail¬ 
ing to the uprights of partition walls, and to the 
rafters of ceilings. They are placed slightly 
apart to receive the plaster, which, by being 
pressed into the spaces, is held firmly when it 
dries. Laths are now mostly sawn by machinery 
from Baltic fir or Canadian deal. 

Latitude. Distance from the equator north or 
south towards the poles. Lines of latitude are 
imaginary lines which surround the earth, 
parallel to the equator, diminishing in length 
until they reach the poles, where they vanish. 

Lat/tice. [Fr. lattis, lath-work.] Any work made 
by crossing laths, rods, or bars of wood or iron, 
and forming open squares like network; a 
window made in this way. 

LaiFrel. [L- laurus .] The name given to a 
genus of plants, consisting of trees and shrubs, 
whose leaves and fruit are bitter, astringent, and 
aromatic, and were formerly much used in medi¬ 
cine. Laurei or bay leaves are now used for 
flavoring in cookery. The laurel or sweet bay 
is a small evergreen tree, found in the south of 
Europe and north of Africa. It has beautiful 
glossy leaves, and bears black berries about the 
size of wild cherries. This laurel is celebrated 
by poets, and used to decorate temples and the 
brows of victors. The victors in the Pythian 
games were crowned with the laurels of Apollo, 
and thus the laurel became the symbol of triumph 
in Greece and then in Rome. The American 
laurel is found almost all over the United States, 






ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


424 


growing chiefly on rocky hillsides. Its wood is 
hard and fine-grained, and is used by turners for 
making chisel handles. 

La'va. [It. laua.] The name given to the melted 
matter which bursts or is thrown from the mouth 
of a volcano. It flows like melted glass or iron 
down the sides of the mountain, but speedily 
cools and hardens into a porous mass. Ancient 
lavas form extensive rock strata in some locali¬ 
ties, as in the western United States. 

Lavender. ( Lavandula .) A delightfully fragrant 
plant, much used in making perfumes. The 
leaves and flowers of lavender are said to have 
been used by the ancients to perfume their baths ; 
hence the name Lavandula maybe derived from 
lavare } to wash. The common lavender grows 
wild on stony mountains and hills in the south 
of Europe, and is largely cultivated in gardens in 
Surrey in England and near Philadelphia. The 
flowers of the lavender are often put into ward¬ 
robes to keep away moths. Oil of lavender , 
largely used in medicine, is made by distilling 
the flowers with water ; and Lavender water , one 
of the most popular of all perfumes, is obtained 
by dissolving oil of lavender with smaller quan¬ 
tities of spirit and rose-water. 

Lawn Tennis. A favorite ball game, played on a 
smooth surface divided by a net. The ball is 
sent by use of a racket, effort being made to 
return it over the net as often as possible. 

Lead. [AS. Iced.] A well-known metal of a 
bluish-white color, very heavy, easily melted and 
cut, and which may be hammered or rolled out 
into sheets and drawn into wire. It has been 
used from very early times, and articles made of 
it by the ancient Romans—such as water-pipes, 
water-tanks, weights, rings, etc.—have been 
found. Lead is soft, highly malleable, and a 
poor conductor of heat or electricity. It is 
largely used for water-pipes and cisterns, and for 
covering the roofs and gutters of houses. Lead 
is found in a large number of minerals, though 
often in very small quantities. Most of the lead 
now in use is obtained from the ore called galena 
or sulphide of lead. This ore is found in many 
parts of the world, but the purest veins are got 
in Great Britain, Germany, Spain, and the United 
States. The process of smelting the galena ore 
to get the pure lead differs from that of smelting 
iron ore, and is done in an entirely different kind 
of furnace. Sheet lead is made by rolling slabs 
of lead between heavy iron rollers until they are 
thin. Thick sheets are used for lining tanks and 
water-cisterns, and for covering roofs, and thin 
sheets for wrapping up snuff, lining tea-chests, 
etc. Lead is used in alloy with other metals— 
forming, when mixed with arsenic, the alloy from 
which shot is made ; with tin, pewter and solder ; 
and with antimony, type-metal. Lead and its 
compounds are poisonous. 

Leaf. A flat, expanded organ of a plant, varying 
in shape, and situated usually at the extremity of 
the twigs. It is employed in elaborating the 
plant food. The crude sap enters the leaf, where 


it receives carbon from the carbonic acid of the 
air. This changes the character of the sap and 
adapts it to serve as plant food. 

League. [L. leuca , a Gallic mile.] A measure of 
distance of ancient origin. The Roman league 
was equal to 1,500 paces, each of 5 feet. The 
league is used as a nautical measure, and signi¬ 
fies the i-2oth part of a degree—3 geographical 
miles, or 3.45 English statute miles. The land- 
league is approximately 3 statute miles. Its 
length varies in different countries. 

Leather. [AS. let her.'] The hides or skins of 

animals dressed and prepared for use by tanning 
and otherwise. The most important leather¬ 
making hides are those of oxen, but various 
kinds of leather are made from buffalo and horse 
hides, from the skins of sheep, goats, kids, hogs, 
seals, walruses, rhinoceroses, elephants, ante¬ 
lopes, porpoises, kangaroos, alligators, and certain 
snakes and sharks. The process of tanning 
varies according to the materials employed, and 
the nature and thickness of the hides and skins. 
In this process tan made from oak or hemlock 
bark, or other woods containing the astringent 
substance called tannin , is used. The skins, after 
being cleaned of hair and flesh and otherwise 
prepared, are soaked in a solution of tan-bark 
and water, remaining until they are thoroughly 
impregnated with tannin. This has a preserva¬ 
tive action and converts the hides into leather. 

Dressed leather. After leather has been tanned, 
the currier and leather- 
dresser fit it for the many 
uses to which dressed 
leather is applied by a 
varied series of finishing 
operations. The surface 
of the leather is smoothed, 
and its thickness equal¬ 
ized. It is made soft, 
flexible, and water-proof; 
blackened, enamelled, or 
dyed. 

Russia leather is tanned 
with birch-bark, which 
gives it a peculiar odor, 
and prevents moths and 
other insects from injur¬ 
ing books bound with it. 

Morocco leather is so 
called because it was first 
brought from Morocco. 
It was originally made 
from goat-skins tanned 
with sumach, but now 
calf-skins and sheep- 
skins are used. Morocco 
leather is now made in 
France and in the United 
States, and is largely used for covering chairs 
and sofas, for lining coaches, for book-binding, 
and for making pocket-books. 

The finest gloves and ladies’ shoes are made 
of kid leather. Sheep-skin is largely used for 
book-binding, hog-skin for covering saddles, 
horse-hide for harness, collars, etc., and cow-hide 



LEECH. 






































ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


425 


for boots and shoes. A fine leather is made from 
seal skin, and the skins of alligators are some¬ 
times tanned for boots and shoes. 

Leech. [AS. lczccan.~\ A worm-like animal 
possessing one or two sucking discs. It is found 
in fresh and salt water, and sometimes on land. 
The medicinal leech is from 2 to 3 inches in 
length, with a minutely-ringed body, composed 
of 102 skin rings, and has a sucker moved by 
strong muscles. This species of leech is largely 
used in abstracting blood from the body for 
medical purposes. 

Leek. [AS. leac.'] The Allium porrtim , a plant 
allied to the onion and used in soup. 

Le / gion. The name given to a division of the 
Roman army, which corresponded to a brigade 
in modern armies. The legion—3,000 and after¬ 
wards 6,000 strong—was divided into centuries 
or companies of 100 men each. The word as 
now used indicates a great number. 

Lern'ming. A small animal of the rat family, found 
in Scandinavia and Finland. It is a vegetable 
feeder, and is remarkable for its occasional 
migrations, in which bands of immense multi¬ 
tudes pass from the mountains to the sea. Great 
numbers are destroyed by carnivorous birds and 
animals and thousands are drowned, few living 
to return. 

Lem'on. The name of a tree ( Citrus limonum) 
and its fruit; a native of Southern Asia, but now 
cultivated in the south of Europe, especially in 
Sicily, in the West Indies, and in California and 
Florida. It forms a straggling bush, and is more 
delicate than the orange. There are many 
varieties of the lemon, but the most common are 
the common or Genoa lemon, the thin-skinned 
lemon, the sweet lemon, and the citron lemon. 
The chief products of the lemon are the juice 
and the oil. The juice has a peculiar and agree¬ 
able flavor, due to citric acid, and is much used 
in the well-known refreshing drink called lemon¬ 
ade. It is also very useful in the prevention and 
cure of scurvy. The rind of the lemon is used 
by cooks and confectioners for flavoring. The 
oil of lemons is extracted from the outside part 
of the peel either by pressure or by distillation, 
and is much used in medicine and in perfumery. 

Le / mur. A family of arboreal animals bearing 
some resemblance to the monkeys in their mode 
of progression and their opposable thumbs and 
great toes. They are much less active and intelli¬ 
gent than the monkeys. They are chiefly natives 
of Madagascar. 

Lens. [L. lens , a lentil seed, which is much like 
the shape of a convex lens.] A piece of glass or 
other transparent substance, which may be 
spherical on both sides, or one side may be 
spherical and the other a plane surface. There 
are many forms of lenses, their purpose being 
to refract the rays of light, causing them to 
converge to a point, to diverge, etc. Lenses are 
usually made of flat pieces of glass, and the 
greatest care is needed in grinding and polishing 
them, as the least unevenness in the surface 
would spoil them. They have many uses, but 
the most common is that of making eye glasses 


and spectacles—convex lenses being used for far¬ 
sighted and concave lenses for near-sighted 
persons. Lenses of various kinds are used in 
making opera-glasses, microscopes, stereoscopes, 
telescopes, and other instruments. 

Lentil. [Fr. lentille. ] An annual plant not un¬ 
like the bean, a native of the countries border¬ 
ing on the Mediterranean, and cultivated from 
the earliest times. It is now grown in many 
parts of Europe and Asia, the straw being used 
as fodder for sheep and cattle. The flour of 
lentils is made into lentil soup, which is consid¬ 
ered highly nutritious. 

Leopard. [L. leo , and pardus.~\ A rapacious 
quadruped of the genus Felis or Cat group, 
found chiefly in Africa, though not uncommon 
in some parts of Asia. In general appearance 
it resembles the tiger, though not nearly so large. 
Its head, neck, back, and limbs are covered with 
black spots on a fur of a yellow color, whilst its 
sides are marked by at least ten ranges of black 
spots of a larger size. The leopard is very active, 
and can leap with the greatest ease, or ascend 
trees in pursuit of prey. It lives chiefly in 
thick forests, and its prey consists of deer, ante¬ 
lope, monkeys, and smaller animals, but it will 
sometimes visit farms and villages and feed on 
pigs, poultry, goats, sheep, or dogs. The leo¬ 
pard seems to dread and flee from man, and will 
only attack him when closely pursued or brought 
to bay. Leopards are captured by means of pit- 
falls covered with branches of trees, on which 
pieces of meat are placed as bait. They are 
chiefly valued for their skins. 

Lep / rosy. A so far incurable skin disease, in 
which scaly patches, circular in form, appear on 
the skin and gradually spread. Its progress is 
very slow and those attacked by it may live for 
years. It is contagious and was very serious in 
ancient times and in the Middle Ages, the only 
treatment being to keep the lepers separate. It 
is now rarely seen in civilized countries. Of 
recent years it has been severe in the Hawaiian 
Islands, where the lepers are all sent to a settle¬ 
ment on the island of Molokai. 

Let/tuce. [Fr. from L. lactuca, which is from lac , 
milk, the plant having a milky juice.] An annual 
plant, supposed to be a native of the East Indies ; 
cultivated from remote antiquity, and now grown 
all over the world where the climate admits of it. 
The two principal kinds are the coss lettuce, with 
oblong upright leaves, and the cabbage lettuce, 
with rounded leaves and a head like a cabbage ; 
and of these two kinds there are many varieties. 
The leaves of lettuce are used as a salad, and 
though they do not contain much nourishment, 
they are easily digested and -gently laxative. 
Lettuce-opium is made from the juice of the 
plant, and is used medicinally to allay pain and 
induce sleep. 

Lev / el. An instrument by which to find or draw 
a horizontal line in setting buildings. The spirit- 
level has a bubble of air on the surface of spirits 
of wine enclosed in a glass tube. In water-levels 
w r ater is used instead of mercury or spirits of 
wine. 





426 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


Le / ver. [Fr. levier.] One of the mechanical 
powers. It consists of a bar of wood or metal, 
supported by and movable 
at some point of its length 
round a prop, called the 
fulcrum, while at the other 
points are placed the weight or 
resistance to be overcome and 
the power or force which over¬ 
comes it. Levers are divided 
into three kinds, namely—(1) 
when the fulcrum is between 
the weight and the power, as in 
the crowbar; (2) when the 
weight is between the power 
and the fulcrum, as in rowing 
a boat; (3) when the power is 
between the weight and the 
fulcrum, as in raising a ladder 
from the ground. Bones of ani¬ 
mals are levers of the third kind. 

Ley'dei^jar. [Invented in Leyden, Holland.] 
An instrument used to accumulate electricity. 
It is made of glass, covered on both sides with 
tin-foil nearly to the top, and for the purpose of 
charging it a brass knob is fixed to the neck of 
the jar, through which the electricity passes to 
the interior tin foil. (See Electricity.) 

LFchens. [Gk. leichen. ] These are flowerless 
plants, without separate stems or leaves, found 
on rocks, trunks and branches of trees, walls and 
fences, and on barren soil. They are common 
everywhere and at all levels, many of them grow¬ 
ing on mountain sides to the verge of perpetual 
snow. Lichens have no roots, but grow by 
receiving moisture through all parts of their sur¬ 
face. They contain a kind of starch, a bitter 
substance, a resin, and various coloring matters. 
They yield rich dyes of various colors, some of 
which are used in dyeing silks. Iceland moss is 
a lichen which grows in the most barren parts of 
Iceland and other cold countries, and is used for 
food and medicine. The reindeer lichen, cover¬ 
ing the barren plains of Lapland and Siberia, is 
the chief food of the reindeers ; and at one time, 
when grain was very scarce in Sweden, this 
lichen was ground up with flour to make bread. 
The tripe de roche is a lichen growing in the 
northernmost parts of North America, which the 
inhabitants there eat mixed with the roe of fishes. 
(See Moss.) 

Life / boat. A boat constructed for saving persons 
in cases of shipwreck. Its chief qualities are 
strength, to resist the violence of waves, a rocky 
beach, or collision with the wreck ; buoyancy, to 
avoid foundering when a sea is shipped ; ability 
to right itself when capsized, facility in turning, 
and provision for speedy launching. 

! ight. [AS. leoht, liht .] The agent which pro¬ 
duces vision and thereby enables us to see objects. 
Light comes to us from self-luminous bodies in 
the heavens—such as the sun, the fixed stars, 
nebulae, and some meteors; and from substan¬ 
ces on the earth—such as the electric light, 
burning gas and oil, etc. Light proceeds from all 
luminous bodies in straight lines, each one of 


which is called a ray of light. It is supposed 
to consist of undulations or waves in a rare sub¬ 
stance called the luminiferous ether. It moves at 
the rate of over 186,000 miles per second, or 
more than a million times faster than sound, and 
it takes eight minutes for the light of the sun to 
reach the earth. When light falls upon the 
surface of a body, part of it is reflected , the rest 
enters the body. Thus, when we look at a house, 
the light goes first from the sun to the house, 
and then glances from it into our eyes, and thus 
we are able to see a thing which does not make 
any light itself. When a slanting ray of light 
passes from air into water, glass, or anything 
through which it can shine, the ray in the water, 
glass, etc., though still a straight line, is not a 
continuation of its old path, but is bent as it 
passes from one medium to the other. This 
bending of the ray is called refraction. (See 
Prism.) 

Light'er. A large, open, flat-bottomed boat used 
in loading and unloading ships. 

Light/house. A tower or building erected on 
headlands along the coast, and on rocks in the 
sea and in rivers, and at the entrance to harbors, 
from which a light is shown at night to guide 
mariners in navigating ships, and to warn them 
of hidden reefs or dangerous shores. Lights are 
fixed, revolving, flashing, colored, and intermit¬ 
tent. There are 530 lights round the British 
coasts, and they are so placed that at any point 
a ship is always in sight of a light. About 2,000 
lights are on the United States coasts. 

Lightening. The vivid flash of light which accom¬ 
panies a sudden discharge of atmospheric elec¬ 
tricity. It occurs in three distinct forms— 
namely, forked lightning, sheet lightning, and 
ball-lightning. In forked lightning the path 
taken by the electricity is that which gives the 
least resistance, and is distinctly seen to be made 
up of straight lines and sudden bends. Sheet¬ 
lightning appears as a diffused glare of reddish 
color, spread over a considerable extent of the 
sky, and is sometimes called summer lightning, 
as it is of frequent occurrence in warm weather! 
Ball-lightning is a very destructive and danger¬ 
ous form of lightning, but happily of rare occur¬ 
rence. 

Lig / num=vit®. [L. lignum , wood; and vitcz, of 
life.] The name of the wood of the guaiacum tree, 
which grows in the West Indies and South Amer¬ 
ica. The wood is very heavy, hard, close-grained, 
and tough, and is used for making pulleys, wheels 
in ships’ blocks, pestles, rulers, and other articles 
which require to be of a tough material. The 
resinous juice of the tree is used in medicine in 
cases of rheumatism and skin diseases. 

Lil ac. [Sp. lilac. ] A beautiful and fragrant 
flowering shrub, a native of Persia, brought to 
Vienna about three hundred years ago, and now 
cultivated as a familiar garden ornament through¬ 
out Europe and North America. The wood is 
fine-grained, and is used for turning, inlaying, 
and making small articles. A fragrant oil can 
be obtained from the leaves by distillation. 












ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


427 


LiLy. ( Lilium .) The popular name of a family 
of plants of many species, producing flowers of 
great beauty and variety of colors. The root is 
a scaly bulb, the stem herbaceous and simple, 
sometimes several feet high, and bearing ele¬ 
gantly-formed flowers near the summit. The 
white lily is a native of the Levant, and is now 
extensively cultivated in gardens, its large w T hite 
flowers being as much prized for their fragrance 
as for their beauty. The orange lily and the 
martagon or Turk’s cap lily are natives of the 
south of Europe, and now form very showy 
ornaments of the flower-garden. The tiger lily 
is a native of China ; and among the many 
species in North America the finest is the 
super bum (L-), which grows in marshes to the 
height of from 6 to 8 feet, bearing reflexed 
orange flowers spotted with black. 

Lime. [AS. lim.j An alkaline earth, found as a 
carbonate in chalk, marble and limestone. Quick¬ 
lime is obtained by heating pure carbonate of 
lime to full redness in lime-kilns, when the car¬ 
bonic acid is expelled and lime is left. When 
lime is moistened with water it swells up, gives 
off much heat and steam, and changes into a 
soft white powder, commonly called slaked lime 
(calcium hydrate). In this form it is used for 
purifying coal gas, in making mortar and plaster 
for building purposes, for removing the hair from 
skins in tanning, making paper pulp, and as 
a manure for land. When slaked lime is put in 
cold water and allowed to settle, the clear water 
is lime-water. In addition to the uses already 
mentioned, lime is used in the manufacture of 
washing-soda, bleaching-powder, and ammonia- 
water ; in refining sugar, and also in iron-fur¬ 
naces, lead-smelting, and glass-making. Bleach¬ 
ing-powder, commonly called chloride of lime, 
is a dry white powder, with a slight acid smell. 
It is largely used as a disinfectant. Carbonate 
of lime exists in great abundance in nature, and 
when crystallized is known as Iceland spar. 

Lime=Iigtit. A light of great brilliancy, also 
called Drummond light, from its inventor. It 
consists of a burning jet of oxygen and hydrogen 
directed upon a cylinder of lime. This becomes 
white hot and yields an intense white light which 
has been seen at a distance of 112 miles. It is 
much used in the magic-lantern and the reflect¬ 
ing microscope. 

Limpet. [L- lepas .] A small shell-fish which 
forms a vacuum under its shell, and adheres to 
rocks, being pressed by the weight of the atmos¬ 
phere. 

Lin / den or Lime. A large and beautiful tree, of 
which the American linden often grows to the 
height of 80 feet, and to 2 or 3 feet diameter. 
The leaves are large and serrated. The wood is 
white and soft, much used for carriage and cab¬ 
inet work. The inner bark is strong, and ropes 
are made from it. In Europe the linden is also 
called the lime tree. The principal street of Berlin 
is named Unter den Linden (Under the Lindens). 

LirFen. [L. linum , flax.] A cloth very much 
used, made of flax, which is woven into such 
goods as tablecloths, cambric, lawn, shirting, 


sheeting, towels, etc. Linen is manufactured in 
the British Islands, and in many manufacturing 
districts in Europe, particularly in France, Bel¬ 
gium, and Germany. Linen thread is prepared 
from fine bleached linen yarn. . 

Ling. A fish resembling the cod in form, but 
longer and more slender. 

LiiFnet. [Fr. linot.~\ A well-known song-bird, 
widely distributed in Europe and in the northwest 
of Africa. It is barely 6 inches in length, feeds 
on soft seeds, and forms its nest of soft stems and 
moss, lined with wool and down, in which it lays 
from four to six eggs of a bluish-white ground, 
speckled with reddish-brown, and generally 
rears two broods in a season. 

Linoleum. A kind of floor-cloth made of ground 
cork and oxidized linseed-oil spread on jute 
canvas, with oil-paint coated on the back. It 
was invented by Walton in i860. 

LiiFseed. [AS. lin, flax; and sczd, seed.] The 
seed of flax, largely used for making linseed-oil 
and oil-cake. In making oil the seeds are bruised 
or crushed, then ground and pressed in a hydraulic 
or screw-press, either cold or heated by steam. 
The seeds give more oil when heated, but the 
cold-pressed oil is the best. Linseed-oil is largely 
used in making paints, varnishes, and printing 
inks. The remains of the seeds after the oil is 
pressed out make oil-cake, which is valuable for 
feeding cattle. Linseed itself is excellent food 
for cattle and for poultry. 

Lint. [AS. linet.'] Linen cloth or rags scraped 
so as to form a soft material suitable for dressing 
wounds and sores. 

LFon. [Fr., from L. leo.~\ The largest representa¬ 
tive of the Felidce or Cat family. Its distinctive 
features are the large size of its head ; the great 
mane, which covers the head, neck, and shoul¬ 
ders of the males ; the uniform tawny color of 
the skin, without spots or stripes; and the tuft 
at the extremity of the tail. It attains its full 
growth when about seven or eight years old, and 
a male lion of the largest size will then measure 
about 8 feet, and the tail about 4 feet. The lion¬ 
ess is smaller, and has no mane. Lions are 
found in the tropical regions of Africa and Asia. 
Their lurking-place is near a spring or by the 
side of a river, w r here, concealed among the 
brushwood, they wait for the animals coming to 
drink. They hide away in the daytime, and 
prowl about in the evening and early morning, 
and sometimes all night long, their eyes being 
better adapted for the night and twilight than 
for the day. They feed on antelopes, zebras, 
giraffes, and wild cattle, and sometimes carry off 
horses, sheep, and other domestic animals. 

Liq / uid. [L. liquidus .] A fluid or flowing sub¬ 
stance, distinguished from a solid by yielding 
laterally to pressure. It always returns to the 
same level. 

Liquid Air. Air reduced by great pressure and 
intense cold to the liquid state. This process, of 
recent discovery, can now be performed with ease 
and rapidity, large quantities being produced at 
a low cost. Efforts are being made to use it as a 




428 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


source of power. Air can also be frozen into the 
solid state, and every known gas, even the 
volatile hydrogen, can be liquified. 

Liq r uorice. The word liquorice means “sweet 
root.” The liquorice plant has stems 3 to 4 feet 
high, with small blue, violet, or white flowers, 
and the roots are sometimes half an inch thick 
and a yard long. It is cultivated in the south of 
Europe, chiefly in Spain and Italy. The roots 
are much used by porter-brewers. Spanish liq¬ 
uorice or liquorice juice is largely imported from 
the south of Europe in rolls or sticks , packed in 
bay leaves, or in the form of an extract run into 
boxes of about 2 cwt. each. 

Lithography, [Gk. lithos, a stone; and grafhein, 
to write.] The art of tracing letters, figures, 
and other designs on stone, and of transferring 
them to paper by impression. It was invented 
in 1796 by Alois Senefelder in Bavaria, where the 
most suitable stones are still quarried. The stone 
is a kind of limestone, composed of lime, clay, 
and silica, usually of a gray color and of a very 
fine grain. The stones are found in layers vary¬ 
ing in thickness, the thickness required for 
printing-stones being from 1 y 2 to 5 inches, 
according to size. They are ground face to face 
with sand and water, until the surface of both 
stones is perfectly level. After being carefully 
polished with a smooth polishing-stone they are 
ready for use. Writings or drawings may be 
made on the stone with a fine pen or brush, or 
drawn on paper having a specially prepared sur¬ 
face, and then transferred to the stone. The 
methods of printing, consisting of etching out 
the spaces between the lines of drawing with an 
acid, inking, etc., are too complicated to be here 
described. Chromo-lithographs are lithographs 
in which many colors are printed in one picture. 
As each color is printed from a separate stone, 
from three to thirty stones are often used to 
produce colored pictures. 

Liv'er. [AS. lifer .] In man the largest gland in 
the body, situated in the right upper side and 
towards the front of the abdominal cavity, meas¬ 
uring about 12 inches from side, to side, and 
weighing from 50 to 60 oz. The blood, laden 
with nutritious matter, has to pass through the 
liver before it can get into the general circulation ; 
and the chief function of the liver is to secrete 
or gather the bile from the blood and send it into 
the gall-bladder, where it is stored up ready to be 
discharged into the intestines during digestion. 

Liz'ard. [Fr., from L- lacerta, a lizard.] A term 
applied to an order of reptiles found in almost 
all countries, but most plentiful in w r arm climates. 
They include the gecko, monitor, dragon, frilled 
lizard, chameleon, and many others. The body 
is usually well covered with scales, and is sup¬ 
ported usually on four legs. Lizards vary in 
length from a few inches to several feet. In a 
great many lizards the tail is almost as brittle as 
glass. A glove or handkerchief thrown upon one 
is enough to break it off, but a new one will 
soon grow out. Their food consists of insects, 
worms, and small animals ; but some prey upon 
larger animals, and others are herbivorous, 


Lla / ma. A most useful South American animal, 
somewhat like a camel, but smaller and without 
a hump. The llama lives in flocks among 
the Andes, and feeds mostly on coarse grasses, 
mosses, lichens, and shrubs. The ancient Peru¬ 
vians tamed the llama, and kept great num¬ 
bers of them for beasts of burden ; and it is still 
put to this use in many parts of South America, 
especially for carrying goods across steep moun¬ 
tain roads where horses cannot go. The hair of 
the llama is woven into stuffs similar to alpaca. 

Loadstone or Magnetic Iron Ore. A hard red¬ 
dish-black or grey mineral, found in various 
countries. (See Magnet.) 

Lobster. A well-known crustacean, much es¬ 
teemed for food. Lobsters are found all round 
the coasts of Europe, and along the Atlantic 
coast of the United States north of New York. 
Immense quantities are sent from America to 
Europe, packed and preserved in hermetically 
sealed cans. Lobsters differ in size, weighing 
from 2 to 15 lbs. Their two large claws are fitted 
with tooth-like serrations—in the one they are 
many and sharp, in the other few and blunt— 
and with these they crush their food, which is 
chiefly clams, mussels, and other molluscs. 
They are caught in traps made either of basket- 
work or of netting, the bait used being dead fish. 
The shell of the lobster is dark-green when alive, 
but it turns to bright red when boiled. 

Lock. [AS. loc or locei] A well-known instru¬ 
ment for fastening doors, drawers, chests, etc., 
generally opened by a key. The chief parts of 
a lock are the bolt or part which locks, and the 
staple into which the bolt enters when turned by 
the key. Good locks are distinguished by the 
number of impediments that can be interposed 
betwixt the key and the bolt, these impediments 
being called the wards of the lock, which are so 
arranged as to slip into corresponding grooves of 
the key. The tumbler-lock has two notches on 
the upper side of the bolt, on which rests the 
tumbler, which is pressed by a spring into the 
notches according as the lock is open or shut. 
Locomotive Steam=engine. The traction engine 



used on railroads for drawing cars. The first 
effective locomotive, the “Rocket,” was invented 
by George Stephenson in 1829, though others 











429 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


had been made earlier. Since then immense 
improvements have been made and very swift 
and powerful locomotives built. 

Locomobile 7 . An automobile or motor carriage 
moved by steam. 

Lo'cust. [L. locust a. An insect somewhat like 
a grasshopper in shape, but with shorter antennae 
or feelers and stouter legs. Its hind legs are 
very strong, enabling it to make long leaps ; and 
its wings are beautifully colored, and from their 
great length give it the power of sustaining long 
and high occasional flights. “ Locusts fly in 
great clouds from place to place, and eat up every 



green thing where they alight.” In some parts 
of Asia and Africa they come in such numbers 
as to darken the sky in their flight, and they are 
frequently seen in southern Europe and commit 
great ravages there. They have also been very 
destructive in the western United States, where 
they are known as the Rocky Mountain locusts. 
The seventeen-year locusts live as larvae in the 
ground for seventeen years, and afterwards come 
to the surface and become winged insects. Some 
species remain underground for a shorter period. 

Locust or St. John’s Bread. A tree highly 
valued for its wood. Its leaves are soft and 
velvety, and it bears clusters of white, sweet¬ 
smelling flowers. Its wood is compact and hard, 
of a greenish-yellow color. The honey-locust 
tree of America and the West Indies is a large 
tree, but its wood is not so valuable as that of 
the common locust. It bears long flat pods full 
of brown seeds, in a honey-like pulp. Its trunk 
and limbs are covered with sharp thorns. 

Log. A part of the apparatus for measuring the 
rate of a ship’s motion through the water, con¬ 
sisting of a flat piece of wood, usually in the 
form of a quadrant, loaded with lead at its circu¬ 
lar edge to make it float upright. To it is 
attached the log-line, which runs freely from a 
reel, and is marked by knots at intervals of five 
fathoms. The number of knots run out during 
the running of the half-minute sand-glass tells 
the number of miles per hour which the vessel is 
making. (See Knot .) 

Log 7 wood. [So called because it was brought to 
Europe in logs.] A tree which grows in Central 
America, on the Bay of Campeachy, and some of 
the West India islands. The wood, sometimes 
called Campeachy wood , is of a deep red color 
internally, and is very extensively used as a dye- 
wood. Logwood is sometimes used as a medicine. 

LoiUgitude. The lines of longitude are a series of 
imaginary lines which surround the earth at 
right angles to the equator and pass through 
the poles. Longitude is measured along the 
equator east or west from a standard line or 
meridian, that of Greenwich, England, being 
usually employed. The length of a degree of 


longitude decreases north and south from the 
equator, and vanishes at the poles, where the 
lines all meet. 

Lum'bering. The cutting of forest timber for 
commercial use. This has become an immense 
industry in the United States, more than 24,000,- 
000,000 feet being cut annually for various pur¬ 
poses. The white pine has long been the favorite 
lumber tree, but many others are used. 

Lungs. [AS. lungen. ] The lungs are the organs 
of respiration. In man the lungs lie in the 
thorax or chest on each side of the heart—the 
right lung being a little shorter and broader than 
the left lung. They are light, spongy bodies, 
full of little cells which can be filled with air. 
The blood sent from the right side of the heart 
to the lungs is of a dark color, and contains 
much carbonic acid gas ; while the blood taken 
away from the lungs back to the left side of 
the heart is of a scarlet hue, and contains less 
carbonic acid gas and more oxygen. The oxygen 



THE LUNGS, WIND PIPE AND HEART 


is taken from the air that enters the lungs, while 
a nearly equal quantity of carbonic acid gas 
passes from the blood outwards into the air, and 
is expelled from the mouth. (See Heart.) 

Lute. An ancient musical instrument, of the 
guitar kind. It somewhat resembles the pear in 
shape, and was played by striking the strings 
with the fingers. It was in common use till the 
end of the 17th century, when the guitar took 
its place. 

Lynx. [L. lynx. ] An animal resembling the 
common cat, but with longer ears and a shorter 
tail. It preys on small quadrupeds and birds, 
and ia pursuit of prey frequently climbs to 











43 ° 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


the tops of tall trees. Lynxes are widely dis¬ 
tributed throughout Europe, Asia, and North 
America. The Canada lynx is hunted for its fur, 
which is prized for robes, muffs, and collars. 

Lyre. The oldest known of all stringed instru¬ 
ments, invented, according to old tradition, by 


the god Mercury. It was the predecessor of the 
harp, and possessed at first but three strings, 
which were gradually increased to eleven. It 
was played upon by a stick of ivory or polished 
wood. It was used to accompany the voice and 
was probably 01 Egyptian origin. 


M 

Macad'am. Broken stones, about from 2 oz. to 
6oz. in weight each, used as road metal ; invented 
about 1810 by Macadam, a Scottish road contrac¬ 
tor. 

Macaro / ni. [Ital. maccheroni , from maccare , to 
bruise or crush.] A kind of food made from the 
paste or dough of fine wheat flour, formed in 
small tubes or pipes. It forms a favorite article 
of food among Italians. In the neighborhood 
of Naples whole villages are engaged in its manu¬ 
facture. It is also made at Marseilles and other 
places in the south of France, and large quan¬ 
tities are exported to all parts of the world. 
Macaroni is used in various ways—boiled, served 
with grated cheese, for thickening soups and 
for making puddings. 

MacaroorF. A favorite cake or biscuit, composed 
chiefly of the meal of sweet almonds, whites of 
eggs, and sugar. 

MacawL A race of beautiful birds found in the 
tropical regions of America, and included in the 
Parrot family. 

Mace. A staff with an ornamental head, carried 
before officers of state and magistrates as an 
emblem of authority; a well-known spice, 
which forms the inner envelope of the growing 
nutmeg. It occurs as a fine scarlet net-work, 
which is stripped off and dried. It is regarded 
as the most choice of all the spices. 

Mack'erel. [Fr., from L. macula , a spot.] A 
well-known salt-water fish,marked with spots on 
its sides, and much used for food. They move 
about in vast shoals, and visit the British and 
American coasts in summer, following after her¬ 
rings, sprats, or pilchards, on which they prey. 
They are caught by means of drift nets and shore 
weirs, but a common mode of capture is by hook 
and line. The hooks are baited with small pieces 
of mackerel skin ; but the mackerel is a very 
voracious fish, and will bite at a piece of red 
flannel, or anything brightly colored or of a glit¬ 
tering appearance. The common mackerel aver¬ 
ages 14 inches in length, and weighs about 2 lbs. 

MacFder. [AS. mceddered] The name of a very 
useful red dye obtained from the roots of the 
madder plant, which is found in the warm parts 
of the Old and New Worlds. Madder is used by 
dyers to make a great variety of red tints, and 
by varying the mordant such colors as madder- 
orange, madder-purple, madder-yellow, etc., are 
easily produced. Turkey-red used in dyeing cotton 
goods is a madder color. Alizarin, the red color¬ 
ing principle of madder, is now made artificially. 

Mag / ic=LaiFtern. An optical instrument which, 
by means of lenses and a lamp or lime-light, 
enlarges small figures painted with transparent 


varnish on sides of grass, and exhibits them on 
a white screen in a darkened room. It is said to 
have been invented by Athanasius Kircher in 
1646. At present transparent photograph slides, 
plain or colored, are used in the lantern, and 
much used in illustrating lectures. 

Magne / sium. A metal ofasilver-whitecolor, found 
in many minerals. It is got by fusion from 
magnesium chloride. It is very light, easily 
tarnished,-and when lighted burns with a brilliant 
glow. It may be drawn into wire, filed, bored, 
or flattened easily. On burning, magnesium 
unites with oxygen, and leaves a white pow 7 der. 
This is called magnesia ( magnesium oxide), 
which, when united with sulphuric acid, makes 
magnesium sulphate. Magnesium sulphate is 
found in a mineral spring at Epsom in England, 
and is commonly known as Epsom salts. 

MagTiet. [L. magnes , from Magnesia.'] An ore 
of iron, “the loadstone,” first found at Magne¬ 
sia, a city in Lydia ; now found in different parts 
of the world, especially in Sweden and in the 

States of New York and 
New 1 Jersey. A load stone 
or natural magnet has the 
peculiar properties of at¬ 
tracting iron and some of 
its ores, and of pointing 
to the poles. If a load¬ 
stone be held near to iron 
filings, they will cling to 
it in a cluster. Tacks and 
small nails may be raised 
by it, and if the load¬ 
stone be a large one it will hold up quite a 
heavy weight. This power which the load¬ 
stone has of attracting iron is called magnet¬ 
ism. Bars of iron or steel may have the pro¬ 
perties of the loadstone or natural magnet im¬ 
parted to them, and hence we have what are 
called artificial magnets. Common iron will 
not keep its magnetic properties long, but steel 
will. Artificial magnets are made of various 
forms, the most common being the bar shape. 
Powerful permanent magnets are made by plac¬ 
ing several thin magnetized bars side by side, 
fastened firmly together. Such a collection of 
magnets is called a magnetic battery , and is more 
powerful than a solid bar of the same weight. A 
bar of soft iron may have the properties of a 
magnet imparted to it by sending a current of 
electricity through a coil of wire surrounding it. 
It is then called an electro-magnet (See Dynamo .) 

Magnolia. [ Magnol , a professor of botany at 

Montpelier, died 1715.] The name of a tree, a 
native of North America, India, China, and 











ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


43 1 


Japan, now very widely cultivated, and much ad¬ 
mired on account of the beauty of its flowers and 
foliage. 

Mag / pie. [Mag, short form of Margaret; and 
pie, from L. pica, a magpie.] A bird of the Crow 
tribe, distinguished from the true crows by its 
small size, short wings, long tail, and variegated 
plumage. It is noted for its cunning, is easily 
tamed, and may be taught to speak a few words. 
It feeds on snails, slugs, worms, frogs, rats, mice, 
and the eggs and young of poultry; and when 
disturbed by any person or animal it keeps up a 
continual chatter, from which comes the saying 
to “ chatter like a magpie.” Magpies are com¬ 
mon in Europe and in the northern parts of 
America. 

Mahogany. The wood of a tree of the same 
name, a native of Central America and the West 
Indies. It is a beautiful tree, from 80 to ioo feet 
high, the trunk being often 5 feet in circumfer¬ 
ence. The wood is heavy, hard, close-grained, of a 
reddish-brown color, and susceptible of a brilliant 
polish. It is used in the making of furniture, 
and for the inside woodwork of railway cars, 
sometime solid, but more often as a veneer, or 
thin layer glued on inferior wood. The wood 
varies much in value according to the color and 
beauty of its veins. 

Maidenhair. A species of fern, so called because 
of its very fine hair-like fronds. 

Maize or Indian Corn. An important grain of 
American origin, distinguished by the peculiar 
arrangement of its large seeds on a long cylin¬ 
drical cob. It grows on a stalk resembling that 
of the sugar cane, varying from 5 to 10 feet in 
height. Its cultivation is simple, and the returns 
very large, its produce being greater than that of 
any other grain. Corn-flour is extensively used 
as food. Maize meal is not well adapted for 
making bread, but is sometimes mixed with 
wheaten flour for that purpose. It is also used 
in the manufacture of starch. In some countries 

the husks are used in 
making paper and mat¬ 
tresses, and in stuffing 
chairs and saddles. More 
than 2,000 million bushels 
of maize are grown in 
the United States annu¬ 
ally, much of it being 
used in fattening swine. 

Malachite. A mineral 
of a dark and emerald- 
green color; a carbonate 
of copper, much used for 
ornamental purposes, 
flala'rla. [Ital. mala,% 

WINE SKIN BOTTLES. ba( J . an( J a i r . ] A 

poisonous condition of the air most powerful 
near marshes, producing certain kinds of low 
fever. It is found to be due to a bacterial 
microbe, probably largely disseminated by mos¬ 
quitoes. 

Mal'let. [Fr. maillet .] A wooden hammer for 
beating lead, etc., for driving wooden pins, or 
for using with chisels. 


riaFIow. A plant common throughout Europe 
and in Britain, on waysides and heaps of rubbish. 
Its soft downy leaves are sometimes used to allay 
external inflammation. 

Malm'sey. [From Malvasia, in the south of 
Greece.] The name of a sweet wine, or the grape 
from which it is made ; originally exported from 
Malvasia, but now made in other places. 

Halt, [AS. mealt.] Barley or other grain steeped 
in water until it begins to germinate, and then 
dried to stop the growth, thus converting the 
Starch of the grain into sugar. It is used in 
brewing and distilling. 

riain / mals. [I,. mamma .] The highest class of 
vertebrate or backboned animals; so called 
because they all feed their young with milk 
formed in their own bodies. In mammals the 
heart is divided into four chambers, the blood is 
warm, and the skin has a covering of hair, wool, 
or bristles. 

Man. [AS. man.'] Man is the chief of mammals, 
the superior of all animals, the only one which 
walks erect, and the only one which talks. He 
excels all other animals not only in body, but in 
mind. This enables him to reason and to invent, 
and to have power over the elements and lower 
animals. The mind is seated in the brain, and 
man has a much larger brain, in proportion to 
the size of his body, than any other animal. 
The human body is made up of the head, trunk, 
arms and legs. The head contains the brain and 
the organs of hearing, seeing, smelling and 
tasting. The trunk is divided into two parts by 
a partition called the diaphragm. The upper 
part, called the thorax or chest, contains the heart 
and lungs; and the lower part, larger than the 
upper, called the abdomen or belly, contains the 
stomach, intestines or bowels, liver, and kidneys. 
The arms and legs are made up of a framework 
of bones joined together by ligaments. 

naiFakin. The name applied to a race of birds 
common in the tropical parts of South America, 
of very small size, and noted for the beauty of 
their plumage. 

rianchineeF. [U. mancanilla.] A tree which 
grows in the West Indies and tropical America, 
noted for its poisonous fruit and poisonous milky 
juice. The Indians use it for poisoning their 
arrows. The wood is of fine quality, beautifully 
veined, and highly valued for cabinet-work. 

Man'atee. A genus of marine, plant-eating 
mammals, known as cow-whales or sea-cows, 
found in the coast waters and river mouths of 
Africa and South America. They include the 
Manatee and the Dugong. 

Manganese'. A metal closely allied to iron. The 
important manganese ores are black oxide, brown 
oxide, and bog manganese. Targe deposits exist 
in' Spain, Portugal, and the United States.. In 
Nova Scotia there is an ore very free from iron 
much used in glass-making. Manganese is 
largely used in the Bessemer process and as 
spiegel iron. 

Jfein'go. [Malay.] The fruit of the mango tree, 
I which grows in India and the East and West 










43 * 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


Indies. It is very nutritious, and is used as a 
dessert in hot countries. The green fruit is 
pickled in the East Indies. 

Man'gold or Man / gel=wurzel. [Ger. mangold , 
beet; and wurzel , root.] A plant resembling 
beet, but larger and coarser, extensively culti¬ 
vated as food for cattle. 

Man'grove. [Malay.] This tree grows on muddy 
shores and river-banks in tropical countries. It 
sends down shoots from its branches, which take 
root and form new stems. 

rianil / a=hemp. [From Manila , in the Philippine 
Islands.] The material obtained from the thread¬ 
like fibres of a kind of banana-tree which grows 
in the Philippine Islands, and largely used for 
making cables, ropes, and cordage. 

Manioc or Mandioc. (See Tapioca.') 

Map. [Fr., from E. mappa , a napkin.] A draw¬ 
ing or representation on paper or other material 
of the surface of the earth or part of it, showing 
the shape and position of the countries, seas, 
rivers, etc. 

Ma / ple. [AS.] A tree with a great variety of species, 
many of them found in North America, some 
in Europe and Asia, and a few in Japan. Some 
are small shrubs and others are large trees. The 
red maple, the sugar maple, and the white maple 
are common throughout the United States. The 
wood of the red maple is used for inlaying and 
for making stocks of rifles and fowling-pieces. 
The sugar maple yields a sap from which sugar 
is made, and the wood forms excellent fuel, and 
makes the best of charcoal. Some kinds, called 
curled and bird’s-eye maple, because the grain is 
twisted or marked like birds’ eyes, are used in 
cabinet-work. The w r ood of the common maple, 
a native of many parts of Europe and Asia, is 
fine-grained, compact, takes a high polish, and 
is much used by turners, and for carved work. 

Mar 7 ble. [Fr., from E. marmori] Certain varie¬ 
ties of limestone, of sufficiently compact texture 
to admit of a polish, are known by the name of 
marble. It is a beautiful stone, usually white, 
but frequently colored, and marked with stripes, 
spots, and shades of different tints. As a build¬ 
ing stone, marble is valuable for its great dura¬ 
bility ; and being susceptible of a brilliant polish, 
is largely used for the purposes of art or archi¬ 
tectural ornament. Carrara marble, from quarries 
in North Italy, and Parian marble, from the isle 
of Paros, are famous for statuary purposes. 

flar / garin. [Fr.] A solid, fatty, pearl-like sub¬ 
stance (of stearin and palmitin) made from olive 
and other vegetable oils, and also from the fat of 
some animals. 

Marigold. A well-known annual plant, bearing a 
large yellow flower, a native of France and the 
southern parts of Europe. The French marigold 
and the African marigold, both Mexican species, 
have brilliant flowers, and form beautiful borders 
in flower-gardens. The well-known ice-plants 
are fig-marigolds. 

Marjoram. [Fr.] A genus of plants of the 
natural order Eabiatae. The most common kind 
is the sweet marjoram, which diffuses a sweet 


and pleasant odor, and is much used in cookery 
for seasoning. 

Marl. A mixture of clay and carbonate of lime, 
found in Europe, and along the Atlantic coast 
from New Jersey southward. It is used as a fer¬ 
tilizer. 

Marmalade. [Portuguese marmelada; from 
marmelo , a quince.] A preserve made by boil¬ 
ing fruits, such as oranges, pine-apples, and 
quinces. The most common kind of marmalade 
is made from bitter or Seville oranges. The rind 
is cut up into thin strips and boiled with the pulp 
and an equal weight of sugar, to which half that 
weight of water is added. 

Marmoset. A small kind of monkey, found only 
in South America. 

Marmot. An animal nearly allied to the squirrels, 
but in form and habits more closely resembling 
rats and mice. Marmots are natives of the higher 
parts of the Alps and Pyrenees, and of Central 
Asia and North America. 

MarTow. [AS.] Fatty matter contained in the 
hollow parts of the large bones of animals. The 
whale, the skate, and the turtle have no cavities 
in their bones. 

Mars. The smallest of the planets except Mer¬ 
cury, and the nearest to the earth of the outer 
planets. It is of nearly 5,000 miles diameter, and 
about 142,000,000 miles from the sun. It is the 
only planet the details of whose surface can be 
seen from the earth, and presents interesting 
appearances not yet understood. 

Marsu / pials. An order of mammals distinguished 
by the fact that the young are born in the embryo 
state, and are carried for a time in a peculiar 
pouch in the abdomen of the mother. 

Marten. [Fr. martei] A genus of carnivorous 
quadrupeds, belonging to the Weasel family. 
The body is elongated and slim, the ears larger 
than in the weasel, the tail bushy, the legs short, 
and the feet have five toes, with long sharp claws. 
Martens live generally in thick woods, and can 
climb trees with the greatest ease. They feed on 
rats, mice, birds, and other small animals. They 
are widely distributed, over Europe, Asia, and 
North America. The sable marten inhabits Si¬ 
beria, and furnishes the highly valuable sable 
fur. The pine marten, or American sable, is 
found in the northern parts of North America, 
especially in the thick pine woods. It is much 
hunted for its fur, which is very handsome and 
highly prized. 

Mar / tin. A genus of birds of the Swallow family. 
Ihe best known of the American species is the 
purple martin. It will readily nest in a bird-box, 
near houses. 

Mas / sage. A system of medical treatment by 
kneading, rubbing, and stroking the muscles, 
used especially for nervous diseases. 

Mastiff. A large dog, noted for its strength and 
courage, often used for watching houses. 

flas'todon. A kind of large animal allied to the 
elephant, but larger and with tusks of great 
length. It was formerly abundant in the United 
States, and probably lived in the early human 
period, but is now only found as a fossil. 



ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 433 


Match. A small splint of wood, tipped with 
some very inflammable composition, which 
bursts into flame upon friction. The first used 
were brimstone matches, tipped with sulphur. 
In 1829 an English chemist discovered friction 
matches, and the making of matches is now an 
important industry. The best wood for matches 
is white or yellow pine. The wood is cut into 
blocks, and the blocks into square splints. The 
splints are dipped into melted sulphur, aild after¬ 
wards into phosphorus, mixed with nitre, fine 
glue, etc. Safety matches can be kindled only 
by rubbing upon the side of the box, on which 
the phosphorous composition is glued. 

Mat/tock. [AS. mattnc , a shovel.] A tool of 
husbandry, used for digging and grubbing up 
roots of trees and weeds. 

Hat/tress. [O.F. materas.] A quilted bed, stuffed 
with hair, wool, or other soft material, instead 
of feathers. 

Ha'vis. [Fr. mauvis.] A thrush ; properly the 
song-thrush, not the screech-thrush. 


Medal. A circular piece of metal stamped or en¬ 
graved with a head or design upon it and issued 
usually to celebrate or mark some great event. 

Meerschaum. [Ger. meer , the sea ; and schauin , 
foam.] A light, soft magnesian mineral, used 
in Turkey and Germany in the manufacture of 
tobacco-pipes. 

MeFon. [Fr., from U. melo.~\ A plant of the 
Gourd family, to which the cucumber also 
belongs. It is an annual, with trailing stems, 
angular leaves, yellow flowers, and bearing a 
large juicy fruit, which possesses a delicious 
flavor. It is largely cultivated. The native 
country of the melon is unknown, but there are 
numerous varieties found throughout Europe, 
Asia, and America. The two principal kinds of 
melons in the United States are the musk-melon 
and the water-melon ( citrullus ). 

MenFbrane. [Fr. membrane.'] A thin organ, 
resembling a supple elastic web, serving to secrete 
a fluid, or to separate, envelop, and form other 
organs. 

Mercury. [L. mercurius.] A metal of a silvery- 
white color, also known by the name of quick¬ 
silver. It is a liquid at ordinary temperatures, 
becomes solid at 39 0 below zero F. and boils at 


662° F. Small drops of the pure metal are 
sometimes found, but its common ore is cinnabar 
(mercury sulphide), composed of mercury and 
sulphur. Mercury unites with most metals to 
form alloys called amalgams. These are very 
extensively used in the processes of silvering 
and gilding, in the production of vermilion, and 
in extracting gold and silver from their ores. 
Mercury is used in making barometers and ther¬ 
mometers, and in various medicines. Cinnabar, 
the ore from which mercury is chiefly obtained, 
is found in Almaden (Spain), Illyria, and the 
Ural Mountains, and in California, Peru, China, 
and Japan. 

Mer / cury. The smallest planet, and the one near- 
estto the sun ; its distance being 36,000,000 miles. 
It is 2,992 miles in diameter, and moves around 
the sun at the speed of 105,000 miles an hour, its 
year being equal to 88 of our days. Its period of 
rotation on its axis is not known. 

MeridKian. [L,. meridies , mid-day.] A great cir¬ 
cle thought of as passing through the North and 

South Poles, and also 
through any place on the 
earth’s surface. Thus 
every place has its own 
meridian, and it is mid¬ 
day at any place on the 
earth’s surface when the 
centre of the sun comes 
upon the meridian of that 
place. 

rierFno. [Span.] A 
breed of sheep with fine 
wool; originally in Spain, 
now largely raised in the 
United States and Aus¬ 
tralia ; also the name of 
a cloth made from this 
wool. 

Merry=thought. A forked bone between the 
neck and breast of a fowl; so called from being 
that which two persons pull at in play. The one 
who breaks off the longer part has the omen of 
being first married. Also called wish-bone. 

Met/als. [U. metallum.] Minerals having cer¬ 
tain properties, the chief of which are—1. They 
are all opaque, and they all have a shiny surface 
known as the metallic lustre. 2. They are good 
conductors of heat and electricity. 3. With the 
exception of gold and copper, their color is a 
grayish white. 4. With the exception of mer¬ 
cury, they are all solids at ordinary temperatures. 
5. All metals can be melted, but the tempera¬ 
tures at which they assume the fluid form vary 
very much. 6. Great weight, most metals being 
heavier than water. Platinum is more than 
twenty times as heavy as water. Metals differ 
from each other in malleability, ductility, and 
tenacity. A metal is said to be malleable when 
it can be hammered out into thin sheets. Gold 
is the most malleable, and next to it in order are 
silver, copper, platinum, iron, tin, zinc, and 
lead. Some metals are so brittle that they cannot 
be hammered at all. When a metal can be drawn 
out like wire, it is ductile. Gold is the most 



28 G 













434 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


ductile of all metals. When a metal has the 
power of holding together under a strain, it is 
said to have tenacity. Iron is the most tenacious 
or elastic of all metals. 

fle'teor. [Fr. meteore.] Any natural phenom¬ 
enon in the atmosphere or clouds; applied 
particularly to a fiery or luminous body occa¬ 
sionally seen moving rapidly through the atmo¬ 
sphere, and to a fireball; called also a falling 
star. ( q.v .) 

Me / tre. [Fr. metre.'] Unit of the metric system 
of length, equal to 39.37 English inches. 

MFca. [E. mica , a small bit.] A mineral found 
in granite and most of the other primary rocks. 
It easily divides into glittering plates of great 
thinness. It is so transparent that it is used in 
Siberia, China, Peru, and other countries as a 
substitute for glass in windows. Mica is some¬ 
times preferred to glass for lanterns, and is also 
used for doors of stoves, as it is not so liable to 
break with sudden changes of temperature. 

Microphone. An apparatus for magnifying very 
faint sounds, by variation of electrical resistance. 
It forms the basic principle of the carbon tele¬ 
phone transmitter. 

niCroscope. [Gk. mikros, small; and skopein , to 
see.] An instrument for viewing objects which 

are too small to be seen 
with the naked eye. 
A simple microscope 
consists of a tube hav¬ 
ing one convex lens, 
which magnifies the 
object; while a com¬ 
pound microscope has 
two convex lenses in a 
tube, one of which is 
called the object-glass, 
and the other one the 
eye-glass. In the com¬ 
pound microscope the 
thing looked at is first 
magnified by the ob¬ 
ject-glass, and this is 
again magnified by the 
eye-glass. The micro¬ 
scope is an interesting 
and wonderful instru¬ 
ment, and by its means 
many living things in¬ 
visible to the naked 
eye are revealed. The 
microscope is also ap¬ 
plied to the study of rock structure by grinding 
down the stone to thin sections. Preparations for 
the microscope are preserved on glass slips (3x1 
in.) covered by very thin glass fastened by Can¬ 
ada balsam or shellac. 

MignonnetteE [Fr. mignonnette.] An annual 
plant and flower prized for its delicate and agree¬ 
able fragrance. 

Milk. [AS.] A white fluid secreted in the mam¬ 
mary glands of the females of all mammals. 
When examined under the microscope, milk is 
seen to consist of a clear fluid, filled with round 
floating balls of fat of very minute size, each one 


enclosed in a separate film or thin skin of albu¬ 
men. When milk has stood for some time these 
balls of fat rise to the surface, and form a layer 
of cream. When cream is churned the cases of 
the balls are broken, and the fat runs together 
and makes butter. Skimmed milk is that which 
remains after the cream is removed. Condensed 
milk is prepared from that of the cow, sweetened 
with sugar and boiled down until the water is 
out of it, thus forming a thick, sweet paste, 
which is sealed up in tin cans. 

MiFlet. [Fr., from L. milium.] The name of 
several kinds of grasses bearing a great number 
of small round seeds used as food. The common 
millet is a native of the East Indies, but is also 
cultivated in the warmer parts of Europe, Africa, 
the United States, and the West Indies. The 
seeds are ground up into meal for bread. Certain 
kinds of millet bear seeds used as food for cattle, 
poultry, and cage-birds. 

Milkweed. A family of plants found in North 
and South America, which are full of milky 
juice. The seeds are covered with a silky down, 
which has been mixed with cotton and woven 
into cloth. The root is used in medicine. 

Milky Way. A broad, luminous belt encircling 
the sky, and shown by the telescope to be made 
up of a countless multitude of suns, so immensely 
distant as to be very dimly visible. There are 
probably more than a thousand millions of suns 
in this wonderful belt. 

Mimo'sa. [Gk. mimos , imitator.] A genus of 
leguminous plants, including among' its species 
the sensitive plant, so called from its seeming to 
imitate the sensibility of animal life. 

Mine. [Fr. mine.] A subterraneous work or ex¬ 
cavation for obtaining metals, metallic ores, or 
other mineral substances. The deepest mine is 
the Spensenberg, near Berlin, 4,175 feet. 

Mineral. [It. minerale.] A natural body desti¬ 
tute of organization or life ; a substance found in 
or on the earth which is neither animal nor 
vegetable. 

flineral Waters. Waters or springs impregnated 
with mineral substances. 

ITink. A quadruped of the Weasel tribe, often 
called minx, and valued for its fur, which is of a 
chestnut-brown color. It is found in the cold 
parts of North America, Europe and Asia, living 
on the banks of rivers and lakes, and feeding on 
small birds, fishes, frogs, and mussels. 

Min / now. [Fr. menu, small.] The name applied 
to several species of very small fishes found in 
fresh water ponds and rivers. Minnows average 
from 2 to 3 inches in length, and feed on aquatic 
plants, worms, insects, and small snails. They 
are generally caught by a small hand-net, and 
used as bait to catch other fish. 

Mint. [AS., from E. mentha.] The name of a 
strongly-smelling plant, with flowers in whorls. 
Numerous species are known, widely distributed 
over the world, but the most important are spear¬ 
mint and peppermint. Spearmint is the common 
mint found in gardens, and is largely used in 
making mint-sauce and for flavoring soups. The 
oil of mint is distilled from the leaves, and from 










ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


4 35 


the oil are made the essence of mint and mint- 
water. Peppermint is cultivated chiefly for the 
oil which it yields, so much used for flavoring 
confectionery and for making cordials and es¬ 
sences. Essence of peppermint is made by mixing 
the oil wdtli alcohol, and is used in medicine. 

Mi'rage. An optical illusion often seen in hot 
climates, especially in deserts. Travelers appar¬ 
ently see a broad lake with surrounding trees, 
w 7 here only desert sand exists. It is a phenom¬ 
enon of refraction. 

Mir'ror. [Fr. miroir.~\ A plate of glass lined at 
the back with a brilliant metal, so as to reflect 
the image of any object placed before it. Mirrors 
are made by coating the back of a sheet of plate- 
glass w r ith an amalgam of mercury and tin-foil. 
In ancient times mirrors were made of polished 
metal. Ordinary mirrors have flat surfaces, but 
there are also convex mirrors , which cause the 
rays of light to diverge and decrease the size of 
the reflected image, and concave mirrors , in 
which the rays are reflected to a focus and the 
image magnified. Beyond the focus it is inverted. 



MILK UNDER THE MICROSCOPE 


Hist. [AS.] Moisture visible in the air ; rain in 
very fine and almost imperceptible drops. (See 
Fog.) 

Mis / tIetoe. [AS. mistelta.'] An evergreen plant 
that grows on the branches of many kinds of 
trees. In winter it is covered with small white 
berries. This plant was held in great veneration 
by the Druids and is now used in the Christmas 
festivities. 

Mi / tre. [Fr., from Gk. mitral A crown or 
head-dress worn by archbishops and bishops 
during solemn church services. 

Mitre=joint. The joint made by the ends of two 
pieces of wood fitted together at a right angle, as 
in the corners of a picture-frame. The mould¬ 
ings are usually sawn in a mitre-box , the sides of 


which have saw-cuts through them at an angle 
of 45° to guide the saw in cutting. 

Moc'casin. A venomous snake of the United 

, States, resembling the rattlesnake, but without 
a rattle. The name is sometimes given impro¬ 
perly to the copperhead. Also the shoe of buck 
skin formerly worn by the Indians. 

Mock/ing=bird. A bird which gets its name from 
its habit of imitating the songs of other birds. 
It is a kind of thrush, found only in North and 
South America and the West Indies. Its form is 
graceful, but its plumage is not very handsome. 
Its own song, which is sweet and pleasing, is 
heard mostly at night. During the day it 
imitates the songs of other birds, passing from 
one to another with the greatest ease, now war¬ 
bling like a canary or blue-bird, then cackling 
like a hen or screaming like a swallow. It can 
imitate various other sounds, and readily learns 
to whistle a tune. Mocking-birds feed chiefly on 
berries and insects, are easily tamed, and live 
happily in cages if caught when young. 

Mo / hair. [Fr. moireI\ The hair of a kind of 
goat found in the neighborhood of Angora, in 
Asia Minor, and now also at the Cape and in 
California. The covering of this goat is a long, 
soft, silky, pure white hair or wool, which is 
woven into varieties of camlet, shawls, and 
trimmings, and in France into a fine kind of 
lace. 

Molas'ses. [U. niellaceus , honey-sweet.] The 
thick liquid of the juice of the sugar-cane, 
which separates from it in the process of manu¬ 
facture. (See Cane Sugar.) 

Mole. [O E- mold warp = thrower-up of mould 
or earth.] The mole is found in Europe, Asia, 
Africa, and North America ; but is not found in 
Ireland or in the Western Isles of Scotland. From 
its habits and mode of life it is one of the most 
interesting of mammals. It lives underground, 
and seldoms sees the light. Its food consists of 
earthworms and the larvae of insects. It has a 
long cylindrical body, very short limbs, and a 
pointed snout. Its forearms, hands, and claws 
are shaped into strong tools for scraping, digging, 
and shoveling away the earth. The eyes are 
completely hidden in the fur, and though the 
sense of sight is probably very imperfect, the 
senses of hearing and smelling are very acute. 
Moles in making their tunnels damage the roots 
of plants, but they are very useful in destroying 
a vast number of grubs, which would otherwise 
feed on and do more damage to the roots than 
the moles. 

MoHlus'ca. [L,. mollis , soft.] The animals in¬ 
cluded in this group have soft, inarticulated 
bodies, usually inclosed in a shell, the body cov¬ 
ered with a sensitive contractile skin, kept moist¬ 
ened by a viscid fluid which exudes from it. In 
one large division of molluscs (gastropods) the 
under surface of the body is covered by a 
broad fleshy disc or foot, on which the animal 
glides slowly along. Snails and slugs possess 
this foot. Of the shell-covered molluscs some 
live in univalve, others in bivalve, or multivalve 
shells. To the bivalves belong, oysters, mussels, 






43 ® 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


and cockles; to the univalves snails, whelks, 
cowries, limpets, etc. The shells of the former 
class are joined by a hinge, and the inhabitanthas 
the power of opening and closing the valves at 
will. Many of the inhabitants of the univalve 
shells have a horny or shelly plate attached to 
their bodies, which serves the purpose of a door 
when the animal retires within its house. This is 
well illustrated in the common periwinkle. 

Mon / ey. [E. moneta.'] Stamped metal, generally 
of gold, silver, or copper, used in traffic, or as 
the measure of price. The term money is now 
applied to whatever serves as a circulating 
medium, including bank motes and drafts, as 
well as metallic coins. 

Mon'key. [Ital. monicchio .] The name of a 
family of animals found in the tropical parts of 
America, Asia, and Africa. They resemble man 
more than an}* other animals, both in their out¬ 
ward form and in their skeletons, and they some¬ 
time act very much like man. They live mostly 
in trees, which they climb with great ease. 
Their food consists of fruits, nuts, and insects. 
They are cunning and mischevious, and, if the 
higher apes be included, are the most intelligent 
of the animals below man. Many of the Amer¬ 
ican apes have prehensile tails, by the aid of 
which they can swing from branch to branch. 



MITRE BOX AND SAW 


Monogram. [Gk. monos , alone ; and gramma, 
a letter.] One, two, or more letters interwoven 
as a cipher or abbreviation of a name, and used in 
seals, coats of arms, etc. 

Monsoon 7 . [Ital. from Arab. = a time or season.] 
The wind that blows over the Indian Ocean from 
the north-east from October to April, and in the 
opposite direction during the rest of the year. 

Month. [AS. monadh , from mona, the moon.] 
The twelfth part of the calendar y ear—popularly 
the space of four weeks. The calendar month 
has 30 or 31 days, except February, which has 
28, and in a leap year 29 ; the lunar month is 
29 days 12 hrs. 44 min. 2.684 sec ; and the side¬ 
real month is 27 days 7 hrs. 43 min. 11.545 sec. 

Moon. [AS. mona.~\ The globe or satellite which 
moves round the earth and reflects the light of 
the sun upon it. In form it is an almost perfect 
sphere of 2,163 miles in diameter, and revolves 
at a mean distance from the earth’s centre of 
238,840 miles. The moon presents as large a 
surface to the eye as the sun, but it is really 


many million times smaller, and looks as large 
only because it is so much nearer. It moves 
round the earth in a nearly circular orbit in a 
little less than a month. The time occupied by 
the moon in passing from one star to the same 
star again is called a sidereal month. For every 
revolution in the moon’s orbit it rotates once on 
its axis, so that one side of the moon is always 
invisible to the earth. At times, however, owing 
to its vibratory motion, we see a little more than 
the side which usually faces the earth. When 
the moon is between the sun and the earth, it is 
invisible, and on becoming visible is called “ the 
new moon,” and when the earth is between the 
moon and the sun, the whole surface becomes 
visible, and in this state we have what is called 
“full moon.” The interval from new moon to 
new moon again—that is, the time occupied by 
the moon in passing from the sun round to the 
sun again—is called the synodic month. It is 
longer than the sidereal month, its mean value 
being 29.53 days nearly, and this is the length of 
the ordinary lunar month. From “new” to 
“ full ” the moon increases in apparent size, and 
then begins to decrease in size, until it returns 
to the condition of the new moon. In the phases 
before and after new moon a faint illumination of 
the part not directly lighted up by the sun is 
visible. This is called the “ earth shine,” and is 
due to the reflection of light received from the 
earth. An eclipse of the moon takes place when 
it gets into the shadow of the earth, and an 
eclipse of the sun when the moon comes between 
the sun and the earth. To the naked eye the 
surface of the moon presents a mottled appear¬ 
ance, some parts being light and others dark. 
Viewed through a telescope the surface appears 
to be covered with mountains, valleys, and plains, 
like the surface of the earth; only in the moon 
everything is barren and desolate, like the coun¬ 
try around volcanoes, and there are no seas, lakes, 
or rivers. The harvest moon is the full moon 
that occurs nearest the autumnal equinox (Sept. 
23). (See Eclipse .) 

Moose. The largest of the Deer family, equal in 
size to the horse, and standing very high. Its 
broad antlers weigh from 50 to 70 pounds. It is 
found in northern New England and Canada, and 
closely resembles the elk of Europe. 

Mordant. [Fr., from L. mordere , to bite.] A 
substance, such as alum, for making colors firm 
and permanent. In gilding , the size used to 
make gold-leaf adhere. 

Morocco. [ Morocco , in North Africa.] A fine 
kind of leather made from goat-skin. It includes 
imitation French kid, brush kid, glazed kid, 
pebbles, straight-grained goat, and oiled goat. 
(See Leather.) 

Mor 7 tar. [D. mortariumi] Sand with slaked 
lime and water, mixed thoroughly into a paste, 
and put between stones and bricks to fasten them 
together. (See Cement.) 

Mortise. [Fr. mortaise.'] A hole or hollow cut in 
one piece of timber to receive the end of another 
piece made to fit, called the tenon. The junction 
of the two pieces is called a mortise-joint, and 


































































437 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


is much, used in putting together the frames of 
houses, and in making doors and shutters. 

Mosaic. [E. musivum opus , mosaic work.] Or¬ 
namental work formed of small pieces of colored 
marble, precious stones, or glass, laid in figures 
or patterns, attached by being bedded in cement. 

Mosquito. [Span., from E. musca , a fly.] A 
species of gnat that abounds in marshes and 
woods, and whose sting is very painful. They are 
very widely distributed, being found in the cold¬ 
est as well as in the hottest countries. A long 
proboscis or sucker projects from the head, with 
several little bristles or lancets sharper than the 
finest needle. These bristles prick the skin, and 
the insects draw up the blood through the pro¬ 
boscis, and a poisonous juice is squirted into the 
wound, which causes great itching, and some¬ 
times a bad sore. It is supposed also that the 
microbe of malaria is thus implanted in the 
blood of man. Mosquitoes feed chiefly on the 
juices of plants, rarely on blood. 

Mosses. ( Musci .) A class of small flowerless 
plants, with simple branching stems and numer¬ 
ous narrow leaves. There are about 3,000 species, 
growing chiefly in cool and rocky regions, and 
also in bogs and swamps. Cold swamps are 
everywhere being filled with sphagnum and 
other mosses, whose remains accumulate, and are 
in time condensed to peat—a valuable fuel where 
wood and coal are scarce. 

Moth. [AS.] An insect like a butterfly, but 
without thickenings on its antennae, seen mostly 
flying about at twilight or during night. There 
are many kinds, and they vary in form, size, and 
color. The clothes-moth, the larvae of which 
eat holes in clothing, carpets, and furs, is among 
the smallest of moths. 

floth / er=of=pearI. The hard, silvery, brilliant 
substance, called nacre, which forms an internal 
layer in several kinds of shells. Most of it is got 
from the shells of the pearl oyster, brought in 
considerable quantities every year from the East 
Indies, South America, and the Pacific Islands, 
and manufactured into knife handles, buttons, 
studs, and ornaments. It is also used in inlaying 
and for papier-mache work. 

Mound Builders. The ancient Indians who 
erected the earth-mounds, so common in the 
Mississippi and Ohio Valleys. They are thought 
to have been the ancestors of some of the present 
tribes, especially those of the Southern States. 

Mouse. [E. mus.] A small and well-known 
quadruped, found in almost all countries, and 
infesting dwelling-houses, granaries, and fields. 
The common house-mouse is a timid and harm¬ 
less animal, but often does much mischief. The 
field-mouse and the harvest-mouse are the pests 
of farmers, causing much destruction of growing 
grain. 

MuFlet. [Fr., from E. inullus.~\ A fish, often 
found in river-mouths and near the coast, which 
eats mud for the organic debris it contains, and 
is highly esteemed as food. The chief kinds are 
the red mullet and the gray mullet. 


MuFberry. [AS.] A genus of trees bearing a 

succulent mass of fruit of 
a purplish-black color and 
fine aromatic flavor. The 
fruit is much esteemed for 
dessert, and a pleasant 
light wine and an excellent 
preserve are made of it. 
The leaves of the mulberry 
are used for feeding silk¬ 
worms. 

Mule. [AS., from E. 
mulus. ] An animal which 
is a lialf-breedb etween the 
male ass and female horse. 
The head, ears, and tail 
resemble those of the ass, 
but in bulk and height the 

MULBERRY LEAF AND WORM. 1 • ,. °. 

• mule is nearer the horse. 
It is very sure-footed, and of great value 
for traveling in mountainous countries. Mules 
are largely used as beasts of burden in Spain, 
Portugal, Italy, and Spanish America; and in 
some of the southern States of North America 
they are employed for work on plantations. In 
recent wars mules have been found most useful 
transport animals. 

Muriion. [Fr. moulure.~\ The upright bar or 
division between the lights of windows, screens, 
and panels in Gothic architecture. 

MunEmy. The preserved body of a human being 
or animal. In Egypt the bodies were preserved 
by a process of embalming; and multitudes of 
mummies exist thousands of years old. In 
ancient Peru the same effect was produced by 
sun-drying. Dried bodies are also found in the 
Cliff Dwellings of the Western United States. 

Muscle. [Fr., from E. musculus.~\ The fleshy 
parts of the body, which have the power of con¬ 
tracting and of moving the joints with which 
they are connected. Muscles are striated and 
voluntary, or non-striated and involuntary. 
They are composed of fibres laid side by side, 
forming bundles, which are attached to the bones 
by tough whitish strings called sinews or tendons. 
The various bones of the body are moved by 
about 400 muscles. 

MusfProom. [Fr. mousseron.~\ A fleshy plant 
belonging to the fungi, with a short white stalk 
and a flat or rounded head, umbrella-shaped, 
which grows up in pasture-fields sometimes in a 
single night. Many kinds can be eaten, and 
some are used in making ketchup. 

Musk. [E. muscusJ] A substance with a strong 
and persistent odor, obtained from the male of 
the musk-deer, which inhabits the mountainous 
parts of Central Asia. Musk is one of the 
strongest of all perfumes, and is much used by 
perfumers. 

Mus / ket. [Fr. rnousquet.~\ The name formerly 
given to the common gun in the hands of sol¬ 
diers, which was then discharged by means of a 
lighted match, but in which a spring-lock is now 
employed. (See Rifle .) 






43 » 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


Musk=ox. A ruminating animal, between the 
sheep and the ox in character, found in the 
northern parts of America and even in the north¬ 
ernmost part of Greenland. Warmth is obtained 
from its very thick hair. When fat the flesh is 
well flavored, but musky in smell. 

Musk=rat. The name of two distinct species of 
animals, one found only in America, much 
hunted for the sake of its fur, from 
400,000 to 500,000 skins being annu¬ 
ally imported into Britain ; the other 
common in Europe. Both exhale a 
very strong odor of musk. 

Mus / lin. [Fr. mousseline , from 
Mosul in Asiatic Turkey, where this 
cloth was first made.] A fine, thin kind 
of cotton cloth, of a light and soft 
texture, and not woven so compactly 

as calico. 

Mus'sel. [T. musculus.'] The name applied to 
several common bivalve shell-fish, of which the 
common sea-mussel is the most important, and 
is largely used as bait for deep-sea fishing. In 


some districts of Europe it is used as an article 
of food. Near Rochelle, in France, there are 
large “mussel farms,” and hundreds of people 
are employed in planting and gathering the 
mussels. 

Mustang. The name given to the small wild 
horses of Texas, California, Mexico, etc. 

Mus / tard. [L,. mustum.~\ The seeds of the mus¬ 
tard plant grouud to powder and used as a sea¬ 
soning for meat. The mustard plant is an annual, 
about 3 feet high, with sweet-smelling yellow 
flowers and seeds in little pods. 

Myrrh. [L .myrrha.] A pleasant-smelling gum- 
resin obtained from the sap of the myrrh-tree, 
which grows in Arabia and Abyssinia. It is used 
in medicine as a tonic for disorders of the diges¬ 
tive organs, to cleanse wounds, and as a tooth 
powder when the gums are spongy. 

Myr / tle. [L. myrtusd) A tree or evergreen 
shrub, with beautiful white flowers, shining 
leaves, and pleasant smell. The ancients con¬ 
sidered it sacred to Venus, and her temples were 
surrounded by groves of myrtle trees. 



N 


Nail. [AS. neegeli] A pointed piece of metal, 
with a round or flattened head, used for driving 
into wood or other material for the purpose of 
holding separate pieces together. Formerly 
nails were made by the hand; complicated ma¬ 
chinery is now employed in their manufacture. 
Nails vary in size and shape according to their 
different uses. They are now usually made of 
wire. 

Nail. The horny scale on the fingers and toes of 
man. (See Hoofs and Claw.) 

Nankeen 7 . [Nankin, in China.] A brownish- 
yellow cotton cloth made from a kind of cotton 
which grows in China. Imitations of this cloth 
are made in Great Britain and America, and are 
dyed yellow instead of being made of the cotton 
of that color. 

Nap. [AS. hnoppa.~\ The soft downy surface of 
cloth ; so called because, before it is dressed, it is 
composed of many little loops or knobs, which 
are afterwards cut and smoothed. 

Naphtha. [Pers. nafata, to exude.] A volatile 
bituminous liquid, of a strong peculiar smell, 
and very easily set on fire. When occurring nat¬ 
urally it is called rock oil or crude petroleum, 
and it is also obtained in the refinement ofpetrol- 
eum. It is used for illumination and to dissolve 
varnishes, etc. Coal naphtha is obtained by the 
distillation of ,coal tar, boghead naphtha from 
coal, and wood naphtha from wood. 

Nap'kin. [Fr. nappe , a tablecloth; and -kin, 
little.] A small cloth ; a cloth used for wiping 
the fingers and mouth at table. 

Narcissus. [Gk . narkissosP] A class of bulbous 
plants to which daffodils belong, cultivated for 
the sake of their fragrant and beautiful cup¬ 
shaped flowers, which possess narcotic proper¬ 
ties. 


Nar'whal. A marine mammal belonging to the 
Dolphin family, chiefly found in the Arctic seas. 
It is generally from 20 to 30 feet long, and is 
armed with a horny projection from the upper 
jaw, 6 to 10 feet long, and harder and whiter 
than ivory. It has sometimes two of these horns 
or tusks, but though thus armed is a very peace¬ 
able animal. 

Nasturtium. [L,. nasus, the nose ; and torqueo , 
to twist, in allusion to its pungent taste causing 
pain.] A plant cultivated both for ornament and 
use. It is a kind of cress, with white or yellow¬ 
ish flowers and a warm, pungent taste. The 
flowers are used in salads, and the seeds as a sub¬ 
stitute for capers. 

Nautilus. [Gk. nautilos, sailor, or shell-fish 
supposed to have a membrane which served as a 
sail.] A genus of shell-fish having a spiral shell, 
chambered with simple partitions perforated in 
the centre, concave towards the outlet of the 
shell. The outer chamber is the largest, and con¬ 
tains the body of the animal. The head of the 
animal has many simple tapered arms or tentacles. 
Four kinds are found living in the tropical 
Pacific, but there are many fossil kinds. It 
creeps along the bottom of the sea, and does not 
sail on the surface, as was formerly supposed. 

Neb'ula. A vapory patch of seemingly gaseous 
matter seen in the heavens among the stars, and 
sometimes of immense dimensions. Many of 
the supposed nebulae have been shown to be 
clusters of very distant stars, but others are proved 
by the spectroscope to be made up of luminous 
gas. Great numbers of them exist. 

Needle. [AS. ncedl .] The sewing-needle is a 
small instrument of fine steel wire, pointed at 
one end, with an eye at the other to receive a 
thread. In needles for sewing-machines the eye 
is at the pointed end. The magnetic needle is a 




ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


439 


^ma/1 piece of steel, pointed at both ends, and 
used in the mariner’s compass. By its magnetic 
properties it is attracted and directed to the 
poles. 

Neptune. The planet most distant from the sun, 
its distance being about 2,746,000,000 miles. Its 
diameter is about 37,300 miles, and its year equals 
164.6 of our years. It has one known satellite, 
which revolves around it in a direction opposite 
to that of the satellites of the other planets. 

Nerves. [L. nerviis.'] All the organs of the body 
are connected by nerves—each a bundle of nerve 
fibres enclosed in a special sheath—either with 
a great mass of nervous matter called the brain, 
or with a long thick nerve called the spinal cord, 
which runs down the centre of the back-bone. 
Delicate white threads or nerves pass from the 
brain through little holes in the skull to the ears, 
eyes, nose, mouth, etc. Long but very fine 
nerves extend from the spinal cord to all parts of 
the body. By the nerves sensations or feelings 
are transmitted to the brain. If the nerves going 
from the tip of a finger to the brain are cut, we 
can no longer feel anything with that finger. 
Again, if any part of the skin is touched, the 
sensation passes along a nerve to the spinal cord, 
and then up that great nerve trunk to the brain. 
But the nervous system does more than merely re¬ 
ceive sensations. All the movements of the 
muscles are directed and governed by the nerves, 
and similarly the action of all the other organs 
of the body is under the control of the nervous 
system. 

Net. [AS.] A fabric made of hemp, flax, or jute 
twine, and sometimes of cotton and other materi¬ 
als, worked into open meshes, and used in captur¬ 
ing fish, birds, butterflies, and small quadrupeds. 
Many kinds of nets are used by fishermen, but 
those most in use are the seine, drift, and trawl 
nets. 

Net / tle. [AS. netele.'] A genus of plants covered 
with extremely fine, sharp hairs, which pierce 
the skin when touched, and inject into the 
wounds an acrid juice, often causing much in¬ 
flammation and pain. The fibre of the nettle is 
very strong, and in some countries it is woven 
into cloth. The stalks and leaves are used in 
some parts of England for the manufacture of 
nettle-beer . 

New'el. The upright post about which the steps 
of a circular staircase wind; hence, in stairs 
having straight flights, the principal post at the 
foot of a staircase, or the secondary ones at the 
landings. 

Newt. Any one of the several species of small 
aquatic salamanders ; but the term is more com¬ 
monly applied to the animals which inhabit 
ponds, wet ditches, and other damp places. 

Nick'el. A metal discovered in 1751. It is of a 
silvery-white color, ductile, malleable, stronger 
than iron, and almost as hard to melt. Nickel is 
found in Russia, Norway, Germany, New Cale¬ 
donia, Canada, and the United States. It does 
not tarnish by exposure to moist air, is very 
susceptible of magnetism, and magnets are made 
pf it. Nickel is used for plating other metals, to 


which it gives a beautiful silver-like surface that 
keeps them from rusting. Nickel is used with 
steel wrought into armor plates for warships. 
German silver is an alloy of nickel, copper, and 
zinc, and some white compounds used for small 
coins are similar alloys. 

Night/ingale. [AS. nihtegale.'] A small European 
bird, rather larger than thehedge-sparrow, of a rich 
russet-brown color, and noted for its vocal powers. 
It sings in the evening, and the sweetness of its 
song is celebrated by the poets. 

Ni / tre. [Fr. nitre.~\ Saltpetre. A white crystal¬ 
line salt, of a cooling, slightly bitter taste, unal¬ 
terable in the air, and insoluble in alcohol. It is 
used in the manufacture of gunpowder, in the 
production of nitric acid, in medicine, as a 
fertilizer, and for preserving meat. 

Ni'tric Acid. The most important oxide of nitro¬ 
gen. Its chemical formula is N2 O5. It forms 
valuable compounds with most of the bases, and 
is useful also for its powerful oxidizing properties. 



NFtrogen. [Gk. nitron , nitre; and gennao, I 
produce.] The gaseous element which forms 
nearly four-fifths of the atmosphere. When 
alone or uncombined it does not possess any 
very active properties. In the air it serves to 
dilute the oxygen, which by itself would be too 
strong in its effects on life. Nitrogen is a color¬ 
less and transparent gas. It has neither smell 
nor taste, and it will not readily combine with 
other elements. It is very slightly soluble in 
water, and it is neither combustible nor a sup • 
porter of combustion, a lighted taper plunged 
into a jar containing nitrogen being at once 
extinguished. It forms many most important 
compounds, such as nitric acid, ammonia, and 
cyanogen. 

Ni / tro=gly / cerine. A liquid appearing like a 
heavy oil, colorless or yellowish, and consisting 
of a mixture of several glycerine salts. It is 
produced by the action of nitric acid on glycerine 
in the presence of sulphuric acid, and is terribly 
explosive. When compounded with siliceous 
earth it forms dynamite , and with wood, lignose. 

Nut. The fruit of certain trees consisting of a 
hard shell enclosing an edible kernel, differing in 
size from the beech-nut to the cocoanut—a piece 
of metal with a grooved hole, screwed upon the 
end of a screw-bolt. 

Nutmeg. {Nut, and L. muscus , musk.] The 
kernel of the nut of a tree which grows in the 
East Indies, much used in cookery because of 
its pleasant taste and smell. 











440 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


o 

Oak. [AS.] The name of a noble genus of trees, 
sometimes styled the monarch of the woods. A 
large proportion of forest trees are oaks, of which 
there are about 300 different kinds, spread over 
nearly the whole of the northern hemisphere, 
except the extreme north. Some oaks shed their 
leaves every year, and some are evergreens, and 
the leaves are alternate, but often variously 
lobed. The timber of the oak is hard and tough, 
and has been used from the very earliest times 
as the best material for shipbuilding. It is also 
employed in architecture, cabinetmaking, mill- 
work, and coopering, and the bark is used in 
tanning and dyeing. It bears a well-known nut, 
called the acorn, which is contained in a small 
woody cup. 

Oats. [AS. ate.~\ The grain of a corn-producing 
grass, which differs from wheat and barley in the 
loose arrangement of its spikelets on the stalk, 
forming what is termed a panicle. The oat is a 
hardy plant, well able to bear cold and moisture. 
Oatmeal is largely used in Scotland and in North 
America, and forms a very valuable article of 
food. Oats are excellent food for horses and 
cattle. 

Obelisk. A tall, tapering, four-sided pyramid, 
cut off at the top in the form of a flat pyramid. 
Obelisks, made from single stones, of great 
height, stood before the temples of Egypt, their 
sides closely carved with hieroglyphic inscrip¬ 
tions. 

0'cean. The great body of water which occupies 
five-sevenths of the area of the earth’s surface, 
and surrounds all the continents. It is divided 
into the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic, and 
Antarctic oceans. 

CKcelot. A member of the cat family, smaller 
than the leopard and the ounce. It is about 3 
feet long, and is found in America from Texas to 
Brazil, and in Sumatra. It climbs trees and feeds 
on birds and small animals. 

O'chre. [Fr. ocre.~\ A fine kind of iron clay, 
either red (hematite) or yellow (limonite), used 
with size for painting. 

Octupus. (See Devil Fish.) 

Oil Well. A well sunk to underground \»eds of 
petroleum. It consists of iron pipes sunk into the 
earth, following a drill which cuts an opening 
downward. Some of these wells are sunk to a 
great depth, the total number in the whole earth 
reaching probably 100,000. The oil sometimes 
flows out and sometimes is obtained by pumping. 
Oils. [Fr., from E. oleum. ] Greasy substances 
expressed or drawn from various animal, vege¬ 
table, and mineral bodies, as olive oil, whale oil, 
rock oil, etc. They are used for food, for sol¬ 
vents, for anointing, lubrication, illumination, 
etc. The mineral oils are varieties of petroleum. 

The vegetable oils are of two classes— essential 
oils and natural oils, which in general resemble 
the animal oils and fats. Most of the natural oils 
and the animal oils and fats consist of ethereal 
salts of glycerine, with a large number of organic 


acids, principally stearic, oleic, and palmitic, 
forming respectively stearin, olein, audpalmitin. 
Mutton tallow, beef tallow, and lard are rich in 
stearin, human fat and palm oil in palmitin, and 
sperm and codliver in olein. Oils are classified 
according to their properties, and include—(1) 
non-drying oils, as almond, mustard, olive, etc.; 
(2) drying oils, as linseed, walnut, poppy, hemp, 
etc.; (3) train and fish oils, as seal, sperm, whale, 
cod, etc.; (4) vegetable fats, as palm oil, cocoa- 
nut oil, etc.; (5) animal fats, as lard, butter, 
tallow, etc.; and (6) waxes, as palm-tree wax, 
bees-wax, etc. 

01 / ive. [E. oliva.~\ A tree or shrub with small 
oblong leaves, of which there are several species, 
the most important being the common olive, 
long cultivated in the south of Europe and Asia 
for its fruit. The olive has been much improved 
by cultivation. The oil is used in salads, in the 
arts, and in medicine, and the fruit for dessert 
purposes. Olive wood is very hard and is em¬ 
ployed for cabinet-work. 

Om'elet or Omelette. [Fr. omelette .] A food 
compound, made with eggs beaten up with flour, 
etc., and fried in a pan. 

OrFion. [Fr., from E. unio.~\ A genus of plants, 
which includes also the garlic, leek, and shallot. 
The onion is very extensively cultivated, and 
grows best in a rich and rather moist soil. Its 
root bears a round or oblong bulb, widely in use 
as a pot-herb and as a table food. It is very 
nutritious, and easily digested. 

O'nyx. A variety of chalcedony with some re¬ 
semblance to agate. It is made up of alternating 
parallel bands of different colors, and was used by 
the ancients in making cameos, the figures being 
cut in the white layers, while the darker layers 
formed the background. 

O'pal. [E. opalus. ] A mineral consisting of silica 
with a small admixture of alumina. Precious 
opal presents a fine play of colors, due to its 
great number of minute fissures, and is highly 
esteemed as a gem for setting in rings, brooches, 
and other ornaments. The finest opal comes from 
Hungary and Mexico. Common opal is semi¬ 
transparent, white, yellow, green, red, or brown, 
and has no play of colors. 

Op / era=gIass. A small double telescope, with 
concave lenses of low powers, for seeing clearly 
rather than magnifying objects at no great dis¬ 
tance, such as scenery and buildings, and the 
interiors of operas, theatres, etc. 

O pium. [E. opium, Gk. opion, poppy-juice.] A 
vegetable extract which is the most active of 
all narcotics, and a valuable medicine. It is 
obtained from the dried juice of the opium- 
poppy, which grows wild in many parts of Asia, 
and is now largely cultivated in India, Persia, 
and China, and to a considerable extent in some 
parts of Europe. Much of the opium raised in 
India is sent to China, where it is largely used 
for smoking, with baneful effects. As a medicine 
it relieves pain, allays irritation of the nervous 
system, and produces sleep. Morphia is the 





ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


441 


active principle, and the quality of the opium is 
judged by the quantity of morphia it contains. 
Laudanum, a crude preparation of opium in spir¬ 
its of wine, is the form in which opium is very 
largely used. 

Opos / sum. The name of several kinds of marsu¬ 
pial animals, 
found only 
i n America. 
The best 
known is the 
common Vir- 
g i n i a opos¬ 
sum, found 
all over the 
United States. 
In size it is 
about as large 
as a cat, but 
in shape more 
like a rat. It 
has short 
legs, a very 
long tail cov¬ 
ered with 
scales instead 
of hair, ex- 
c e p t at its 
base, and a 
sharp rat¬ 
like nose. In some opossums the pouch is absent. 
In several species the young are carried about on 
the back of their mother, and with their tails they 
cling to her tail, which is curved over her back. 

Or'ange. [Fr. and Ital., from Pers. naranj ', with n 
dropped.] An evergreen tropical and semi-tropi¬ 
cal tree, seldom rising above 25 feet in height. 
The fruit is usually round, and consists commonly 
of ten pulpy parts enclosed in a leathery rind. 
The flowers, which are of a delicate white color, 
appear in summer, but the fruit is not ready for 
picking till the following year. Hence flowers 
and fruit in various stages may be seen on the 
trees at the same time. There are numerous 
varieties of the orange, which is cultivated in all 
the warmer regions of the earth. In the United 
States it is raised largely in Florida and Califor¬ 
nia. The blood orange has a reddish juice. The 
mandarin orange is small, is thought to be of 
Chinese origin, and is counted a distinct species. 
The Seville or bitter orange is grown in large 
quantities in Spain, and imported into Great 
Britain and the United States for making mar¬ 
malade. The rind is made into candied orange- 
peel. The leaf, the flower, and the rind of the 
fruit all yield volatile oils. The scent of eau de 
Cologne is due chiefly to oil distilled from the 
orange flower, while the rind of the bergamot 
orange yields essence of bergamot, largely used 
in perfumery. 

Orang / =outang / . [Malayan = man of the woods.] 
An animal of the ape kind, found in Borneo, 
Sumatra, and Malacca. It is over 4 feet high, is 
reddish-brown and closely resembles man in 
many respects. It dwells only in forests, and 
moves rapidly from tree to tree. 


Or'chid. A family of plants, distinguished by the 
singular forms of their flowers, which in some 
cases resemble a bird or an insect. They are 
prized for their beauty, fragrance and singularity. 

Ore. The mineral from which metals are extracted. 
Metals usually exist in combination with oxygen, 
sulphur, or other elements; often with other 
metals. They are extracted from those com¬ 
pounds by the use of heat and various chemical 
processes. 

O'sier. [Fr. osier.'] The popular name of a 
species of willow, the long twigs of which are 
best adapted for basket-making and other wicker¬ 
work. (See Willow.) 

Os / mose. The process wdiich takes place when 
two fluids of different densities are separated by 
an animal membrane or by unglazed earthen¬ 
ware. They pass through the partition and 
mingle with each other, through the action of a 
kind of molecular attraction. 

Os / prey. [L. ossifraga ; os, a bone ; and frango, 
to break.] A bird of the family Falconidce , the 
bald buzzard, fishing-eagle, or fish hawk, a large 
bird of prey, living upon fish, which it takes by 
darting upon them with great rapidity and true 
aim. 

Os / trich. [Fr., from L. avis, a bird ; and struthio, 
an ostrich.] The largest of all birds, attaining 
an average height of from 6 to 8 feet. It is a 
native of the sandy plains of Africa and Arabia. 
It has long and very strong legs, and only two 
toes, and is remarkable for its speed in running, 
and valued for its feathers. Ostriches live chiefly 
on fruits, grain, leaves, tender shoots, snails, 
and insects. They swallow stones to grind 
their food with in the gizzard, and have been 
known to gulp down pieces of iron, glass, leather, 
and other hard things. An ostrich egg is very 
large, weighing about 3 lbs., and is thus equal to 
about two dozen ordinary hen’s eggs. The shell 
is thick and strong, and is much employed by 
the South African tribes for water-vessels. The 
ostrich is now domesticated in South Africa, and 
bred on farms for its feathers, oil, eggs, etc. 

Ot/ter. [AS. oter .] A genus of carnivorous 
aquatic quadrupeds, included in the Weasel 
family. This animal is larger than others of 
that family, being often 4 feet long, and differs 
from them in living mostly in the water. Its 
paws are webbed for swimming, and its food is 
chiefly fish. Its fur is short, thick, fine, and 
quite handsome. Otters are found in almost all 
parts of the world. The American or Canadian 
otter is most plentiful in Canada, where thou¬ 
sands are killed every year for their furs. 

Owl. [AS. ula.] A raptorial bird that howls or 
hoots at night. The owl has a short, stout form, 
downy feathers, and a large head with a flat face. 
The eyes are round and staring, and have a 
fringe of stiff feathers around them ; and the 
bill is short, strong, and hooked. During the 
day owls hide away in trees, caves, and old 
buildings; and in the dusk of the evening, when 
they see better than in broad daylight, they fly 
around looking for game. Their food consists 
chiefly of rats, mice, moles, squirrels, and other 






442 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


small quadrupeds; but they sometimes feed on 
other birds, and some of the smaller kinds eat 
moths, beetles, and other insects. They catch 
their prey with their claws, and swallow it whole 
at one gulp. There are many kinds— bar?i , 
eared , hawk , horned , screech , and snowy owls. 

Ox. [AS. oxa.~\ The general name for the dif- 



METAL BURNING IN OXYGEN. 


Pace. [Fr., from T. passus , a step.] The distance 
passed over in walking one step, estimated at 2 ]/ 2 
feet, but in measuring distances by stepping it is 
extended to 3 feet. 

Padlock. A hanging lock with a clasp which 
turns on a hinge at one end, and, passing through 
a staple or link, receives the bolt through an 
opening in its other end. 

Paint. [Fr., from L,. pingere , to paint.] All paints 
are made up of the substance which gives the 
color, usually called the pigment, and that with 
which the color is mixed. Pigments are mostly 
made from minerals, but some are got from 
vegetables and some from animals. Paints are 
mixed either with oil or water, and are therefore 
called oil-paints or water-colors. Oil-paints are 
usually mixed with linseed oil, but sometimes 
some kinds of nut oils are used. Water-colors 
are mixed with water and a little glue or gum. 

Palanquin. A covered litter used in China, India, 
etc., borne on the shoulders of men. 

Pal'ette. [Fr., from L. paletta , dim. of pala, a 
spade or shovel.] A little thin, oval board, or 
slab of ivory or porcelain, on which a painter 
mixes his colors, and which he holds by a thumb 
at one end. 


ferent species and varieties of the ruminant 
quadrupeds belonging to the genus Bos. The 
species is distinguished by having smooth, hol¬ 
low, persistent horns, growing on a bony core, 
by having the body thick and heavy, and the tail 
long, terminated by a tuft of hair. 

Oxygen. [Gk. oxus , acid; and gcnnein, to 
make.] A gas without color, taste, or smell, 
forming that part of the air which supports life 
and flame. It is also the principal component 
pait of water. Oxygen readily combines with 
almost every other element. Not only does it 
form about one-fiftli of the atmosphere, but it is 
also found in a great number of solid and liquid 
compounds. It has been estimated that this 
element alone forms about one-half by weight of 
the crust of the earth, being thus the most abun¬ 
dant of all the elements. When we see any sub¬ 
stance burning, we may be certain that what we 
call oxidatioii is going on—that is, that the 
matter of the coal, or the candle, or the gas, or 
whatever it may be, is combining with the 
oxygen of the air, and in the act of doing so is 
producing heat and light. 

Oys / ter. [Fr. huitre , from Gk. ostreon.~\ A genus 
of bivalve molluscs, much esteemed for food. 
Oysters are distributed very widely, and prin¬ 
cipally in the seas of warm and temperate 
climates. They are found on gravel and sand, in 
estuaries, and on the sea-coast, sometimes at¬ 
tached to rocks, trees, etc., at depths varying 
from the surface to seventeen fathoms. (See 
Clams.) 

CKzone. [Gk. ozein , to smell.] A gaseous sub¬ 
stance obtained from oxygen ; so named from its 
peculiar odor, which resembles that of weak 
chlorine. 


Palm. [I/. palma.~\ The name of about 1,000 
species of plants growing in warm climates. 
Their stems are erect and slender, often lofty, 
and generally without branches, crowned at the 
summit with a tuft of large radiating leaves. 
Most of them are noted for the variety and utility 



PAUANQTTIN. 

of their products. (See Cocoa ; Date.) 
Palmetto. The common name of the palm trees 
which grow in the southern United States. There 



























ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


443 


are several kinds, but the cabbage palmetto, 
extensively cultivated in the south-eastern States, 
is the principal one. It grows to a height of from 
2° to 3° feet. Its leaves are used for thatching 
buildings, and for making hats, baskets, mats, 
etc. As the ship-worm does not attack its wood, 
the timber is used for wharves and other wood¬ 
work under water. 

Pam / pas Grass. A tall grass which covers much 
of the pampas, or great plains of South America. 
Its leaves, 6 or 8 feet long, hang gracefully over, 
while from the centre arises the flower-stems, io 
to 14 feet high. It is much cultivated in the north 
as an ornamental plant. 

Pan 7 nier. [Fr., from k- panarium, a breadbas¬ 
ket.] A wicker basket; one of a pair of baskets 
slung over a horse’s back, for carrying fruit or 
other light articles. 

ParFsy. [Fr. pensee.~\ A name applied to the vari¬ 
eties of l iola tricolor , etc., cultivated in gardens 
under the name of heart' s-ease. (See Violet.) 

Pantaloon 7 . One of the chief actors in a panto- 
mine, who plays the part of a clown. He dresses 
in wide, long, garments—a kind of close long 
trousers, worn by males, extending from the 
waist to the feet. 

Panther. [Gk. panther .] A fierce flesh-eating 
African quadruped of the size of a large dog, 
spotted like a leopard, but darker in color. The 
Puma is often called the American Panther. 
(See Leopard.) 

Pan 7 tomine. A theatrical exhibition in which 
there is no conversation, the plot being indicated 
by gestures and scenic effect. Its characters are 
taken by adepts in mimicry and gesticulation. 

Papaw 7 . A small fruit tree of the south and south¬ 
west United States. Its fruit is a pod 3 or 4 
inches long and an inch thick, with two rows of 
large flat seeds. It has a yellow skin when ripe, 
and looks something like a banana. Its flesh is 
softer and sweeter than the banana. 

Pa 7 per. [k. papyrus. ] Paper may be described 
as thin layers of fine vegetable fibre. It is made 
from the following materials : linen and cotton 
rags, refuse flax and hemp, jute, esparto grass, 
straw, soft wood, and waste paper. In Amer¬ 
ica so considerable a quantity of wood is used 
that it is said the spruce is being depleted from 
many forests for this purpose. Esparto grass 
which grows in the south of Spain and the 
north of Africa, is the staple fibre used in Britain 
in the production of machine-made printing and 
ordinary writing-paper. Writing and printing 
papers can be made on the same machine, but 
their composition and character are totally differ¬ 
ent. Printi?ig-papers require to be compara¬ 
tively soft, open, and spongy, so as to absorb the 
ink freely ; whereas writing-papers require to be 
stiff, hard, and non-absorbent. The best writing- 
paper is made wholly from rags, but very good 
is made from combinations of rags, wood, straw, 

' or esparto. Names or devices or water-marks 
are put on the paper while it is traveling, in the 
form of half moist pulp, upon the “ wire ” of the 
paper-making machine. A light spider-ringed 
roll, covered with wire-gauze, and having the 


name or device projecting from its surface, is 
made to revolve upon the top of the pulp, leav¬ 
ing its stamp or impression upon it ; the water 
at the same moment being immediately with¬ 
drawn, leaves the depression permanent, and 
thus water-marks are simply thin portions of the 
sheet, varying in outline as letter or device 
stamps itself upon the pulp on the machine. 
The webs of paper from the machine are then 
cut into sheets of different length and width as 
required, and examined for imperfections. The 
recent development of book illustration requires 
a highly-finished paper, which is passed through 
a slight mist or fine spray and then run through 
a super calender. Writing-paper is glazed under 
heavy pressure between sheets of copper or zinc. 

Pap 7 ier=ma 7 che. [Fr .papier, paper ; and mache , 
mashed or chewed.] Paper mashed into pulp, 
and after being mixed with size or glue formed 
into various shapes by molds—as tea-boards, trays, 
and ornamental articles—and japanned when dry. 

Par 7 achute. [Fr. parer , to guard; #, against; 
and chute , a fall.] An instrument in the form of 
an umbrella, which enables a person, by its 
resistance to the air, to drop down safely from a 
balloon. 

Par 7 affin. Fr., from k. parum , little ; and affinis , 
related to.] A white substance of the nature of 
wax. It is got from shale, coal-tar, petroleum, 
etc., and is unattacked (hence its name) by such 
powerful oxidizing agents as nitric and chloric 
acid. The lighter and more volatile portions of 
petroleum are used as solvents for gums, fats, 
resins, etc.; and the less volatile portions are 
used for illuminating and for lubricating, or are 
converted into vaseline or paraffin wax, from 
which candles are made. 

Parch 7 ment. [Fr., from V. pergamena; Perga- 
mos , in Asia Minor, where it was first made about 
B.C. 190.] The skin of a sheep or goat dressed and 
prepared for writing on. Parchment used for 
covering drums is made from the skins of asses, 
calves, or wolves, those of w r olves being the best. 

Par 7 rot. [Fr. perroquet. ] The type of a large 
group of tropical birds, of numerous species, 
noted for their beautiful color and powerful 
hooked and projecting bill, which is used for 

' crushing seeds and fruits. Parrots use their bills 
as well as their claws in climbing trees, and use 
their feet to carry food to their mouths. Those 
usually kept as pets are the South American 
parrot, and the gray parrot, with scarlet tail, from 
West Africa. The latter is noted for its tame¬ 
ness, mischievousness, and power of imitating 
sounds. It is easily taught to whistle and to 
speak. Parrots live to a great age, instances 
being on record of these birds attaining an 
age of seventy or more years. 

Pars 7 Iey. [Fr., from Gk. petros , rock; and 
selinon, a kind of parsley.] An aromatic herb, 
with finely-divided leaves, used for seasoning 
soups and for dressing dishes. It is a native of 
the south of Europe. 

Pars 7 nip or Pars 7 nep. [k- pastinacak\ An aro¬ 
matic herb, cultivated for the sake of its root, 
which resembles a carrot, and is highly nutritious. 




ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


m 

The flesh of cattle fed on parsnips is excellent, and 
the butter of dairy cows fed on them is superior to 
that produced by other kinds of winter feeding. 

Par'tridge. [Fr., from Gk. perdix.'] A family 
of birds which includes also the quail. The 
common or gray partridge is found throughout 
Europe. Its flesh is much liked, and the bird is 
the delight of the sportsman. The red-legged 
partridge of southern Europe is found also in 
Asia. In the United States the quail is often 
called by the name of partridge. The partridge 
of New England is the ruffled grouse ; the spruce 
partridge is the Canada grouse. 

Pas / sion=flower. A beautiful climbing plant, 
remarkable for the elegance and singular form of 
•its flowers, which resemble “ a crown of thorns.” 
The roots and leaves are noxious, and are used 
in medicine. 

Pea. [AS., from U. pisum , a pea.] A garden and 
field plant of many varieties, with a papiliona¬ 
ceous or butterfly flower, and fruit in a legume 
or pod. It is supposed to belong to the south of 



THE OSTRICH. 

Europe, and has been cultivated in the East from 
remote antiquity. It is now one of the most 
common of garden plants, and is largely grown 
by market-gardeners, who find it a most profit¬ 
able crop. As an article of food peas are very 
valuable, containing a large percentage of casein , 
which is a flesh-forming principle. 


i Peach. [Fr., from U. Persicus = Prunits Persica , 
the Persian tree.] A well-known tree and its 
fruit, a native of Persia, largely cultivated 
throughout Europe and the United States. The 
peach tree is of medium size, with finely-serrated 
leaves and beautiful flowers, which appear before 
the leaves and diffuse an agreeable odor. The 
fruit is one of the most exquisite and delicious 
of temperate climates. In several of the United 
States there are immense orchards of peaches, 
and large quantities are sent to the northern 
markets, while the canning and drying of the fruit 
form an important industry. 

Pea'cock. [AS., U. pavo , a peacock.] One of 
the most beautiful of birds, of a nature similar to 
the pheasant, with a tail of very long, bright 
feathers. It is elegant in form and graceful in its 
movements, with a splendid crest or tuft on the 
head, while the feathers of its tail are of an emer¬ 
ald green, purple and gold, studded with richly- 
shaded eye-like markings, and are capable of 
erection. The female birds are smaller, and 
not nearly so handsome, being of a sombre 
brownish plumage, and presenting a striking 
contrast to the brilliant appearance of their 
mates. The cry of the peacock is very harsh 
and loud. Wild peacocks are still plentiful in 
many parts of India, and in Java, Sumatra, 
etc., and in these places hunting them forms 
a favorite amusement of the sportsman. The 
feathers of the peacock are used for trimming 
clothes and fans, and for ornamental brushes. Its 
flesh was eaten in ancient times. The Romans 
used to think it a great delicacy, and the emper¬ 
ors had dishes served at their feasts made entirely 
of the brains and tongues of peacocks. But pea¬ 
cocks are not much eaten now, as their flesh is 
not so good as that of the turkey and other fowls. 

Peanut. The fruit of a leguminous plant grow¬ 
ing in warm countries—-also called ground nut 
and earth nut. The plant is a trailing vine, with 
small yellow flowers. After the flowers fall the 
stem lengthens, bends downward, and the seed- 
pod on its end forces itself into the ground, 
where it ripens. Peanuts are raised in immense 
quantities in western Africa, South America, and 
the southern United States. They are used for 
food, and yield an oil resembling olive oil. 

Pear. [AS., from U. pirns , a pear-tree.] The 
pear-tree is very largely cultivated for the sake 
of its fruit. The tree grows wild in many parts 
of Europe, and is now cultivated in all temperate 
climates. It sometimes attains a height of 40 
feet, with a trunk from 2 to 3 feet in diameter. 
Ihe varieties of pears are very numerous, and 
though many of them are of little consequence, 
more than two hundred at the present day are 
enumerated as fit for the table, and new varieties 
are being added every year. Pears are preserved 
by canning, like peaches. The wood of the pear- 
tree is hard, fine-grained, of a yellowish color, 
and susceptible of a brilliant polish. It is largely 
used by turners, and sometimes dyed blackand 
used by cabinet-makers for ebony. 

Pearl. [O.E .perle.] A white, hard, smooth, shining 
substance, found in some shell-fish, especially in 









ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


445 


the pearl-oyster, river-mussel, and certain uni¬ 
valves. It is highly valued for its beauty, and 
used as a jewel. The shells are lined with a 
secretion of extremely thin semi-transparent 
films, and in due time layers of considerable 
thickness are formed, which gradually harden 
into the material known by the name of nacre, 
or mother-of-pearl. Besides the pearl lining of 
the shells, rounded portions of nacre or mother- 
of-pearl are found in the flesh of the oyster. 
These are supposed to be formed by the intrusion 
of some foreign body, such as a grain of sand, 
around which layers of nacre are deposited one 
after another, as many as from ten to twelve 
round pearls of different sizes being often found 
within one shell. The best pearls are found off 
the coast of Ceylon, in the Persian Gulf, on the 
coast of Australia, and on the Pacific coast of 
America. The pearl-fishing season lasts from 
four to six weeks. A fleet of about 250 boats is 
engaged in the fishery, each boat having a crew 
of thirteen men and ten divers, five of the latter 
being employed in diving whilst the other five 
are resting. The work is done very rapidly, as 
the divers cannot remain much more than a 
minute under water. Each diver is let down 
from the boat by a rope, weighted with a stone. 
The usual depth is from 60 to 70 feet. The most 
valuable pearls are those which are perfectly 
round ; but these are very scarce, and secure high 
prices. They are used to form the centre of 
necklaces. Pearls have been prized as articles of 
decoration and ornament in all ages of the 
world. Cleopatra is said to have owned two 
very large and beautiful ones. Many splendid 
pearls are owned by the different crowned heads 
of Europe ; but the Shah of Persia is said to have 
the finest. 

Peat. [For beat ; AS. betan, to make better , to 
mend (a fire). Same root as better .] A vegetable 
substance found amidst much moisture, as in 
marshes and morasses, and made up of roots, 
stems, and fibres in every stage of decomposition. 
When cut and dried it is often used for fuel in 
many places where wood and coal are scarce. 
The use of peat as fuel in the distillation of 
Scotch whiskey gives it its peculiar flavor. Char¬ 
coal made from compressed peat is superior to 
wood charcoal, and is capable of being used for 
smelting iron. 

Pec / cary. An American animal allied to the hog, 
but smaller. There are two species. One—about 
3 feet long—extends from Arkansas to Patagonia, 
the other from Central America to southern 
Brazil. The latter is extremely pugnacious and 
its herds are dangerous to meet. Even the 
jaguar retires before several of these animals 
banded together. 

PeFican. [E. pelicanus.'] A large web-footed 
water-bird, remarkable for its long, large, flat¬ 
tened bill, to which is attached a bag or pouch 
for holding the fish taken for food. Pelicans 
live along the shores of seas, lakes, and rivers. 
They hover over the water in search of prey, and 
plunge upon it when it appears, storing it in 
their pouch until it is full, when they go to some 


lonely place to bring it out at leisure to eat or to 
feed their young. Pelicans are natives of the 
eastern parts of Europe, and of many parts of 
Asia and Africa. The American white and brown 
pelicans abound on the Florida coast in winter, 
but breed on the North American lakes. 

Pen. [L. penna , a feather.] An instrument for 
writing with a fluid ink. In ancient times, pens 
were made out of reeds ; but after paper came 
into use they were made from quills, generally 
those of the goose and swan, and for extremely 
fine writing those of the crow. The manufacture 
of pens from steel was commenced about the be¬ 
ginning of the nineteenth century. Machinery is 
now largely used in the manufacture of pens, 
but the finer qualities are finished by hand labor. 
An ordinary steel pen has to go through some 
sixteen different processes ; while the gold pen, 
which is incorrodible with ink, and very largely 
manufactured in the United States, goes through 
no less than forty-five different processes. 

Pen'cil. [L. penicillus , a small tail or brush.] A 
pointedstrip of black lead, colored chalk, or slate, 
usually enclosed in a slight rod of wood, for 
drawing and writing ; but the term is also applied 
to small hair brushes used by artists, and it was 
to these that the name was originally given. 
The best lead pencils are now made in the United 
States, the purest black lead or plumbago being 
found there. The wood used for pencils is in¬ 
variably that of the Virginia or Florida cedar. 
Colored pencils are prepared by the use of various 
chalks instead of graphite. The chalk is reduced 
to powder, mixed with a little hot melted wax, 
and then pressed and cut into strips of the size 
required. Slate pencils are thin strips of slate 
cut out and afterwards rounded. The strips are 
sometimes cut very thin and put into wood 
casings like lead pencils. 

PerFdulum. [L,. pendulus. ] An instrument con- 
P, sistingofa 

r w we i g b t sus ' 

A T pended from a 

fixed point, 
and free to 
swing to and 
fro by the 
alternate force 
of momentum 
and gravity. 
It is used to 
regulate the 
move m e n ts 
of clock-work 
and other ma¬ 
chinery. The 
principal kinds 
in common use 
a r e—the sim¬ 
ple, the com¬ 
pound, the 
mercury, and the gridiron pendulums. 

PeiFguin. A genus of swimming birds included 
in the Auk family. Penguins exist in large 
numbers in the Antarctic seas, and along the 
southern coasts of Africa and South America, 


a 


6 


0 



SIMPLE. 

PENDULUM. 


COMPOUND 

PENDULUM. 


MERCURY 

PENDULUM. 


GRIDIRON 

PENDULUM. 


































44 ^ 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


Their front wings, which are without true quills, 
are too short for flight, and are used as fins or 
paddles in swimming under water. On shore 
these birds present a singular appearance, stand¬ 
ing erect in long regular lines, resembling files 
of soldiers. The plumage of the neck is valued 
for collars and tippets, and large numbers are 
slaughtered annually. 

Pen / ny. [AS.] An English coin, formerly of cop¬ 
per, now of bronze, worth one-twelfth ofa shilling. 
In the New Testament a silver coin of the value of 
about 7>^d. In the United States the name penny 
is often given to the cent , a coin of half the 
value. 

Pennyroyal. A kind of mint found in Europe 
and very fragrant. The United States pennyroyal 
is not a mint, but its scent is like that of the Eu¬ 
ropean plant and it has the same uses. A tea is 
sometimes made from it, and its oil is used to 
drive away flies and mosquitoes. 

Pepper. [AS., from L. piper .A common kind 
of spice, the dried berry of a climbing shrub 
which grows wild in the East Indies, but is now 
cultivated in most hot countries. The peppers of 
Malacca, Java, and especially of Sumatra, are the 
most esteemed. The berries are about as large as 
peas, and grow in clusters of twenty or thirty, 
somewhat like a bunch of currants, each berry 
containing a single seed. Cayenne pepper , first 
brought from Cayenne, in South America, is 
made from the pod of the capsicum plant, an en¬ 
tirely different kind of shrub from that which 
bears black pepper. The pod is green at first, but 
bright scarlet when ripe, and this gives the pep¬ 
per its red color. 

Peppermint. A small herb, of a strong spicy 
odor, much used for flavoring. This, with the 
spearmint and the pennyroyal, is used in medi¬ 
cine for its stimulant and carminative properties. 
Others of the mint family are the horse-mint, the 
brook-mint and the corn-mint, the latter smelling 
like decayed cheese. 

Pep'sin. [Gk. pepsis, cooking ; peptein, to digest.] 
The active agent in the gastric juice of many ani¬ 
mals. For use in drugs it is obtained from the 
glandular layers of pigs’ or calves’ stomachs. 

PerairUbulator. An instrument for measuring 
distances, made up of a wheel with an apparatus 
of clock-work, and a dial-plate upon which the 
distances traveled are shown by an index ; also 
the name given to a child’s carriage, pushed for¬ 
ward by a person walking. 

Perch. [Fr., from Gk. perke.~\ The name of 
several species of fishes of the genus Perea , fre¬ 
quenting the fresh waters and coasts of temperate 
and tropical regions. The fresh-water perch is 
widely distributed in lakes, ponds, and rivers in 
Europe, Asia, and North America. It is greenish 
yellow on the back, and bright yellow on the 
sides, which are marked with from five to seven 
blackish bands. The perch is very voracious, 
devouring smaller fishes, insects, worms, etc. 
It can exist out of water fora considerable time. 

Perfumes. [Fr., from L. per, through; and 
fumare , from fumus , smoke.] Scents made 
from sweet-smelling substances. They are ob¬ 


tained chiefly from plants, but some are got 
from animals. Vegetable perfumes are made 
from flowers, herbs, spices, seeds, gums, certain 
fruits and nuts, and various woods. Perfumes of 
animal origin are obtained from the musk, am¬ 
bergris, civet, and castor. Dry perfumes, such 
as incense and sachet powders, are simply gums, 
resins, dried herbs, etc., pounded or ground to 
powder. Liquid perfumes are mostly distilled 
from the different parts of plants. Such per¬ 
fumes are called essential oils. But the perfumes 
made from flowers, such as are used on the hand¬ 
kerchief, are mostly made, not by distillation, but 
by maceration and absorption. 

Periwinkle. [AS. pinewinclai] A sea-snail or 
small shell-fish, found in abundance between 
tide-marks on rocks or adhering to sea-weeds. 
Periwinkles feed on sea-weeds, and are often col¬ 
lected and boiled in their shells, from which they 
are afterwards extracted and used for food.—Also 
a trailing herb of the genus Vinca. 

Per'ry. The fermented juice of pears, prepared 
in the same way as cider, and used as a beverage. 

PersirrFmon. A tree bearing a small, rounded 
fruit in the United States; also in Japan. The 
fruit is yellow and pulpy, and when unripe is 
highly astringent, but is sweet and palatable 
after being frosted. A kind of liquor is made 
from persimmons. 

Pet/rel. [Perhaps from the apostle Peter’s walk¬ 
ing on the sea.] 
A genus of sea¬ 
birds allied to 
the gulls. The 
best-known spe- 
cics is the 
stormy petrel, 
well known to 
seamen as 
Mother Carey’s 
chicken. The 
appearance o f 
these birds i s 
considered t o 
presage a storm, 
and they are 
often seen dur- 
i n g storms a t 
sea skimming over the surface of the water as if 
walking on it. Their food consists of small ma¬ 
rine animals and seeds of sea-weeds, and they 
appear fond of fat or grease, for which they will 
follow in the wake of ships for great distances. 

Petroleum. [L., from Gk. petra , a rock; and 
oleum , oil.] Rock-oil, an inflammable liquid 
which exudes from the earth in various parts of 
the world. Petroleum has been known since the 
most ancient times, but it is only recently that 
its importance as a commercial production has 
been discovered. It is found in great quantities 
in the United States and at Baku, Russia, and in 
smaller quantities in several other countries. 
The oil is generally got by sinking deep holes, 
called wells, into the earth. In some of these 
wells the oil rises up and flows over, being forced 
out by a kind of gas ; but in others the oil has to 




ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


447 


be pumped out. In the oil-region in Pennsyl¬ 
vania there are now several thousand wells, some 
of which are more than a thousand feet deep. 
There is always a good deal of what is known as 
natural gas associated with petroleum. This gas 
is made up of carbon and hydrogen, and burns 
very brightly. It is carried in pipes to neighbor¬ 
ly towns and used for domestic and manufac¬ 
turing purposes. At one time Pittsburg used 
500,000,000 cubic feet daily in its factories and 
houses. 

The oil from the wells flows into large tanks, 
from which it is carried in iron pipes to the 
shipping places and places where it is to be re¬ 
fined or purified. There are more than two 
thousand miles of these pipes laid in the Penn¬ 
sylvania oil-region, and they reach from there to 
Philadelphia. At the refineries the oil is distilled 
and separated into oil for illuminating purposes, 
commonly called kerosene oil ; naphtha, used in 
making oil-cloths, and sometimes as a burning 
fluid ; benzine, used in making paints and var¬ 
nishes ; gasolene, used for making gas and for 
mixing with coal gas. (See Naphtha and 
Paraffin .) 

Pew / ter. [Ital. peltro.'] A common and very 
useful alloy, consisting mainly of lead and tin, 
improved in hardness and color by the addition 
of a little antimony, bismuth, and zinc. Britannia 
metal is a kind of pewter, made of tin and anti¬ 
mony, with a little zinc and copper. It is harder 
than common pewter, has a very fine silver¬ 
looking appearance, and is largely used for mak¬ 
ing tankards, coffee-pots, tea-pots, soup-tureens, 
and other table dishes. 

Pheasant. [L. phasianus.~\ The name of a 
family of birds, natives of Asia. The common 
pheasant, has been domesticated, but not success¬ 
fully in this country. Some species are remark¬ 
able for their great beauty of plumage. 

Phlox. A very ornamental North American genus 
of plants, bearing handsome flowers, of which 
many attractive varieties have been produced by 
the florist. 

Phce / nix. A fabulous bird of antiquity, eagle-like 
in form, and with gold and crimson plumage. It 
was said to live 500 years in the desert, then 
return to Egypt and build a nest. In this it was 
consumed, and a new bird sprang from its ashes. 
The word is now used in a metaphorical sense, to 
indicate the springing of the new from the old. 

Phonograph. [Gk. phone, a sound ; and grapli- 
ein , to write.] The phonograph, invented by 
Mr. Edison in 1877, is an instrument which 
mechanically records and reproduces articulate 
human speech, song, etc. Speaking in front of 
this instrument, a thin iron plate having a blunt 
steel point or pen fixed at its centre is made to 
made to vibrate ; the steel point by means of an 
ingenious mechanism, chronicles the vibratory 
movements by indenting a sheet of tin-foil, wax, 
or paraffin, with which it is brought into con¬ 
tact. The slip thus marked is then removed, 
and may be sent to any distance, or kept for a 
number of years, when it has only to be placed 
on a similar phonograph, and the operations 


reversed, in order to produce similar vibrations, 
which exactly reproduce the voice and the 
words originally spoken. The message can be 
read off as often as desired, until the indenta¬ 
tions are worn out. 

Phos / phate rock. A mineral, of organic origin, 
found in South Carolina and Florida, and to a 
smaller extent in other parts of the world. It is 
dug up and ground, and used for a fertilizer, it 
being rich in fertilizing properties. 

Phosphorus. [Gk. phos , light; and phoros y 
bringing.] A yellowish element resembling fine 
wax, which must be preserved under water. It 
is easily set on fire, and gives out a faint light in 
the dark. It is used for the tips of matches. It 
is found in the seeds of plants and in the nerves, 
bones, and other parts of the animal body. 
Phosphate of lime is abundant in bones, and 
from these phosphorous is now obtained. 

Photography. [Gk. phos y light; and graphein, 
to write.] The science or art of taking repre¬ 
sentations of objects by the action of light on a 
prepared surface. The surface, consisting of 
metal, glass, paper, or other suitable substance, 
is prepared by being coated with collodion or 
gelatine, and sensitized with the chlorides, 
bromides, or iodides of silver, or other salts 
sensitive to light. The picture obtained in the 
camera by means of exposing one or other of 
these sensitive surfaces to the light cannot be 
seen when the plate is removed, but by pouring 
over it a mixture of ferrous sulphate or pyrogallic 
acid it comes out little by little. This is called 
developing the picture. Any excess of unchanged 
sensitive salt is then dissolved off with sodium 
hyposulphite or other suitable reagents, and in 
this way the negative image is fixed, from which 
any number of positive prints may be taken, 
which are washed, toned, fixed, and then 
mounted.— Photogravure , a print from a copper 
or steel plate. The picture is produced on the 
plate by photography, and bitten in with acid 
instead of engraving.— Photo-lithograph , a litho¬ 
graphic picture or copy from a stone prepared by 
the aid of photography. 



PhotorrFeter. An instrument for measuring the 
relative intensity of light, or for comparing the 
intensity of two lights. The unit is the light of 
a candle. The incandescent electric light is 
measured in this way, and the glass bulbs are 
marked 8-12-16-32 candle power. 
















448 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


Phy'salia. The Portuguese man-of-war, a singular 
ocean animal, consisting of a pear-shaped air-sac, 
with a handsome crest, which floats on the 
surface, and from which depend a large number 
of long tentacles. The sac is 3 or 4 inches long, 
and some of its tentacles are 30 feet long. 

Phy / sics. The class of sciences which include 
the forces or properties of matter and motion, as 
electricity, magnetism, light, heat, and gravita¬ 
tion. 

Pianoforte. A musical instrument consisting of 
a number of tightened wires of different lengths 
and thicknesses, struck with small hammers 
worked by keys; so called because it can pro¬ 
duce both soft and loud tones. 

Pig / eon. [Fr.] A genus of birds found in all 
parts of the world, there being nearly 500 differ¬ 
ent kinds. Their wings are strong, and they can 
fly great distances. The w r ild pigeon, or passen¬ 
ger pigeon, is about the size of a turtle-dove, 
but with a long wedge-like tail. There are 
numerous varieties produced by domestication, 
including the fantail , the tumbler, the pouter, 
etc. One of the most important of these is the 
carrier pigeon, which is capable of flying long 
distances at rapid speed. These birds are noted 
for their love of home, and they will find their 
way back even when taken hundreds of miles 
away. For this reason they have been used from 
the most ancient times for carrying letters, and 
it is from this that they get their name. 

Pike. The common name of a family of well- 
knowm fresh-w r ater fish, abundant in the tem¬ 
perate parts of Europe, Asia, and America. 
They are strong fish, rapid swimmers, and the 
most voracious of fresh-water fishes, living mostly 
on other fish. They possess a long, sharp jaw or 
snout, w 7 hich is like a pike or spear. The com¬ 
mon pike occurs in the rivers of Europe and 
North America, and is accounted exceedingly 
wholesome. 

PiFchard or Sardine. A fish resembling the her¬ 
ring, but smaller, thicker, and rounder, found in 
abundance off the coasts of Devon and Cornwall, 
England. Most of the pilchards landed there are 
salted and sent to Spain, Italy, and France. They 
are packed in hogsheads, each containing about 
3,000 fishes, and from 12,000 to 15,000 hogsheads 
are annually exported. 

Pile. [AS. from U. pilum, a pike.] A large 
pointed log of wood driven into the earth to sup¬ 
port the foundations of a building, or used in 
engineering operations, such as making drains, 
bridges, and roads. Piles are driven into the 
ground by machines called pile-drivers, worked 
usually by steam. A heavy weight is raised to a 
considerable height between two tall posts, and 
then let fall on the head of the pile. 

Pin. Pins were formerly made by hand, and the 
heads were put on separately, but solid-headed 
pins are now made by machines. The pin- 
machine, an American invention, patented in 
England in 1824, makes the whole pin without 
any help from the workman. Ordinary pins are 
made of wire, of the thickness required. Black 


pins are made by boiling brass pins in japan 
varnish instead of with tin. 

Pine. [AS. put, from L,. pinus.~\ The name of a 
family of cone-bearing trees, found in Europe, 
Asia, and America, growing chiefly in moun¬ 
tainous or other exposed situations. Their leaves 
are needle-shaped, growing in clusters or in pairs, 
and surrounded with little scales at their base. 
The most important species is the American 
white pine, widely used in carpentry from the 
softness and ease of working of its timber. Other 

. species are the red Canadian pine, the yellow 
pine, the nut pine, the sugar pine, and the pitch 
pine. Under this name are sometimes included 
spruces, firs, larches, and true cedars ( q. v.). 

Pine=apple. The fruit of a plant of the same 
name, a native of tropical America, now largely 
cultivated in most hot countries. The plant has 
many long, stiff, sharp-pointed leaves, from the 
middle of which grows a short stem bearing a 
single fruit, in shape like the cone of a pine. 
Pine-apples are sent from the West Indies and 
Azores to all parts of the world, and are much 
valued as a fruit for dessert and for preserving. 
A spirituous liquor called pine-apple rum is made 
from the juice of the pine-apple in some warm 
countries. The leaves of the plant contain fine 
fibres or threads, from which is made the beauti¬ 
ful pine-apple cloth. This is largely manufac¬ 
tured in the Philippine Islands. 

Pink. [. Dianthus =the flow r er of Jove, cr God’s 
own flower.] The garden pinks and carnations, 
so varied in form and coloring, are supposed to 
have descended from a single species, known in 
Europe as clove pink , a native of the southern 
Alps. There are now nearly 400 varieties. The 
roots are annual or perennial, the stems herbace¬ 
ous and jointed, bearing a pair of opposite, lin¬ 
ear, apparently veinless leaves at each joint. 
The flowers have peculiar grace and fragrance. 
The carnation and picotee are modifications of 
the clove pink. 

PirUnace. [Fr./from L. puius, a pine tree.] A 
small ship, havingsails and oars, used as a tender 
to a larger vessel, and chiefly employed to obtain 
intelligence and to land men ; also a man-of- 
war’s boat. 

Pipe. [AS.] A tube made of various materials— 
as earthenware, wood, metal, leather, gutta¬ 
percha, etc.—for the conveyance of water, steam, 
gas, or other fluid; used for a great variety of 
purposes in the arts and in domestic economy. 
Tobacco-pipes, used in smoking tobacco, usually 
take the form of a bowl and connecting tube, 
and are made of baked clay, porcelain, stone, 
meerschaum, wood, and various metals. Meer¬ 
schaum pipes are beautifully carved. Pipe-stems 
are made of cane, and of cherry, elder, jasmine, 
and other woods; mouth-pieces are usually of 
bone, amber, ivory, and sometimes of silver. 
(See Meerschaum..') 

Pis / tol. [Fr., from Ital. Pistola, a town in Italy, 
now Pistoja.~\ A small fire-arm that can be held 
in one hand while being fired ; said to have been 
first made at Pistoja. (See Revolver.) 




ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


449 


Piston. [Fr., from E. pistus, pinsere, to beat. 
Same root as pestle.~\ A solid piece of metal or 
other material, in the form of a short cylinder, 
attached to a rod called the piston-rod , which in 
its turn is attached to the adjoining machinery. 
It is made to fit exactly the cavity of a pump, 
tube, or other cylindrical space, in which it works 
up and down alternately, and is employed in forc¬ 
ing some gas or liquid into or out of the tube 
which it fills, as in steam-engines, fire-engines, 
and pumps [q.v.). 

Pitch. [E. pix.~\ A thick, black, sticky sub¬ 
stance got by boiling down tar, used for coating 
ropes, canvas, etc., and by ship-builders for fill¬ 
ing up the seams and coating the outsides of 
ships and boats. 

Plaice. (Iy. Platessa.) A common flatfish, somewhat 
like a flounder. The sides of the body are more 
compressed than in other fishes. It is caught in 
large quantities in European waters as a food 
fish. 

PIane=tree. [Fr., from E. platanus. ] A tall 
spreading tree, with broad leaves shaped like an 
open hand, and seeds united in little globular 
pendent balls. The best-known species are the 
Oriental or Asiatic plane-tree, and the Occidental 
or American, which is also called the button- 
wood and sycamore. It grows almost all over 
the United States east of the Rocky Mountains. 
It is occasionally more than ioo feet high and from 
12 to 15 feet thick, and makes an excellent shade 
tree. Its wood is hard and close-grained, and 
largely used for joiners’ work. 

Plant. [AS., from E. planta, a plant.] An organ¬ 
ized living thing, generally without feeling or 
voluntary motion, with a root, stem, and leaves, 
though consisting sometimes only of a single 
leafy expansion. Plants grow in a great variety 
of forms, such as trees, shrubs, herbs, grasses, 
ferns, mosses, lichens, etc. Trees and shrubs are 
called perennials, because they live on through 
many years. Herbs are divided into annuals, 
biennials, and perennials. All parts of a plant— 
root, stem, leaves, flowers, and fruit—are made 
up of cells of different kinds, and by means of 
these the plant lives and grows. The food of 
plants is partly gaseous and partly liquid. The 
gaseous food is carbonic acid, which they get 
chiefly from the air, and take in principally by 
their leaves. The liquid food is water, which 
they take up mostly through their roots. Most 
plants grow from seeds, and although all do not 
bear true flowers and real seeds, they ail Lave 
something which answers for seeds. Thus we 
have flowering plants and flowerless plants. The 
former class includes almost all trees, shrubs, 
and herbs; while ferns, mosses, sea-weeds, 
lichens, and fungi constitute the latter. Flower¬ 
ing plants are divided into two classes, which 
differ from each other in stems, leaves, and seeds. 
These classes are further divided into orders or 
families, each of which is named after some chief 
plant of its order—as the Oak family, the Pine 
family, the Rose family, etc. 

Plantain. [Sp. plantano.~\ A plant or tree and its 
fruit, of the genus Musa, found in the countries 

29 0 


of the torrid zone. The plantain attains a height 
of from 15 to 20 feet, with leaves often more 
than 6 feet long and nearly 2 feet broad. Its 
fruit is extensively used as food. (See Banana.') 

Plas / ter. [E. emplastrum , with em dropped.] A 
mixture of lime, sand, and water, employed in 
overlaying the interior and exterior faces of 
walls. Plaster of Paris , sulphate of lime—a 
powder extensively employed in making casts of 
statuary. 

Plate=glass. A fine kind of glass ( q . v .), cast in 
plates, used for looking-glasses, etc. 

Plaf/inum. [Span., from plata, silver.] A com¬ 
paratively rare metal, found only in the native 
state, commonly in grains, scales, or nuggets, 
and generally alloyed with five other metals—• 
namely, palladium, rhodium, iridium, osmium, 
and ruthenium. It is obtained chiefly from the 
Ural Mountains, and in smaller quantities in 
Brazil, California, Ceylon, and Borneo. Platinum 
possesses a dull white color, and does not 
tarnish under any circumstances in the air. It 
is heavier than gold, as soft as copper, and may 
be hammered into thin plates and drawn out into 
fine wire. It is very infusible, and can only be 
melted by the heat of the oxy-hydrogen blow¬ 
pipe. It is used for electrical and chemical 
apparatus, and since the introduction of platino- 
type processes in photography the metal has 
very much increased in price. 

Plov / er. [Fr., the rain-bird; from E- pluvia, 
rain.] A genus of wading birds, which are found 
in every quarter of the globe. Many of them are 
birds of passage, and they are prized as game 
birds. Among the more important species are 
the black-breasted plover and the golden plover 
of Europe and America, the ringed plover, Wil¬ 
son’s plover, the stilt plover, and the lapwing. 
(See Lapwing.) 

Plum. [AS., from E . prunus. The name given 
to a tree or shrub and its fruit. It belongs to the 
genus Prunus, of which there are several species. 
From 200 to 300 varieties of plums are derived 
from the Prunus domestica species. Among the 
best known are the green gage, the Orleans, 
the damson, the purple gage, and the German 
prune. Plums are much used for dessert, and 
are made into preserves and prunes. 

Plumb. [E. plumbum, lead.] A little weight of 
lead attached to a line, and used by builders, etc., 
to indicate a vertical direction. Plumb-line, the 
cord by which a plumb-bob is suspended. 

Plumbago. [E. plumbum, lead.] Native carbon 
in hexagonal crystals, of black color and metallic 
lustre, and so soft as to leave a trace on paper. It 
is used for pencils, for crucibles, and as a lubri¬ 
cator. 

PIum / met. A piece of lead attached to a line, 
used in sounding the depth of water. Plummet¬ 
line, a line with a plummet. 

Plush. [Fr., from E- pilus, hair.] A kind of 
cloth with a nap or shag on one side, longer and 
softer than the nap of velvet. 

PoirEter. A breed of hunting dogs which, when 
the/ scent game, stop and stand motionless until 





ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


450 


the hunter is near enough to shoot. Then, at 
the word, the dog darts forward and springs the 
game. 

PoFson. [Fr., from L. potio , a drink.] Any sub¬ 
stance or matter which, when introduced into 
the body in any way, can destroy life by its own 
inherent qualities without acting mechanically. 
Poison usually denotes something received into 
the system by the mouth, breath, etc. Venom is 
something discharged from animals and received 
by means of a wound, as by the bite or sting of 
serpents, scorpions, etc. 

Po!e / cat. An animal of the Weasel tribe that is 
highly destructive to poultry. It possesses 
glands which secrete a fluid of a very offensive 
odor. This it gives off when pursued, thus 
checking dog or man until the animal can escape. 


It occurs in all parts of Europe. The weasels 
generally emit a fetid secretion, much the worst 
examples being those of the polecat and the 
frightfully offensive skunk ( q . v.). 

Polo. A game of ball resembling hockey, the 
players being on horseback. It is of Eastern 
origin, and the name properly signifies the ball 
used in the game. 

Pomade 7 or Poma'tum. [Fr., from L .pomum, 
an apple ; pomade being formerly made by boil¬ 
ing apples in fat.] Ointment made of some fine 
inodorous fat, such as lard or suet, and used in¬ 
stead of liquid oil for dressing the hair. It is 
perfumed by the addition of fragrant essences or 
essential oils. 

Pomegranate. [Fr., from L. pomum; and 
granatus, grained, having many grains or seeds.] 
A tropical shrub or small tree and its fruit, which 
is red, as large as an orange, and has a thick, 
leathery skin containing a juicy, pleasant- 
flavored pulp and numerous seeds. The pulp 
and the seeds are the parts eaten. The rind of 
the fruit and the bark of the root are used for 
tanning the finest morocco leather, and also in 
medicine. 


Pop'Iar. [Fr., from L. populuSy a poplar.] A tall 
tree of the same family as the willow, of rapid 
growth, and having soft wood, capable of many 
uses. About twenty species are known, growing 
chiefly in mild and cold climates. The most im¬ 
portant are the gray poplar, a native of Britain ; 
the Lombardy poplar, of a conical form and 
without horizontal branches; the balsam pop¬ 
lar, the buds of which are covered with a sticky 
varnish called balsam ; the Canadian poplar, and 
the cottonwood, a valuable timber tree, which is 
very abundant on the upper sections of the Mis¬ 
sissippi and the Missouri valleys. 

Pop py. [AS. popig.'] A herbaceous plant be¬ 
longing to the genus Papaver, and bearing large, 
showy, but short-lived flowers. The most 
important species is that known as the opium or 

oil-poppy. It is exten¬ 
sively cultivated i n 
warm climates for its 
milky juice, which 
when coudensed 
forms the opium of 
commerce, and also 
for the bland fixed oil 
obtained from the 
seeds. Poppy oil is as 
sweet as olive oil, 
and is employed for 
culinary purposes. 
(See Opium.) 

Porcelain. [Fr., 
from Ital. porcellana, 
the porcelain or Venus 
shell: L. porous, a 
pig.] A fine kind of 
earthenware, first 
made in China and 
Japan ; so called from 
its likeness in color 
to the Venus shell, 
which was thought to resemble in shape 
the back of a young pig. It is now made 
in Europe and America. It is also called china 
or chinaware. Some of the French and English 
porcelain, especially that made at Sevres and 
Worcester, is extremely white and translucent, 
but is more apt to crack by sudden changes of 
temperature, and is more brittle, than the finest 
porcelains of China and Japan. (S ee. Pottery.) 

Porcupine. [Fr., from L. porous , a hog; and 
spina, a thorn.] A nocturnal rodent quadruped, 
about two feet long, having on the head and 
neck a crest of long hairs, very short hair on the 
legs and muzzle, and the other parts covered 
with spines or quills, some a foot long, which, 
when excited, the animal raises almost at right 
angles with the body. Porcupines generally in¬ 
habit warm or tropical regions. The common or 
crested of southern Europe and northern Africa, 
and the Canadian or North American, are the 
best-known species. 

Por phyry. [Fr., from Gk .porphyrites: porphyra, 
purple.] A hard, finely-grained stone or rock, 
having a compact felspathic base, through which 
are scattered distinct crystals of one or more 















ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


45 1 


minerals. Porphyry may be green, with blotches 
of paler green or white; or red, with white 
blotches or specks ; and has other shades of color. 
The blotches of a polished surface are the felspar 

crystals. The 
rock abounds 
in Egypt, in the 
northern parts 
o f Europe, i n 
South America, 
and in Mexico. 
All the varieties 
are esteemed as 
marbles, and 
used in fine 
sculpture-work. 
Po r'poise. 
[Er., from E. 
porciiSy a hog ; 
and pisctSy fish.] 
This animal be- 
longs to the 
same genus as 
■whales, and i s 
the smallest and 
most familiar of 
the cetacean 
mammalia. 11 
is from 4 to 6 
feet in length, of 
a dusky or black¬ 
ish color on the 
back, and white beneath. It is closely allied to the 
dolphins, but has a shorter snout. When swim¬ 
ming, its round back looks like a hog in 
water. Porpoises swim in shoals, and drive her¬ 
rings, mackerel, and salmon before them. Thev 
seek for prey near the surface, but also descend 
to the bottom in search of sand-eels and sea- 
worms, which they root out of the sand with 
their noses, as hogs do in the field for their food. 
From their blubber or flesh a fine oil is made, 
and from their skins leather for the uppers of 
boots and shoes. 

Pot/ash. \_Poty and ashes , prepared by evaporat¬ 
ing in iron pots the lixivium of the ashes of 
wood.] An alkali much used in the arts. It is 
an oxide of potassium, though the potash of 
commerce, usually called crude potash, is properly 
potassium carbonate, because it contains carbon 
as well as potassium and oxygen. 

Potas / sium. A metal of a bright silver-white 
color, derived in 1807 by Sir Humphrey Davy 
from potash. It is prepared by heating together 
potash and carbon to a high temperature in an 
iron retort. It is lighter than water, brittle at 
32 0 Fahrenheit, malleable at a little higher 
temperature, melts at 62°, and when heated to a 
temperature below red heat it yields a fine green- 
colored vapor. It has a strong affinity for 
oxygen, taking fire when thrown upon water or 
ice, and oxidizes so readily that to be preserved 
it must be kept in substances which contain no 
oxygen, as naphtha or kerosene. Its com pounds 
are very important, being used in glass and soap 
making, in artificial manures, and in many drugs 


and chemicals. The most important of the salts 
of potassium are potash, nitre or saltpetre, 
chlorate of potash, and cream of tartar. 

Potato. [Span, patatay potato, from the native 
American word (probably batata ) in Hayti.] 
Next to the cereals or grains, the potato is the 
most valuable of all plants used for food. It is a 
native of South America, and was introduced 
into Great Britain by Sir Walter Raleigh in the 
sixteenth century. The potato plant has a 
portion of its stem underground, and this part 
sends out roots and real branches. It is at the 
ends of these branches that potatoes are formed. 
Every part of the potato plant except the tuber 
dies off on the approach of winter, and the tuber 
is the special provision made by the plant for 
reproduction. The eyes of the potato are real buds, 
and the solid flesh of the tuber consists mainly 
of starcti, the destined food of the young plant. 
Potatoes are largely cultivated in all mild 
climates. There are very many varieties, differ¬ 
ing in time of ripening, form, size, color, and 
quality. New varieties are raised from the seed, 
but potatoes are grown by planting the tubers or 
cuttings of them, care being taken to have at 
least one eye in each piece. About three-fourths 
of the weight of a full-grown potato is water, 
and of the other fourth about one-sixth is gluten 
and five-sixths starch. 

Pot/tery. [Fr .poterie.'] The term applied to all 
objects made out of baked clay. The art of 
forming utensils of clay is of very ancient 
origin, extending back to the early days of 
mankind. Its rudimentary condition, that of 
merely molding soft clay into the desired form 
and drying it by the heat of the sun, was suc¬ 
ceeded by baking it in a fire to make it harder 
and less brittle. Other substances were after¬ 
wards mixed with the clay so as to make finer 
and more delicate pottery. Gradually the potter 
enhanced the value of the art by forming graceful 
designs, and by painting and decorating them, 
until at the present day the art of the potter is 
one of the most important. Pottery may be 
divided as regards material and baking into three 
kinds—earthenware, stoneware, and porcelain 
or china. The term pottery is applied to all 
ware of the opaque kind, while porcelain applies 
to that which is translucent. 

PraFrie. [Fr., from EowE. prataria ; pratum, 

a meadow.] A large level tract of country, bare 
of trees, covered with coarse grass, and generally 
of a fertile soil. This name is applied to the 
treeless plains of the Mississippi valley. Similar 
plains in the South are called Savannahs. 

PraFrie=dog. A small rodent animal, allied to the 
marmot, and found in the prairies west of the 
Mississippi. It is gregarious in habit, dwells in 
largely arid districts, makes deep burrows in the 
earth, and throws up mounds. On these the 
animal often sits, and, if disturbed, gives a 
warning cry somewhat like the bark of a small dog. 

Precious stones. Minerals which are used in 
jewelry on account of their rarity and beauty. 
They include the diamond, ruby, emerald, 
sapphire, and many others. 






452 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


Prim / rose. [Old Fr. primerole, from L. primula; 
corrupted in spelling as if from L. prima rosa.] 
A beautiful early-flowering plant, closely allied 
to the cowslip, common in meadows and on the 
banks of streams of England. The evening prim¬ 
rose is a biennial herb from 3 to 6 feet high, 
resplendent with yellow flowers which open at 
sundown, common in upland meadows, along 
fence-rows, and in sunny wastes. 

Printing. The art of producing impressions on 
paper. It is divided into the printing of books 
and newspapers from movable type, and from 
stereotype or electrotype plates. Printing was 
known to the Chinese as early as the sixth cen¬ 
tury, but their system was that of printing from 
engraved blocks. The invention of movable 
types is claimed by the Dutch in favor of Coster, 
1420; and by the Germans on behalf of Guten¬ 
berg, 1440. Printing was introduced into Eng¬ 
land by Caxton in 1477. Wooden types were 
first used, but those made of type metal are now 
general. The first apparatus used for taking the 
impressions from types and blocks was in the 
form of a screw-press. This rude contrivance 
was soon replaced by a wooden lever-press, 
which in turn gave way to the hand-press made 
of iron, and this to the steam-press. Books 
are printed either on single-cylinder machines, 
which print one side of a sheet of paper by 
passing it over a form of type or plates, or on 
double-cylinder or perfecting machines, which 
print both sides of the sheet while it passes 
through the machine. In both cases ink (7. v.) 
is supplied by a self-inking apparatus, consisting 
of slabs and several soft composition rollers. 
Newspapers and periodicals are printed on rotary 
or web-printing machines, which take an im¬ 
pression from curved stereotype plates fixed on a 
rotating cylinder, the paper being run into the 
machine from huge reels. These machines pro¬ 
duce from 12,000 to 24,000 printed sheets per 
hour. The Walter press, the Victory, the Hoe, 
and the Marinoni are most in use, and usually 
have folding-machines attached, which deliver 
the sheets folded. For some periodicals, not 
only the body of the magazine but the cover is 
printed on the same machine, and the magazine 
folded and inserted inside the cover. 

Prism. [Gk. prisma , something sawn off; 
prizein = priein , to saw.] A piece of wood, 



metal, glass, etc., the ends of which are parallel, 
and equal in size and shape, and the sides 
parallelograms. Prisms of different forms are 
often named from the figure of their bases, as 
triangular, hexagonal, etc.—In optics, a three- 
sided piece of glass with two equal and parallel 


1 

triangular ends, used for separating the colors in 
a ray of light, and in refraction, etc. (See Spec¬ 
trum.) 

Pri / vet. [From primet , perhaps from prim , be 
cause cut and trimmed.] An ornamental Euro¬ 
pean shrub, much used in hedges. ( Ligustrum .) 

PropeFler. A contrivance for propelling a steam¬ 
ship, usually consisting of a screw placed in the 
stern, and made to revolve under the water by 
an engine. 

Prune. [Fr., from L. prunum , a plum.] A dried 
plum, much used in cookery. The best prunes 
come from France, where several kinds of plums 
are raised for making prunes. Great quantities 
are also exported from Bosnia and Servia. 

Ptar'migan. The white grouse, a bird found in 
northern Europe and America. Its color in 
summer is a pale-brown or ash, with wings and 
under-plumage white. In winter its plumage 
changes in color to a pure white. 

PufTin. An arctic sea-bird allied to the auks, 
so called from its short, thick, swollen beak and 
rounded belly. It is also known by the names of 
bottle-nose, cockandy, coulter neb, mormon, pope, 
and sea-parrot. 

PuFIey. [Fr., from pull, or from Low L .pullanus, 
a colt.] One of the mechanical powers, consist¬ 
ing of a wheel called the sheave, movable about 




an axis, and having a groove cut in its circum¬ 
ference, over which a cord or rope passes. The 
rope is attached at one end to a fixed point, and 
the force acting on the free end of the rope is 
doubled, but the load is only moved through 
half the space traversed by the rope. Pulleys 
are used either singly to change the direction of 
the power applied, or in various forms of com¬ 
bination to raise heavy weights. 

Puma. (See Cougar.) 

Pum ice. A porous mineral thrown out from 
volcanoes. It is a spongy lava, so light that it 
will float on water. It is powdered and used as a 
polishing material. 

Pump. A hydraulic machine, variously con¬ 
structed, for raising water and other liquids. The 
common or suction pump is constructed as fol¬ 
lows : The lower end of a long, narrow, vertical 
pipe, called the suction-pipe , is immersed in a 














































453 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OE COMMON THINGS 


well or reservoir of water, and the upper end 
communicates with a wider pipe, called the bar¬ 
rel, which has a lid on the top and a spout on 

one side near the top. 
The barrel contains 
two valves, both 
opening upwards, 
—the lower one, 
between the suction- 
pipe and the barrel, 
called the suction- 
valve; and theupper 
one, called the pis¬ 
ton valve , affixed to 
the upper surface of 
amovable piston,' 
connected by a rod 
with the handle of 
the pump. On work- 
ing the pump the air below the piston is exhaus¬ 
ted, and water is forced into the vacuum and 
through the lower valve by atmospheric pressure. 
On the descent of the piston the water above the 
lower valve, closing that valve by its weight, 
passes through the piston, and is then lifted to 
the level of the discharging tube or spout. (See 
Air-pump and Force-pump.) 

Pump'kin. The fruit ofa plant allied to the squash, 
and belonging to the gourd family. The plant is 
a running vine, the fruit a large oblong globe, 
of orange color when ripe, and sometimes of im¬ 
mense size. It is used for feeding cattle, and as 
a food; either boiled, or made into a pie with 
other ingredients. 

Purse. [Fr., from Tow T. bursa , a purse: Gk. 
byrsa , a hide.] A small bag for money, generally 


made of skin or leather ; a small bag or pouch, 
the opening of which is made to draw together 
closely. 

Put/ty. [Fr., from potee, from pot , pot; what 
was formerly called putty being a substance re¬ 
sembling what is now called putty powder , and 
in part rnade of the metal of old pots.] A mixture 
of whiting or soft carbonate of lime and linseed 
oil, beaten to the consistence of dough, and used 
in fastening glass in sashes, and for filling up 
crevices, etc. Putty powder is an oxide of tin, 
or of tin and lead in various proportions, used in 
polishing glass, metals, and precious stones. 

Pyramid. A solid body whose base is a square, 
triangle, or polygon, and its sides plane trian¬ 
gles, meeting at top in one common point. Archi¬ 
tecturally, it applies to the great mounds of stone 
or brickwork found in Egypt, and in some other 
countries. The largest of the pyramids is that 
built by Cheops, on the plain of the Nile. This 
has a square base, each side of which measures 
763.4 feet, while its height is 480 feet. The pyr¬ 
amids contain sepulchral chambers, in which the 
bodies of the Pharaohs were buried. 

Pyrometer. [Gk. Pyr, fire ; and metron , a mea¬ 
sure.] An instrument for measuring heat too 
high in temperature to be measured by common 
thermometers, as the heat of furnaces. 

Pyx. [Gk. pyxis , a box ; pyzos , box-wood.] The 
sacred box in the Roman Catholic Church in 
which the host is preserved ; the box at the Mint 
which holds the sample coins that have been 
tested for the weight and fineness of the metal; 
the box in which the compass is suspended. 



Q 


Quad / rant. [T. quadrans , a fourth part.] An 
instrument used in astronomy, navigation, sur¬ 
veying, and gunnery, for measuring altitudes 
and determining angular measurements. It gene¬ 
rally consists of a brass limb, the quarter of the 
circumference of a circle, mounted on a frame 
and marked with degrees, minutes, etc., and 
having a plumb-line or spirit-level for fixing the 
vertical or horizontal direction. 

Quag'ga. An animal of the Horse tribe, found in 
southern Africa. It strongly resembles the zebra, 
though of smaller size. It is social in habit, lives 
in large troops, and is more easily tamed than 
the zebra. It is said to have been largely or 
wholly exterminated by hunters. 

Quail. [Fr., from Tow T- quaquila; from Old 
Du. root of quack , because of its cry.] A bird of 
passage, the smallest of the Partridge family, 
common in the south of Europe, and in Asia, 
Africa and North America. Quails live in flocks, 
feed chiefly on insects, slugs, grains, and seeds, 
and are noted for taking long and fatiguing 
journeys. Immense flocks visit the countries 
along the Mediterranean, and large numbers are 
caught for food. The flesh is more juicy and 
delicate than that of the partridge. 


Quar / rantine. [Fr. quarante, forty; T. quad- 
raginta .] The space of time, formerly forty 
days, but now variable in length, during which 
a ship suspected of having infectious disease on 
board is obliged to forbear all intercourse with 
the shore. 

Quart. [T. quartus , fourth.] A measure of 
capacity, in dry and in liquid measure, equal to 
two pints, or the fourth part of a gallon. The 
English quart contains 69.32 cubic inches ; the 
United States dry quart contains 67.20 cubic 
inches, the fluid quart 57.75. 

Quartz [Ger. quarzl\ The common name of 
silicon oxide or silica, the most abundant of all 
minerals, being one of the constituents of granite, 
gneiss, mica slate, etc. It forms quartz rock and 
sandstone, and makes most of the sand of the 
seashore. It occurs massive, crystallized, gran¬ 
ular, and in other forms. The primary form of 
the crystal is a rhomboid ; but it is generally 
met with in hexagonal prisms, terminated by 
hexagonal pyramids. When crystallized and 
pure, it is called rock-crystal , and is transparent 
and colorless. Quartz is so hard that it will 
scratch glass and strike fire against steel. It 
comprises numerous varieties, many of which 




























454 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


are colored by different substances—as purple 
quartz, or amethyst, rose quartz, yellow quartz, 
chalcedony, agate, carnelian, bloodstone, jaspar, 



THE QUAIL. 

sard, onyx, cat’s-eye, etc. Quartz is used in the 
manufacture of glass, and of porcelain and other 
kinds of pottery ; also as a flux in the smelting 
of several kinds of ores. Gold often occurs in 
quartz veins, and quartz-crushing machines are 
used to extract the gold ore. 

Quas'sia. [Named from a negro, Quassy , who first 
made known the medicinal virtues of one of the 
species.] A genus of tree belonging to the 
tropical parts of South America. The wood of 
the root is intensely bitter, and is used in medi¬ 
cine, and sometimes as a substitute for hops in 
making beer. 

Quay. [Fr. quai.\ A bank or wharf constructed 
toward the sea or at the side of a harbor, river, 
or other navigable water, for convenience in load¬ 
ing and unloading vessels. 


Rab / bit. A small rodent quadruped of the Hare 
family, living chiefly in large colonies called 
warrens, in burrows dug deep into the ground. 
They are not much seen during the day, but 
come out at night to eat, and they often do great 
damage by gnawing the bark off young trees and 
by spoiling growing crops. Rabbits are remark¬ 
ably prolific, and have become pests in some 
parts of Australia and New Zealand. The com¬ 
mon European species, which is often kept as a 
pet, has been introduced into many countries. 

Raccoon 7 . [Fr. raton , a little rat.] A carnivorous 
animal of the Bear family inhabiting North 
America. Its body is gray, varied with black 
and white. The average length of the raccoon 
is about two feet from the nose to the tail, and 
the tail is about ten inches long. The head 
somewhat resembles that of the fox. It feeds 
chiefly by night, keeping in its hole during the 
day, except in dull weather. One of the marked 


QuickTime. A white, caustic, infusible powder, 
obtained in a state of purity by heating pure 
carbonate of lime to full redness; so called 
because when wet it develops great heat. The 
quicklime of commerce is obtained by calcining in 
kilns any carbonate of lime, as limestone, marble, 
chalk, etc. Mixed with sand and water it forms 
lime. (See Lime.) 

Quicksilver. [ Quick and silver. ] Mercury ; so 
named for the great mobility of its globules, 
and its resemblance in color to silver. (Se.: 

Mercury.) 

Quilt. [E. culcita, a bed, a cushion.] A cover or 
coverlet made by stitching one cloth over 
another, with some soft substance, such as wool, 
cotton, etc., between them. 

Quince. [Fr. coing , from E. cydottius , a quince 
tree ; so called from the town of Cydonia, in 
Crete, which was noted for its quinces.] The 
fruit of a shrub which grows in mild climates, 
and belongs to the same family as the apple. 
The fruit is usually pear-shaped, but some quinces 
look more like an apple. Quinces possess a hard 
flesh of high flavor, but very acid, and though 
not good to eat raw, they are largely used for 
marmalade, jelly, and preserves. 

Quinine. [Fr.] An alkaloid obtained from the 
bark of different species of cinchona trees, 
originally known in Peru, but now transplanted 
to Java and India. It has a bitter taste, and 
forms the base of certain salts used in medicine. 
—Sulphate of Quinine, a salt crystallizingin snow- 
white, light, efflorescent needles. It is not very 
soluble in water, but dissolves easily when a drop 
or two of sulphuric acid is added, and is exten¬ 
sively used in medicine as a tonic and febrifuge. 

Quire. [Fr. cahier , a book of loose sheets.] 
Twenty-four sheets of paper of the same size 
and quality, unfolded or having a single fold; 
one-twentieth part of a ream. 


peculiarities of the common species, Procyon 
lotor , and on which its specific name ( lotor , 
from E. Icivare , to wash) is founded, is its habit 
of plunging its dry food into water before eating 
it. Its fur is valuable, particularly in the manu¬ 
facture of hats. 

Radish. [Fr., from E. radix , a root.] A garden 
plant, cultivated for its pungent fleshy rout, 
which is eaten raw for salad. 

Raft. [Scand.] A float consisting of logs, boards, 
or other pieces of timber fastened together, either 
to serve as a support in conveying other things, 
or for their own collective conveyance on the 
water. 

Rail. [Fr. raler , to rattle in the throat.] Numer¬ 
ous species of birds prized as game birds. The 
common European land-rail is usually known 
as the corncrake. It has a grating cry, fa¬ 
miliar in summer. The water-rail has a 
longer bill and darker plumage, and loves the 


















ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


455 . 


wet marshes. It is found in Iceland, North 
Africa, and China. American species are the 
clapper-rail or marsh-hen, the king or red¬ 
breasted rail, the Virginia rail, and the Carolina 
rail or ortolan. The flesh of all these birds is 
delicate, and the Virginia rail is a favorite game 
bird. 

Rail'way or Rail'road. A road or way of parallel 
iron or steel rails on which the wheels of car¬ 
riages run, and supported on a bed or structure. 
Railway is the usual word in England, but 
railroad is common in the United States. 
The modern railroad is an adaptation of the old 
horse tram-roads, with cast-iron flange rails, 
used for hauling coals early in the century. The 
Stockton and Darlington Railway, the first line 
with locomotives, was opened in October, 1825. 
The first passenger line in the United States was 
the Baltimore and Ohio, opened in 1830. There 
are now over 190,000 miles of railroad in the 
United States, 160,000 in Europe, and about 
450,000 in the world. Rails are now usually laid 
to the standard width or gauge of 4 feet 8}4 
inches. The iron rail, formerly wholly in use, 
has been widely replaced by steel. The steam 
locomotive known as the Rocket , invented by 
Robert Stephenson in 1829, weighed 8 or 9 
tons; locomotive engines now weigh from 35 to 
50 tons, and draw a train averaging from 400 to 
500 tons. In 1838, on the London and Birming¬ 
ham line, a speed of 20 miles an hour was 
obtained. Now a speed of 50 miles an hour, 
including stoppages, is maintained on one 
of the New York Central trains between 
New York and Chicago for a distance of nearly 
1,000 miles, and 60 miles an hour is made 
on some roads for shorter distances. A straight 
and horizontal surface being the standard 
of perfection for railroad-making, sharp curves 
and steep gradients are regarded as evils. Routes 
are therefore shortened by embankments, cut¬ 
tings, tunnels, and bridges. Among the remark¬ 
able railway tunnels are the St. Gothard and 
Mont Ccnis in Switzerland, and the Hoosac 
Tunnel in Massachusetts. Of railway bridges the 
most wonderful are the Forth Bridge, Victoria 
Bridge (Montreal), Britannia(Menai Strait) ; also 
those at St. Louis, Rock Island, Louisville, and 
Niagara. Cars such as Pullman cars, with 
entrance at each end, are common in the United 
States and Switzerland ; those entering at the 
sides are usual in Britain and other parts of 
Europe. 

Rain. [AS. regen.\ Water falling from the clouds 
in drops. This is the chief source of water- 
supply. By the heat of the sun water is evapo¬ 
rated from the surfaces of the seas and oceans 
and transported as water-vapor by winds. When 
it is condensed by cold, chiefly caused by the 
heated air rising into higher regions, it returns 
again to the liquid state, and falls down as drops 
of water in rain ; or, if the cold be very great, the 
water may pass at once into the solid state, and 
fall as snow or as hail. Rain-water is very soft, 
and in country places it is pure ; the air of large 
towns being full of impurities, the rain brings 


them down with it as it falls, and so purifies the 
air by washing it. In Britain the prevailing 
winds are westerly, and, being charged with 
moisture from the Atlantic, much rain falls on 
the western coasts, and pasture is abundant. 
In the eastern part of the United States, where 
there are no great mountains to catch the 
moisture, the rainfall is uniform ; but in the west 
and north the rainfall is determined by a centre 
of low atmospheric pressure in the Rocky Moun¬ 
tains. The heaviest rains occur in the tropics, 
and are confined to one part of the year called 
the rainy season. At a point 100 miles north of 
Calcutta the annual rainfall is from 500 to 600 
inches. In Burmah the rainfall is 200 inches. 

Rain'bow. [AS.] A bow or arch in the sky 

opposite to the sun in time of rain, caused by 
the rays of light breaking up into their seven 
separate colors as they fall on the rain-drops. 
(See Prism , Spectrum , Light.') Rainbows some¬ 
times occur on the spray rising from waterfalls. 
Most rainbows are seen in the afternoon, when 
the sun is in the west, and sometimes in the 
morning, but never at noon, because then the 
sun is above us, and we cannot stand between it 
and the rain. When there is a double rainbow 
the inner is the primary, and the outer the faint 
or secondary one. 

RaFsin. [Fr., from L. racemus.'] A ripe grape 
dried in the sun or by artificial heat. (See 
Grape.) Raisins are dried either with the stalk 
cut nearly into two and left to dry on the vines, 
or with the branch wholly cut off, hung up, or 
laid on floors to dry. The first are best, and are 
called the muscatels or raisins of the sun, and 
the finest come from Malaga and Valencia in 
Spain. Sultanas are made from a grape without 
seeds, and are brought from Smyrna. 

Ram / ie. The fibres from the bark of the ramie 
plant, a native of India, now grown in the 
United States. The fibre is strong and lustrous, 
but the difficulty of separating it from the bark 
has proved a check to its use. The plant is a 
tall herb, sending up long shoots after each cut¬ 
ting. 

Rape. [L. rapa.~\ A root plant with a leaf like that 
of a swede turnip and a stem resembling that of 
a cabbage. It is sown in rows and hoed out like 
turnips. The plant grows rapidly, and its roots- 
penetrate deeply into peaty soils and clays. The 
seeds are useful for cage-birds, and from rape- 
seed rape-oil is produced. 

Rasp / berry. A kind of shrub with a thimble¬ 
shaped fruit, dark-red, large grained, and covered 
with a thick bloom. Like the strawberry it 
belongs to the Rose family ; but, unlike 
the blackberry of the same family, the rasp 
separates readily from the core or receptacle. 
It has a perennial root, producing biennial 
woody stems or canes reaching to from 3 
to 6 feet in height. Usually the canes do not 
bear till the second year, and that ends their 
life, their place being taken by a new growth 
from the root. The wild raspberry is called the 
bramble. Raspberries are used for jams, jellies, 
and wine beverages. 





456 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


Rat. [AS. rest.'] A gnawing or rodent animal 
like the mouse, but larger and more destructive. 
It has sharp chisel-shaped teeth, with which it 
gnaws holes through wood-work, and with its 
claws it burrows under floors. It can climb trees, 
and descend headforemost by means of its claws, 
which are hooked, and turn inward or outward. 
Rats are not easily caught, because they are so 
cunning and have so keen a scent that they w T ill 
not go near a trap set by a person with bare 
hands. They eat both animal and vegetable 
food, and are found in fields, in woods, in the 
water, in houses, in barns, and in sewers. They 
cross the sea in ships, and have followed man 
over the world. They are a pest to the farmer, 
and destroy grain, steal eggs, and kill young 
poultry of the farm-yard. The rat increases in 
swarms, often alarmingly. But the cat, the dog, 
the ferret, the weasel, the hawk, and the owl all 
prey upon rats and keep down their numbers. 
They are fierce and dangerous and bite viciously. 
The common brown rat, or Norway rat, is about 
io inches long, and has a tail of about 8 inches, 
a pointed nose, and whiskers like a cat. Its fur 
is light brown above and dirty white beneath, 
and its feet are flesh-colored. The black rat is 
smaller and weaker. Water-rats are almost as 
large as brown rats, but are harmless, feeding on 
vegetable food, and making their holes in the 
banks of rivers, ditches, and ponds. Gloves are 
often made of rat-skin, and the fur is used for 
covering hats. In China the flesh of the rat is 
regarded as a delicacy. The squirrel-tailed 
wood-rat of the Rocky Mountains builds a great 
nest of sticks and brush in a tree or clump of 
shrubs. 

Rat / chet=wheel. A toothed circular wheel acted 
on by a bar or catch. The wheel moves forward 
by a reciprocating lever, and cannot be reversed 
until a ratchet or click for preventing backward 
motion is removed or lifted. 


RattanT The long, slender stem of a species of 



RATTLESNAKE. 


calamus and other allied species of palms, which 
are among the most useful plants of Malaysia. 
These stems are largely used for cane-work, and 
also for making walking-sticks. 


Rattlesnake. [O.E.] A poisonous snake of 
America, with horny interlocking joints at the 
end of its tail with which it makes a rattling 
sound before striking its prey. The rattle is 
composed of a number of horny, button-like 
rings which fit loosely into one another and make 
a rustling noise when shaken rapidly. Some 
think that one new rattle is added with each 
shedding of its skin. The poisonous fangs take 
the place of other teeth in the upper jaw. These 
fangs are a pair of large teeth punctured by a 
tube from the poison-gland. They are laid back 
when not in use, but when the snake strikes its 
prey the fangs spring forward and the poison 
flows from the poison-gland. Its bite is very 
poisonous, and it is very much dreaded. The 
best knowm are the diamond rattlesnake of South 
America and the common rattlesnake of North 
America. (See Fang.) 

Ra / ven. [AS. hrczfen.] (Corvuscorax.) A bird 
like the crow, but larger, with a croaking voice 
and thievish habits as regards trinkets and food. 
It was once plentiful in England, but is now rare. 
Its color, though apparently black, is a deep blue. 
Its wings are long and slightly rounded, and its 
flight steady and rapid. It has a sedate walk, and 
when carrying off food has a curious hop, and 
makes use of its wings at the same time. It is 
wary, but is easily tamed and very sagacious. 
The raven is found in most parts of the globe, 
and ranges as far north as Melville Island, it 
being one of the few birds that brave the cold of 
an Arctic winter. 

Ray. [Fr.] A flat kind of fish with ray-like fins 
on its breast. It has eyes on the upper surface, 
which is the back of the animal, and not the side, 
as in ordinary flat-fishes. The mouth is large, and 
the jaws are covered with numerous rows of small 
pointed teeth. The skin is usually beset with 
spines, in many cases resembling true teeth in 
structure, and sometimes quite formidable 
weapons. Its eggs are enclosed in brown 
leathery four-sided cases like those of the shark 
or dog-fish, and with long processes at the angles. 
True rays have the snout more or less pointed, 
the tail slender, and two small dorsal fins. The 
Ray family includes the skate and thornback. 
Sting rays have long, tooth-like spines, which 
are often used by savages to form barbed spear 
and arrow heads. The sting ray is common in 
the Mediterranean. Eagle rays, or white rays, 
have great pectoral fins, which resemble wings, 
and their tails are like whips. Sharp-nosed rays 
are favorites of the French, who eat them instead 
of skate. Electric rays are sometimes called 
torpedo fishes. 

Ra / zor=bill or Common Auk. A sea-bird allied to 
the great auk, which is now extinct. It has 
wings large in proportion to its size. It is 17 or 
18 inches long, and its wing is 7 or 8 inches, and 
when extended the wings are 27 inches wide. It 
has a glossy black head, a dark-brown throat, a 
white breast, and lower body of white. Its bill 
is strong and hooked. It lays one large egg of a 
greenish color. This bird abounds in the Arctic 
seas, migrating southward in the cold season. 




ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


457 


Ra / zor=fish. A long, slender, and brittle mollusc 
that abounds on all sandy shores. The shell has 
delicate tints of rose and violet, covered, by a 
brown epidermis. By means of its muscular foot 
it digs a deep hole, which it does not leave, but 
raises itself to the entrance of the hole. It is 
timid and difficult to catch. 

Ream. [Fr., from Arab, rizmat , bundle.] A 
quantity of paper, consisting of 20 quires or 480 
sheets. A common practice now is to count 500 
sheets to the ream. 

ReaiFmur. A thermometer with zero as the melt¬ 
ing-point of ice, and 8o° the boiling-point of 
water. Four degrees of Reaumur are equal to 5 
degrees Centigrade and 9 degrees Fahrenheit. 
The Reaumur thermometer is in general use in 
Spain and Germany. 

Reed. [AS.] A thick, coarse grass, with hollow, 
jointed stalks, growing in or near water. The 
common reed grows in Europe and North 
America. The bamboo is a useful reed. The 
papyrus is often called the Egyptian reed .—A 
slip of cane in the mouth-piece of a musical in¬ 
strument, and set in vibration by the breath. In 
the harmonium, melodeon, and accordeon the 
reed is a thin piece of metal which by vibration 
produces the tones of the instrument. 

Reef. [Du. rif, a rift.] A line of rocks lying at 
or near the surface of the water. Any large vein 
of auriferous quartz or rock yielding ore is called 
a reef. 

Reflection. The effect produced upon light by a 
smooth surface. Part of the light enters the 
body, part is thrown back or reflected at an angle 
opposite to that made by the incident ray. This 
is the principle of the mirror, the body whose 
light is reflected seeming to lie behind the 
mirror, in the direction of the reflected ray. 

Refraction. When a ray of light passes from 
space through the air, or from air through water, 
glass, or other transparent, it is bent from its 
original course more towards the line leading to 
the earth’s centre. This bending is known as re¬ 
fraction, and is the source of various important 
phenomena of optics. 

Reindeer. [Scand. from Lappish.] A kind of 
deer with branching horns found in the extreme 
north parts of Europe and America. Reindeer 
are gregarious and herd together. The full-grown 
bucks shed their horns. The horns of the 
female reindeer are retained during the win¬ 
ter. The reindeer feeds on the lichen that 
thickly carpets barren lands in the subarctic 
regions. The common European reindeer is 
domesticated in Lapland. Laplanders depend on 
it for its milk, and as a beast of burden, or to 
draw sledges over the snow. When the path is 
good and not too hilly, the reindeer can travel 
100 miles a day. Their feet are well suited for 
walking on snow, owing to the manner in which 
the hoofs separate in treading, and to the long, 
coarse hair growing between the hoofs. The 
Siberian reindeer is larger than that of Lapland. 
The reindeer of North America are the cariboo or 
woodland reindeer, found in Canada and Maine, 
and the barren ground reindeer of the Rockies. 


RenEora. A fish possessed of a structure which 
enables it to cling to foreign bodies. This is a 
modification of the dorsal fin, which becomes a 
flattened disk covering the top of the head, and 
acts as a sucker. Fables have arisen to the effect 
that this fish could arrest the course of a ship to 
which it attached itself. The species are from 12 
to 20 inches long. 

Rennet. [AS.] A preparation of the inner lining 
of the fourth stomach of a calf, used to curdle 
milk. 

Reptile. [Fr., from L. repere , to creep.] Reptiles 
form the first class of the higher vertebrata, or of 
those which never breathe by gills, like the am¬ 
phibians. Their blood is cold, and they closely 
resemble birds in the development of their young; 
but their eggs are very large. Reptiles include alli¬ 
gators, turtles, snakes, and lizards. Formerly 
amphibians were classed with reptiles, and are 
still properly called reptiles, though more closely 
allied to the fishes. Reptiles, except tortoises, 
are long, often nearly cylindrical, and usually 
covered with scales, and have long tails. The 
feet are of different lengths, but seldom suffice 
to support the body, the belly trailing on the 
ground when the animal is in motion. The mouth 
is large and armed with sharp, hooked teeth ; but 
in tortoises no teeth exist. The heart generally 
has two auricles and one ventricle. The ribs are 
always well developed; the limbs when present 
are well developed; the feet are freely movable, 
and end in strong claws. Except tortoises, all rep¬ 
tiles are carnivorous, feeding upon living prey; 
their teeth not being constructed for the division 
of flesh, they swallow their victims whole. Rep¬ 
tiles are essentially inhabitants of the warmer 
regions of the earth. In earlier geological peri¬ 
ods, before the age of the mammalia, reptiles 
were often quadrupeds of immense size and 
strength. Some were essentially tripeds, sup¬ 
porting themselves on their hind legs and tails ; 
and some gained the habit of flying, with the aid 
of membraneous wings. 

ResTn. [Fr., from L. resina.~\ A half liquid 
substance, that flows from trees. Resins are 
made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and 
are probably the essential oils of the plants oxi¬ 
dized by the oxygen of the air. They dissolve in 
alcohol and ether and volatile oils, but not in water, 
like gums. Copal, lac, mastic, and benzoin are 
hard resins; turpentine and copaiba are soft resins. 
The common resin of commerce exudes from the 
pine tree, and is largely used in making var¬ 
nishes and in several medicines. 

Ret/ina. [L- rete , a net.] A fine net-like coating 
at the back of the eye, made up of the optic 
nerves which carry the sense of sight to the 
brain. The optic nerve and retinal blood-vessels 
spread out on the front of the retina, and the 
sensory layer, with rods and cones, is on the back 
part next the choroid coat. 

Retort/. [L- retort us, twisted back.] A vessel 
with a long bent tube used by chemists in de¬ 
composing substances or in distilling. For dis¬ 
tilling liquids a glass retort is employed. Metal 
retorts are used in distilling coal, wood, or bones. 



45 § 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


Retriever. [Fr.] A dog trained to find and 
bring back game that has been shot or wounded. 

Revolver. A pistol with several chambers re¬ 
volving on an axis, that can be fired one after 
another by the same trigger through the same 
barrel. 

Rhe'a. The American ostrich. This is scarcely 



more than half the size of the African species, 
and differs from it in having the head feathered. 
It is gray in color, and has none of the beauty of 
the true ostrich. It is abundant in South 
America. 

Rheostat. A resistance box in the path of an 
electric current, for the purpose of increasing the 
general resistance to the current flow. The box 
contains coils of wire made of a metal that is a 
poor conductor of electricity. When the current 
is first turned on to a motor, as that of a streetcar, 
it is important that it should be done gradually, 
so that the motor will not start off at once with 
full force. This is accomplished by sending the 
current through a rheostat. If the box have 12 
coils, the current is sent at first through the 
whole of them, then, by turning the handle, 
through 11, 10, 9, and so downward, until all the 
coils are cut out and the entire strength of the 
current reaches the motor, and sets it turning at 
full speed. 

Rhinoceros. [Gk. rhis, rhinos , the nose; and 
keras , a horn.] A hoofed animal with a horn, 
and next in size to the elephant. Its horn is 
placed upon the skin behind the nostrils. It is 
not unlike whalebone, and is made of a number 
of fine hairs firmly glued and pressed together. 
The point of the tip is very smooth and quite 
sharp, but the lower part where it joins the skin 
is rough. It is very heavy, and is made into 
drinking-cups. The Indian or white rhinoceros 
and the Javan rhinoceros have one horn. Two or 
three African kinds have two horns, but no 
canine or incisor teeth. The lower horn stands 
straight out from the head, and is often 4 feet 
long. The rhinoceros is from 4 to 5 feet in 
height and 11 in length, and has such a thick, 
tough skin that nothing can pierce it, therefore 
the natives make it into shields. The rhinoceros 


has a savage temper, and is a dangerous enemy. 
It lives alone in thick forests by the banks of 
rivers; for it is a great swimmer, and spends a 
great portion of its time in water, where it can 
easily find leaves and grasses for food. It has on 
each foot three toes, with a hoof on each toe. 

Rhododendron. [Gk. rhodon, a rose; and den- 
dr on, a tree.] A kind of shrub of the Heath 
family, with evergreen leaves and large, showy 
flowers like roses. No other shrub equals it for 
beauty of form and foliage and profusion and 
variety of flowers. It is abundant in the moun¬ 
tain regions of the eastern United States, often 
forming impenetrable thickets in the northern 
Alleghanies. It is also common in India. Sev¬ 
eral species have been domesticated and a great 
variety of very handsome flowers produced by 
cultivation. 

Rhu / barb. [U. Rha, Volga; barbarus, foreign.] 
A plant ( Rheum rhapoiiticuni) brought from the 
banks of the Volga, the stalks of which are used 
as food. The stalk is large and fleshy, and very 
juicy; the blade is broad, with large veins run¬ 
ning from the foot-stalk. The stalk and veins are 
smooth, and covered with a fine thin skin easily 
removable when the leaf is young. It is used as 
a substitute for fiuit in pies and tarts, and the 
juice is pressed into wine. Rhubard of medicine 
is the dried root of a wild plant ( Rheum officinale ) 
now chiefly brought from China and Tibet. 

Rib / bon or Riband. [Celt.] A long, narrow web 
of silk or other material used for trimming dres¬ 
ses. Ribbons are chiefly made at St. Etienne in 
France, Basle in Switzerland, Coventry in Eng¬ 
land, Crefeld in Prussia, and Paterson, New 



THE AGE OF REPTILES. 

Jersey. French and Swiss ribbons are hand¬ 
made ; English ribbons are machine-made. Ital¬ 
ian and French silk is used in making the best 
ribbons.— Ribbonfish is a fish of the North Atlan¬ 
tic, 20 feet long. 

Rice. [Fr., from Gk. oryzal] A grain grown in 
warm countries, and forming a food for three- 
fourths of the human race. Rice is a kind of grass, 
having a stalk with several stems, each of which 


































ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


459 


bears a cluster of grain. It requires a hot climate 
and abundance of water. The plant is a native 
of the East Indies, and is most largely grown for 
food in India and China, but it is grown also in 
the southern United States and in the south of 
Europe. Its habits of growth have been modified 
by cultivation, so that a variety is grown on up¬ 
lands without irrigation. The lowland crops are 
grown -with irrigation on lands where no other 



RICE STARCH UNDER MICROSCOPE. 


crop is possible. Rice flour is used for cakes, 
and rice water is used medicinally. Rice forms 
the chief food of the Chinese and the Hindus. 
It contains in ioo lbs. no less than 76 lbs. of 
starch, which is largely used in the laundry to 
stiffen linen, etc. 

RFfle. [Dan., to make grooves in.] A gun, or 
small-arm, the inside of whose barrel is rifled , 
that is, has spiral grooves cut in it. The effect 
of the grooves is to send the balls swifter and 
straighter. The rifles now used are breech-load¬ 
ers. Cannon are also rifled, with the effect of 
enormously increasing their range and powers 
of destruction. 

RirUderpest. A malignant contagious fever, which 
attacks cattle and other ruminants. It came ori¬ 
ginally from Asia, and has very often appeared 
in Russia, from which it made its way over 
Europe, probably as early as the 4th century. 
There have been various outbreaks of it, causing 
great destruction of cattle. From 1865 to 1870 
it caused great mortality, 130,000 cattle dying in 
France alone in 1870. In 1896 a serious epidemic 
broke out in Africa, extending from Abyssinia to 
South Africa, and decimating the domestic herds, 
while destroying great numbers of wild animals, 
especially antelopes. No cure is known for this 
disease, and the only safety is to kill and bury 
all infected animals. 


Riv / et. [Fr., from Scand., to fasten.] A pin or 
bolt of metal passed through two flat pieces of 
metal, wood, etc., and fastening them together by 
its being hammered flat at both ends.— Butt riv¬ 
eting . The ends or edges of plates form a butt 
joint, and are fastened together by being riveted 
to a narrow strip which covers the joint. Lap¬ 
riveting. The ends or edges of plates overlap, 
and are riveted together.— Chain-riveting . The 
rivets in two or more rows are set behind each 
other. 

Roach. [AS.] A European fresh-water fish of the 
Carp family, to which the dace and chub belong, 
of silver-white color, with a greenish back. The 
scales of this fish and the bleak are said to be 
employed in the manufacture of artificial pearls. 
Gold-fish belong to a similar family. 

Robert. [From Robert .] A name given to red¬ 
breasted birds of different countries belonging to 
the thrush family. The robin of the United 
States is a common and favorite bird, its song 
being among the sweetest of those heard in our 
groves and orchards. The robin-redbreast of 
Europe is a smaller bird, which seems to delight 
in the presence of man, often entering his dwel¬ 
ling. It sometimes takes up its abode in houses 
in cold weather, while it warbles its song when 
the sun shines or the fire burns brightly. 

Rock / et. [Ital., from rock , a distaff.] A fire-work 
sent up through the air and used as a signal. The 
rocket is projected by the force of expanded 
gases liberated by the combustion of such ingre¬ 
dients as nitre, charcoal, and sulphur. Congreve 
rocket, invented bv Sir William Congreve, is 
armed with shells or case-shot, or with a fiery 
composition. 

Rock=oiI. (See Petroleum.) 

Roco / co. A florid style of ornamentation which 
was common in Europe in the latter part of the 
eighteenth century. 

Ro / dent. [L,. rodens, gnawing.] A gnawing 
mammal, as a mouse or rat. They are all small, 
but very prolific, so that no mammalia are so 
generally distributed. Their teeth are peculiar 
and of two kinds—incisors and molars. The 
enamel remaining, while the body of the tooth 
wears away, gives it a peculiar curved shape. 

Roe. [Scand.] The spawn or eggs of fishes and 
amphibians, especially when enclosed in a mem¬ 
brane. 

Roe. [AS.] The smallest kind of European deer. 
Its antlers are small, with three short branches. 
It remains faithful to one partner for life. 

Roent/gen Ray. On December 4, 1895, Professor 
Roentgen, of Wiirzburg, Prussia, published a 
description of a remarkable new ray of light he 
had discovered, which he called the “X-ray.” 
This light flows from a Crookes tube, which is a 
glass tube exhausted of air, and traversed by an 
electric current. From the interior glow in this 
tube there flows a ray differing from ordinary 
light, since it fails to pass through some trans¬ 
parent substances and readily penetrates many 
opaque substances. It passes easily through 
human flesh, and less easily through bone, so 
that the bones of the body may be photographed 






460 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


as dark shadows. An important fact is that any 
foreign substance in the body, as a bullet, a 
needle, etc., is revealed by the ray, and its exact 
location fixed. This renders the Roentgen Ray 
of the greatest value in many surgical operations. 

Rook. [AS.] A bird like the crow, but smaller, 
with the base of its beak bare of feathers and 
quite white., and with a harsh, croaking voice. It 
feeds on grubs and worms, but will pull up new 




SIGNET RINGS. 


grass and potatoes, pick turnips, and steal eggs. 
Rooks are sociable birds, and build their nests 
together and live as one family. They usually 
settle in a clump of high trees, which is called a 
rookery. 

Ro'sary. A series of prayers marked by beads, 
consisting of fifteen decades, each containing ten 
avemarias , a paternoster , and a gloria patri. 

Rose. [L,. rosa .] A shrub, usually with prickly 
stems, and large, beautiful, and sweetly-smelling 
flowers. The varieties of roses are generally 
classed as damasks, banksia, noisette, perpetuals, 
French, Chinese, Scotch, celestial, and moss 
roses. All may be propagated by layers, some by 
budding or grafting, and many by separating the 
roots. The moss rose came from Holland, the 
cabbage rose from Caucasus, and the yellow rose 
from Persia. In France the cultivation of the 
rose is a science. The varieties are great; of the 
tea rose alone there are 122 kinds. The Cherokee 
rose is a .native of China, which has run wild in 
the American States. The sweet brier has also 
escaped from cultivation, and is found in the 
hedgerows. The oldest rose-bush in the world 
is at Heldersheim, in Germany. The trunk is as 
large as a man’s body ; and in the year 1079 a 
framework was put up to support its branches. 
It is supposed to be over 1,000 years old .—Otto 
of roses is an oil distilled from petals or leaves of 
damask or musk roses. The best otto of roses is 
made from Cashmere roses in India. 

Rose / mary. [L. ros, dew ; and marinus , belong¬ 
ing to the sea.] A small shrub, with narrow 
grayish leaves, a fragrant smell, and bitter taste. 
It is an emblem of constancy. This shrub grows 
wild along the Mediterranean coast, and is found 
in Asia Minor and in China. An essential oil 
distilled from it is used in perfumery and medi¬ 
cine. 

Rose / wood. A leguminous wood of a dark-red 
color streaked with black, with a faint smell like 
that of the rose. The finest rosewood conies 
from South America, especially from Brazil, but 
also from Jamaica, New South Wales, and the 


East Indies. The best is costly, and is chiefly 
used as veneering for cabinet-work. 

Ros'in. The hard amber-colored resin left after 
distilling the volatile oil of turpentine. 

Ros'trum. [L. rostrum , a beak.] The platform 
in the Roman Forum from which orators spoke 
to the people ; so called because it was near 
where the beaks of ships taken in war were fixed. 
Also now any platform for speaking from. 

Row'an Tree. [Scand.] The mountain ash, re¬ 
lated to the apple, with pinnate leaves and small 
white flowers, followed by little bright-red 


berries. 

Rubble. [Old Fr.] Rough stones from the 
quarrv, or stones broken or worn wuth water, 
used for coarse building. 

Ru'bric. [h. rubric , red chalk.] A part written 
or printed in red to distinguish it from the rest 
on a page. 

Ru / by. [Fr., from L. rubeus , red.] A precious 
stone of a blood-red color, ranking in hardness 
next to the diamond. It is a red crystallized 
variety of corundum. The finest are Oriental 
rubies brought from Burmah, and are‘more valu¬ 
able than diamonds of the same size. They occur 


in crystalline limestone, and consist of pure 
alumina, with the color of pigeons’ blood. The 
spinal ruby consists of alumina and magnesia, 
and is found in Ceylon and Siam, varying from 
deep red to rose red in color. 

Rum. A kind of spirit made from the juice of 
the sugar-cane or molasses. It is largely made 
in the West Indies and New England. Jamaica 
rum is colored reddish brown with caramel. 
Rum is sometimes flavored with pine-apple. 

Ru / minant. [L. ruminatus .] An animal that 
chews the cud. (See Digestion.) Ruminant 
animals include the camel, deer, antelope, goat, 
sheep, and cattle. 

Rupee'. [Sans., silver.] An Indian silver coin 
worth 16 annas, the value of which varies with 
the price of silver. 

Rush. [AS.] A plant of many varieties, with a 

round 

\ p o i n ted 

> j-*. 1 a stem and no 

I \ vk 4. leaves, 

which grows 
in moist 
ground. Be¬ 
fore carpets 
came into 
use, the 
floors of 
houses were 
strewn with 
rushes, and 
the wicks of 
candles were made from the pith of rushes. 
Chair-bottoms and baskets are sometimes woven 
of them. 

Rust. [AS.] Blight, mildew , and rust are 
names given to diseases which attack the stems 
and leaves of cereals and other plants. They 
first appear as small discolored patches, and 
gradually spread over the entire plant. This 



SANDALS. 












































ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


461 


discoloration is due to the presence of germs or 
seeds of the rust fungus in the first stage of life. 
These germs or seeds, after several stages have 
been passed, settle upon the plants and live on 
their juices, thus doing much injury .—Rust is 
also the reddish-brown coating formed by oxida¬ 
tion on the surface of iron when exposed to a 
moist atmosphere. 

Rye. [AS.] A kind of grain, and the hardiest of 
the cereals cultivated in the British Isles. It 
looks like wheat, but its ears are bearded like 
those of barley, but not quite so long. The grain 


is brown, and coarser than wheat. It will grow 
on poor sandy soils, and is able to bear a severe 
climate. Rye is sown in autumn. The “ black 
bread” eaten by the peasantry of Russia and 
North Germany, and the rye-cakes of Sweden, 
are made from the rye which is very extensively 
grown on the sandy plains of those countries. 
Much whiskey is made from rye in the United 
States, and it is used with barley for making gin 
in Holland. Rye-straw is tough, and is not good 
for cattle, but is used for hats, stuffing beds, or 
thatching. 

I 

S 


Sa / ble. [Fr., from Russian.] A small flesh-eat¬ 
ing animal akin to the weasel, found in Siberia 
and northern countries, and valued for its glossy 
fur, which consists of a soft under-wool over¬ 
topped with longer hair. In summer the fur is 
brownish, with gray spots on the head and neck ; 
but in winter it is deep rich brown and almost 
black. Winter fur is most valued, and is worn 
by ladies and by officials on their robes. The 
tail is made into artists’ pencils and brushes. The 
sable spends most of the day in trees, and hunts 
at night. Its food is chiefly hares and small 
game. This animal is now getting scarce in 
Siberia, where it used to be hunted by Russian 
exiles. 

Sa / bre. [Fr., from Ger.] A sword with a broad 
heavy blade, thick at the back ,and curved slightly 
toward the point, used by cavalry. 

Saccharin or Saccharine. [Fr., from L. sac- 
charum , sugar.] Saccharin is a product of coal- 
tar, and it is said to be three hundred times 
sweeter than sugar. It is a valuable therapeutic, 
and has been recently used in the preservation of 
fruits. 

Sad'dle. [AS., from root of sit.] A seat generally 
made of leather, fastened on a horse’s back. The 
frame of the saddle is usually of wood and iron, 
made to fit the horse's back, and is called the 
tree. In the common saddle the tree is raised a 
little in front to form the pommel, and behind is 
a ridge called the can tel, the seat and flaps being 
made of tanned pig-skin. The stirrups are fas¬ 
tened to the tree. When the saddle is put on the 
horse, the girths are passed under the horse, and 
buckled tightly to straps. Side-saddles , used by 
women, have only one stirrup, in which the left 
foot is placed ; and on the pommel are two horns, 
between which the right knee is placed. 

Safe. [Fr., from U., salvus , safe.] A strong room 
or box for keeping money and valuables safe 
from fire and thieves. Safes are double wrought- 
iron chests, with plaster of Paris and mica or 
alum to resist heat. Burglar-proof safes are usu¬ 
ally fitted with locks (g.v.) difficult to pick. 

Safe / ty=lamp. A lamp for giving light in mines, 
covered with wire-gauze, to prevent the light 
from setting fire to explosive gas; called also 
Davy lamp. (See Lamp .) 

Safe / ty=valve. A valve in a steam engine ar¬ 
ranged to permit the steam to escape when it 
exceeds a certain pressure. The valve is held in 


place by a weight attached to the end of a lever, 
and so adjusted that a fixed pressure of steam 
will lift it, and open a passage for the steam. 

SafTron. A yellow coloring matter, obtained 
from the stigma, or flower centre, of a species of 
crocus. It is costly on account of the labor of 
picking the small stigmas. It has a pleasant per¬ 
fume, and is used to color and flavor confection¬ 
ary, cheese, and butter. Saffron tea is some¬ 
times given to canary birds when shedding their 
feathers. 

Sage. [Fr., from R. salus .] A grayish-green herb 
much used in cookery and medicine; so called 
from its supposed healing powers. It has a sweet 
smell and a bitter taste. The scarlet sage and 
Mexican red and blue sage are cultivated in 
America for ornament. 

Sa'go. [Malay.] The prepared pith of a tree 
called the sago-palm, which grows in China, 
Japan, and the East Indies. The tree is. cut 
down when fourteen or fifteen years old, the 
trunk split open, and the pith scraped out and 
washed in water. It is then squeezed through a 

sieve and 
dried, a n d i s 
called pearl 
sago, and 
used for pud¬ 
dings. In 100 
lbs. of sago 
there are 83 
lbs. of starch. 
Much false 
sago is made 
in Germany 
from potato 
Starch. 

SaFad. [Fr., 
from Ital. sal- 
ata, salted.] 
Raw herbs cut 
up and dressed 
with salt, vine¬ 
gar, oil, etc., 
as a relish for 
food. 

SalamarFder. [Fr., from L. or Gk.] A kind of 
reptile with four feet, long body, and long tail, 
but without scales. It is related to the frog, and 
was once supposed to be able to live in fire. 











/ 


462 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


SalFva. [L,.] A liquid of an alkaline re-action 
which, secreted by the salivary glands from the 
blood, moistens the mouth and mixes with the food 
to help digestion. The salivary glands are excited 
to pour out saliva by the movement of the jaws 
in chewing and in talking. Touching any part of 
the mouth will cause saliva to flow. The sight, 
smell, or taste of food when one is hungry will 
“ make the mouth water.” When food is eaten 
hastily, and not moistened with saliva, the 
stomach is disarranged, and indigestion follows. 
Its action in digestion is due to the presence of 
ptyalin. 

Salmon. [U. salmoI\ A large fish much valued 
as food. Its color is bluish-gray, shading into 
a silvery-white underneath, and marked with 
black spots on the upper part of the body. Sal¬ 
mon are found on the European and American 
coasts of the Atlantic, passing up the rivers to 
depjsit their eggs. On these journeys they pass 
waterfalls and other obstacles ; but several Brit¬ 
ish and Norwegian rivers contain salmon-leaps 
or fish-stairs, up which the salmon leap from 
step to step. After resting on the spawning- 
ground for eight or ten days, the females return 
to the sea. The eggs left in the gravel hatch out. 
The young fish increase little while in fresh 
water, but on reaching the sea they grow quickty. 
Salmon are now reared in farms or breeding- 
troughs, with fresh water flowing freely through 
them. A salmon usually weighs io or 12 pounds, 
but fish up to 30-or even 40 pounds have occa¬ 
sionally been caught. Salmon-trout and bull¬ 
trout are two kinds of salmon. Parr are salmon 
fry ; smelt is a young salmon ; grilse , a young 
salmon returned from the sea. The common 
salmon of Europe and the Atlantic is the Salmo 
salar. The salmon of the North Pacific belongs 
to a different genus, the Oncorhynchus ; and the 
quinuat, the largest of these, does not feed in 
fresh w’ater, and dies after spawning. They are 
caught in immense numbers in the rivers from 
California to Alaska, many millions of pounds 
being canned annually. 

Salt. [AS.] A substance found in the earth, 
and very abundant in sea-water, used for season¬ 
ing and preserving food. It is composed of 
sodium combined with chlorine. Salt is impor¬ 
tant as an article of food, and the lower animals 
like it ; farmers place lumps of rock-salt in their 
fields for the sheep and the cows to lick. In 
North America there are certain places where 
the rocks contain much salt, and wild animals 
flock in great numbers to these places, which are 
known as “ salt-licks.” Salt forms solid beds in 
the crust of the earth, just as coal does ; and in 
this state it is known as rock-salt. Rain-water, 
sinking into the ground, dissolves much of the 
rock-salt; and if a well be dug down to this salt 
water, it can be pumped up, and the salt obtained 
from it by evaporation crystallizes in cube shapes. 
The salt water is called bri?ie. Salt can also be 
obtained by evaporating sea-water. In the Car¬ 
pathian Mountains there are beds of salt from 
600 to 700 feet thick. Near Cracow there is a 
wonderful salt-mine over a thousand feet deep, 


divided into floors, galleries, and passages, all ot 
salt. One division is so like a church that it is 
called St. Anthony’s Chapel. It has an altar, 
pulpit, and statues. Another room has a tomb 
made of salt. The passages are estimated to 
extend 300 miles. Rock salt is abundant in 
many parts of the United States, and great 
quantities of brine are pumped up and evaporated 
in New York. Large deposits exist in Michigan, 
Louisiana, Utah, Nevada, and elsewhere. 

Salf/petre, Nitre, or Rock=saIt. [Salt; and Gk. 
Petra , a rock.] A kind of white salt made up of 
nitric acid and potash, often found oozing 
from rocks. It is bitter in taste, and is called 

potassium nitrate. It is 
found in caves or got 
from the soil in Egypt, 
Persia, and India. Its 
principal use is in mak¬ 
ing gunpowder and in 
preparing nitric acid, 
sulphuric acid, in mak¬ 
ing fireworks, and medi¬ 
cinally for rheumatism. 
Chili saltpetre is a 
sodium nitrate, which 
cannot be used in mak¬ 
ing gunpowder, but from 
which nitric acid is got. 
Salts. Salts, in chem¬ 
istry, are the neutral or 
other compounds formed by the union of an acid 
and a base. 

Sand. [AS.] Fine particles of stone on the sea¬ 
shore or in deserts, made by the wearing out of 
rocks, especially of quartz, silica, or flint. River- 
sand and sand from pits are usually sharper than 
sea-sand. The colors of sand are made by various 
oxides of iron. Sand is used in making glass, 
mortar, cement, sand-paper, molds for casting, 
and in sawing stones and grinding cutlery.— 
Sand-blast is a stream of sharp sand let fall from 
a high box on a plate of glass to cut it and make 
it look like ground glass. Metals and stones 
may also be cut by the sand-blast. The parts not 
requiring to be cut or engraved are covered with 
leather, paper, or wax. 

SarUdalwood. [Fr., from Sans., and 7vood.~\ A 
yellowish heart wood of trees in the East Indies 
and the Hawaiian and South Sea islands. It has 
a pleasant smell. 

Sand'piper. A numerous family of game birds 
living on the sea-shore. The European kinds 
include the common sandpiper, called also sum¬ 
mer-snipe, the dunlin, the knot, and the ruff. 
Some small plovers are called sandpipers. In 
North America are the pectoral, the purple, the 
red-breasted, and the spotted sandpipers. 

Sandstone. A rock of sand pressed together. 
Old and New Red Sandstone are two extensive 
series of British rocks, the one below and the 
other above the coal-measures. The terms 
Permian and Triassic have taken the place of the 
name New Red Sandstone. Flexible sandstone 
is a fine-grained variety of itacolumite, which* 
owing to scales of mica, is quite flexible. 







ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


4^3 


Sand'wich. Two thin slices of bread with meat, 
cheese, or butter between them ; first used by the 
Earl of Sandwich in the 18th century so that he 
need not leave the gaming-tables. 

SarUtalin. A substitute for butter extracted from 
suet. 

Sap. [AS., saep.~\ The fluid which flows through 
plants. The raw or crude sap consists of much 
water, with plant-food dissolved in it, entering 
through the roots. It rises through the outer 
part of the stem into the leaves, and is there 
converted into various non-nitrogenous sub¬ 
stances, composed chiefly of carbon, hydrogen, 
and oxygen, such as starch, gum, sugar, cellu¬ 
lose, and oil. In the sap there are also formed 
substances containing nitrogen, such as albumen 
and gluten. These substances are distributed to 
every part of the plant, helping to form and to 
fill new cells, and so aiding the life of the plant. 

Sap'phire. [Fr., from Gk., from Heb.] A precious 
stone of a bright-blue color, next in hardness to 
the diamond, and next to the ruby in value. It is 
composed ofalumina, colored differently. The red 
sapphire is the Oriental ruby, the green sapphire 
is the emerald, the yellow the topaz, and the 
violet is the amethyst. Colorless or white sap¬ 
phires are sold as diamonds. The finest blue 
sapphires come from Ceylon. 

Sar 7 dine. [Fr., from E- sardina. ] A small pil¬ 
chard or herring found near the island of Sar¬ 
dinia, and preserved in oil for food. It has a 
slim body, and is greenish blue on the back and 
silvery white below. It is also caught off the 
north-west coast of France and in the Baltic. 
American sardines are young herrings or men¬ 
haden. The sardines appear in large shoals in 
spring, and are caught in nets which are large 
enough to let their heads through, but catch 
them by the gills and fins. They are washed, 
scraped, salted, heads and gills cut off, washed 
again, and dried. They are then cooked in olive 
oil and dried again, and then packed in tin cases 
with boiling oil. Sprats, roach, and dace are 
sometimes put up in this way. 

SarsapariFIa. The dried roots of several Ameri¬ 
can climbing evergreens, reaching from Mexico 
to South America. It is much used as a medi¬ 
cine. There is none of it in the sarsaparilla 
syrup drank in soda water. 

Sassafras. [Cor. from saxifrage , which now 
denotes a different kind of plants.] A kind of 
tree or plant, with aromatic properties, of the 
laurel kind, and allied to cinnamon, cassia, and 
camphor. Every part of the plant has a pleasant 
fragrance and a sweetish aromatic taste, which is 
strongest in the bark of the root. It occasionally 
grows to a height of 50 or 60 feet, and has a 
grayish and deeply-furrowed trunk. It is some¬ 
times called the ague-tree. Its bark is used in 
dyeing, but also especially the bark of the root 
medicinally for rheumatism. The leaves are 
used in making root beer. The wood is tough, 
and does not decay. 

Sat/in. [Fr., from L. seta , silk.] A kind of 
closely-woven silk cloth with a glossy surface. 
It is an elegant material, The woof, or cross¬ 


wise threads, passes over several threads of the 
warp at a time. The fabric is then passed be¬ 
tween heated iron rollers, which give a smooth, 
glossy appearance. 

Sat/in=wood. A hard fragrant wood like yellow ma¬ 
hogany, from the East and West Indies. It takes 
a lustrous finish, and is used in cabinet-work. 

Sat'urn. The planet next beyond Jupiter, and 
almost twice as distant, it being 875,000,000 miles 
from the sun. In size it comes next toJupiter, its 
diameter being 73,000 miles. Its year is equal to 
nearly 'iff earthly years, and it rotates on its 
axis in 10 hours. In addition to its nine moons— 
one of them recently discovered—it has a remark¬ 
able feature in its two—or perhaps five—wonder¬ 
ful rings, which surround it at a distance of some 
20,000 miles. These rings are supposed to be 
made up of meteors rotating in company around 
the planet. 

SavarEnah. An extensive open grassy plain in 
the Southern States. (See Prairie .) 

Sauer=kraut. A salted preparation of cabbage 
much esteemed in Germany, and largely used in 
the United States. It is thought to be very 
wholesome and easily digested, and is prepared 
in large quantities for winter use. 

Savoy'. [Fr.] A kind of cabbage with curled 
leaves, originally from Savoy, much cultivated 
for winter use. 

Saw. [AS. saga, from E. secare , to cut.] A thin 
steel blade with sharp teeth on its edge for cut¬ 
ting wood, etc. The chief kinds are the hand¬ 
saw, the cross-cutting saw, and the circular-saw, 
which is worked by machinery. The blades are 
of steel, the teeth being punched out by ma¬ 
chinery, then ground and set and cleaned by 
emery. The saw-gin is the same as the cotton- 
gin, used in clearing the cotton fibre of its seeds. 

Saxi'frage. [E. saxum , stone ; and frangere , to 
break.] A kind of plant growing in the crevices 
of rocks or on high hills, once supposed to have 
the power of dissolving or breaking stone in the 
bladder. They are mostly perennial herbs. 

Scale. [AS. shell or husk .] One of the thin plates 
covering the body of a fish or of a reptile. 
Ganoid scales of fish like the gar and sturgeon 

are an inner layer of 
bone and an outer- 
layer of shining 
enamel arranged to 
form a coat of mail. 
The Perch family 
have comb -like 
scales. Those of the 
herring and salmon 
are thin, with con¬ 
centric lines of 
growth, and serrated 
on the margin, and 
are called cycloid 
scales. 

Scale. [E. scala, aladder.] Ascale in music, is a 
series of tones from the keynote to the octave. A 
chromatic scale includes 8 tones and 5 half-tones. 
A diatonic or major or minor scale has eight 
sounds or tones, 








464 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


ScaFIop. [Old Fr.] A shell-fish radially ribbed, 
and having the edges of its two-valved shell 
formed into a series of small curves. The shell 
is light, and the fish has a little air-bag which 
enables it to float. It abounds on the English 
and American coasts, and on the shores of Pales¬ 
tine. Formerly the shell was used to cook 
oysters in. An edible scallop is found on the 
Atlantic coast of the United States. The shell 
of the Palestine species was formerly worn by 
pilgrims to show that they had visited the Holy 
Laud. 

Scarlet = runner. A bean-plant with scarlet 
flowers which clings to and runs up any support 
it can reach. 

SchooiFer. [AS., to glide.] A vessel with two 
or more masts, fore-and-aft rigged, or square- 
rigged on the fore-mast top-sail. The first 
schooner is said to have been built in Massa¬ 
chusetts in 1713. 

Scissors. [Old Fr.] A pair of blades movable 
on a pin through the middle of both, which cut 
when the sharp edges are pressed together. The 
best are made of cast steel or shear steel. Often 
called a pair of scissors. 

Scor / pion. [L-] An arachnidan somewhat like a 
lobster, having a poisonous sting in its tail. It has 
a flattened body, and a long, slender lower abdo¬ 
men, formed of six movable segments, the last of 
which ends in its sting. Its poison causes pain, 
but is seldom destructive of life. Scorpions are 
found in warm climates. 

Screech=owl. An owl which utters a shrill cry, 
and is also called the barn-owl. The screech-owl 
is small, and of a gray or reddish color. 

Screw. [Old Fr.] A round piece of wood or 
metal with a sloping ridge called a thread run¬ 
ning round it for fastening things together. As 
a mechanical power the screw is a modification 
of the inclined plane. The flipper of the sea- 
bear, the wing of the insect, of the bat, and of 
the bird are screws in principle, resembling the 
blade of the propeller, and they twist and un¬ 
twist during oscillation. 

Screw /= driver. A tool for driving in screws 
It has a thin end to enter in the slot or nick in 
the head of the screw. 

Scut/tle. [AS., from L. scutella , a tray.] A broad 
basket or a vessel for holding coals. In nautical 
phrase, a small opening or hatchway in the deck 
of a ship large enough to admit a man. 

Scythe. [AS.] A large curved blade fastened to 
a long handle, for cutting grass, corn, or crops on 
small farms. Scythe-blades are forged, and then 
ground on grindstones. The haft is made of bent 
wood, with two handles. 

Sea. [AS.] A large body of salt water smaller 
than an ocean, though the term is often applied 
to the whole ocean. The ocean covers nearly 
8-nths of the area of the globe, and its depth 
averages 2,000 fathoms. The salts in the sea are 
on an average 3 y 2 percent., the remainder being 
water. Of the salts, nearly 78 per cent, is chlo¬ 
ride of sodium, 11 per cent, is chloride and 
bromide of magnesium, and 10 per cent, sul¬ 
phates of lime, magnesium and potash, with a 


very small quantity of carbonate of lime. The 
usual tint of the sea is bluish-green ; but the 
color of the soil or the color of the sky, and other 
local circumstances, produce many variations. 
The sea is inhabited by a vast number and vari¬ 
ety of animals, from the simplest forms to the 
fish, reptiles like the turtle, and mammals like 
the whales and seals. Many forms are found at 
great depths in the water, some of these being 
phosphorescent; some are blind, others have 
very large eyes. There are also many small phos¬ 
phorescent animals on the surface, so abundant 
in places that the ocean seems like a sea of fire. 

Sea / =anemone. ( Actinozoa , or ray-like animals.) 
A soft, pulpy polyp with a flower-like or ray-like 
fringe of tentacles, in the middle of which is the 
mouth, leading into a hollow sac or stomach. It is 
of the shape of a column, with a sucking surface 
in the base that enables it to move much like a 
snail, but more slowly. From the tentacles are 
thrown small darts, by which it seizes any crab or 
worm or small fish for food. 

Seal. [AS., from L. sigilium, a seal.] An en¬ 
graved stamp for marking wax or wafer to con¬ 
firm or make sure. 

Seal. [AS.] A flesh-eating animal found in great 
numbers lying on the icebergs or swimming 
in the waters of both north and south polar 
regions. Their sharp-pointed teeth enable them 
to catch the slippery fish on which they feed. 
The different kinds of seals vary in size and in 
the color of their fur. The head, shoulders and 



SOLAR CokONA. 


chest are round, and the body tapers towards the 
tail. All their feet are webbed ; but the webs of 
the back feet cac be folded up like a parasol, so 
that they are able to lie close to the body. The 
webs of the front feet are always stretched out. 
As the seal lives almost entirely in the water, it 
has the power of closing both its eyes and its 
ears, Its body, too, is thickly covered with 








ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


465 


double fur, which is kept constantly oiled, so that 
the fur next the body is never wet. Several species 
are much hunted for their oils and skins, inclu¬ 
ding the common seal, found in the Atlantic and 
the Pacific, and the harp seal, abundant in Arctic 
waters. There are other species in the north 
Atlantic, while in the southern ocean is found 
the great sea-elephant, so called from its size and 
the elongation of its nose into a short proboscis. 
The males of this species are 20 feet long, the 
females little more than 10 feet. There are other 
species known as sea-leopards in the southern 
waters, while in the north Pacific are the sea- 
lions and sea-bears. Both of these have long 
hair, but the sea-bears have also a soft and deli¬ 
cate fur, which is highly valued as the seal-skin 
of commerce. The northern fur seal has its 
breeding grounds on some small islands in the 
Behring Sea. These belong to the United States, 
and only a limited number are permitted to be 
killed yearly. The killing of these seals in the 
open seas by Canadian seal fishers, gave rise to a 
serious international question between Great Bri¬ 
tain and the United States. 

Seal / ing=wax. Wax used for sealing letters or 
for being marked with a seal. Gummed envelopes 
have almost taken the place of wax for closing 
envelopes. Wax is made of lac mixed with 
turpentine and resin ; black wax is colored with 
ivory black, and red with cinnabar. 

Seanettle. A jelly-fish or medusa. 

Seaurchin. {Echinus.') A kind of shell-fish or 
sea-egg covered with prickles like a chestnut 
bur, and closely related to the star-fish. The 
shells are of the thickness of egg-shells, and have 
rows of dots or knobs with lace-work between, 
and are made up of hundreds of plates joined 
like mosaic work. The animals do not cast 
their shells like crabs, but the flesh secretes lime 
from sea water, and deposits it round the plates, 
which increase uniformly. The spines are beauti¬ 
fully carved columns with ball-and-socket joints 
on the knobs. There are also protruding through 
holes double rows of tube-like feet, which are 
supplied with water by a tube opening at the top 
of the shell. In the centre of the shell is a tube¬ 
like stomach opening to the top of the shell. 
The sea-urchin has also a mouth, intestines, 
heart, and five teeth. There are many kinds. 

Searchlight. An electric arc-light of great 
candle-power, used with a parabolic projector 
which throws its rays for many miles. It is of 
great importance on a naval vessel, in enabling 
the captain to discover an approaching enemy at 
night. One shown at the Chicago Exposition of 
1893 could be seen 85 miles away, and fine print 
was read by its light at 8 miles’ distance. 

Sec / retary=bird. The crane-vulture of South 
Africa and the West Indies. It is easily tamed, 
but attacks and kills poisonous snakes. Its tail 
is very long, with two long middle feathers. It 
has a crest on the back of its head of six pairs of 
feathers, like the pens behind the ears of a clerk, 
hence its name. 

Secretion. A substance separated by any one of 
the glands from the blood, either to be used for 

30 C 


some purpose in the body or to be discharged as 
useless and detrimental. Some of the secretions 
are sweat, saliva, bile, and milk. 

Sedan'. [From Sedan, a town in France.] A 
covered chair for one person, carried by two 
bearers on poles with the hands, and differing 
from palanquins, which are carried on the 
shoulders. There are no carriages in the streets 
of Canton, their absence being supplied by nimble 
sedan bearers. Sedans were introduced into 
England in the seventeenth century. 

Sedge. [AS.] A kind of coarse grass with blades 
shaped like swords, and found in swampy 
ground. It has a triangular jointless stem, 
spiked inflorescence, and long leaves, rough on 
the margin and mid-rib. There are several 
hundred species. 

Seed. [AS.] The part from which a new plant 
grows, consisting of one or more coats or skins 
and the kernel, which is made up of the embryo 
and albumen to feed the embryo. Some albu¬ 
men often forms a part of the embryo. Embryos 



SUN SPOTS. 

are divided into those with one cotyledon or 
seed-leaf, as grasses ; those with two cotyledons, 
as the bean ; and those with more than two, as 
pines. 

Seid / litz. [From Seidlitz , in Bohemia.] A natural 
mineral water ; also a powder having the same 
effect. The seidlitz owes its aperient property 
to the presence of Epsom salts {q.v.) and a little 
lime. Seidlitz powder has 2 drams of Rochelle 
salt and 40 grains of bicarbonate of soda in one 
paper, and 35 grains tartaric acid in another 
paper. When mixed these effervesce, and make 
a very pleasant draught. 

Selt'zer. [Sellers.'] A mineral water from 
Setters, in Nassau, Germany. Its chief character 
is a large amount of carbonic acid in combina¬ 
tion with alkaline carbonates, and also some 
common salt. It ;' w useful for dyspepsia. 






4-66 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


Semaphore. [Ok.] A means of signaling in¬ 
vented by Chappe in 1793. Formerly in railway 
signaling there were three positions: at right 
angles meant stop; at half aright angle, go slowly; 
hanging down, that the line was clear. Nowa¬ 
days semaphores have two positions: when the 
arm is up, danger ; when down, clear. 

Sen'na. [Arab.] The dried leaves of a kind of 
cassia used in medicine as a valuable purgative. 
It grows abundantly in North Africa, in the West 
Indies, and in India. Egyptian senna has a high 
reputation. The leaves are long, lance-shaped, 
or broad, and are sometimes mixed with angel 
leaves, which have no veins. Epsom salts mixed 
with senna is called black draught , and is a 
strong purgative. 

Sen / sitive=plant. The mimosa , a small plant with 
leaves which collapse and fold up when touched. 
It is a native of the American tropics, and is 
about a foot and a half high. 

Se'pia. The cuttle-fish, a family of naked mol¬ 
luscs, with an oval body and with eight short 
arms surrounding the head, also two long arms 
or tentacles. It has an internal shell or plate 
along the back, known as cuttle-fish bone. It 
also possesses a bladder containing a black liquid, 
which it ejects when pursued, staining the water 
black so that it can escape. This secretion, 
obtained from the ink-bag and dried, is used as 
a pigment called India ink. This, when dissolved 
in potash, boiled and filtered, precipitated by an 
acid, and dried, becomes the pigment sepia. 

Sequo'ia. The giant trees of California. They 
belong to the family of the pines, and are dis¬ 
tinguished by their enormous dimensions, one of 
them having measured 112 feet in circumference 
and supposed to have been 450 feet high. The 
California redwood is a smaller species. 

Serge. [Fr., from E. serious , silken.] A kind of 
twilled cloth, first made of silk, now chiefly of 
wool, used for garments. 

Ser / pent. [E- serpens, creeping.] An animal 
that creeps or winds about on the ground. They 
are divided into two classes—poisonous, as vipers 
and rattlesnakes ; and snakes that are not poison¬ 
ous, as boas, pythons, and many others. Serpents 
are vertebrate animals, without limbs, but some 
have rudiments of hind limbs. (See Reptile, 
Snake.) They are mostly long and slender, and 
move partly by bending the body into folds, and 
partly by clinging with their scales to rough sur¬ 
faces. Many glide, others burrow, and some 
live in trees. 

Serpentine. A magnesian rock, usually of a 
greenish color, sometimes spotted like a serpent’s 
skin. Precious serpentine is translucent, and of 
a rich oil-green color. It is really chrysolite 
altered. 

Setter. A dog taught to set or crouch when it 
sees the game. Originally it was a cross between 
a spaniel and a pointer. 

Sew / er. [Fr.] A drain or passage to carry off 
sewage in cities. In Paris the sewers contain tele¬ 
graph and telephone wires, compressed air or gas- 
pipes, etc. The ancient sewer ( Cloaca Maxima) 
of Rome was large enough to allow a loaded wagon 


of hay to pass through. Sewerage has become a 
very important part of modern city administra¬ 
tion. 

Sew / ing=machine. A machine for sewing, ot 
which the first effective one was introduced by 



DOUBLF TRAP FOR SEWER. 

Elias Howe in 1846. The Howe machine has a 
needle with an eye near the point. The thread 
carried through the cloth by this needle forms a 
loop under the cloth through which a shuttle 
passes. The shuttle contains a bobbin of thread, 
which unwinds as it passes through the loop, and 
the thread thus put through forms the lock-stitch. 
In addition to machines for ordinary sewing, 
there are many special inventions. The most 
important is the cylinder, with cylindrical feed, 
for shoe-work, gloves, pocket-books, and travel¬ 
ing-bags. Sewing-machines are now produced that 
make 2,000 stitches a minute. The button-hole 
machine can make 1,200 stitches per minute. 
Sewing-machines are usually fitted with a treadle, 
to be worked by the foot. 

Sex'tant. [E. sextans, a sixth part.] An instru¬ 
ment for measuring angles, mounted on a frame, 
and marked with degrees, minutes, etc. It is 
constructed on the same optical principle as 
Hadley’s quadrant. 

Shad. A fish of the Herring family, but, unlike 
the herring, with a deep notch on the middle of 
the upper jaw, and without teeth on the tongue 
and the roof of the mouth. The Chinese shad is 
an esteemed food-fish. The European shad is 
little valued for food. The American is the 
choicest of food-fishes, and ranks highest among 
American fishes. It is twenty inches long, is 
bluish and silvery in color, and is found abun¬ 
dantly in the rivers of the Atlantic coast of the 
United States. 

Shad'dock. A fruit of the Orange and Lemon 
family, but much larger. It is native to China 
and India, but is now grown in the West Indies. 
It is better for preserving than eating, though 
now, under the name of grape-fruit, it is much 
used as a dessert fruit. 

Shagreen'. A kind of leather made from the 
skins of horses, wild asses, and camels, and so 
grained as to leave on it little grains or pimples. 
These are caused by forcing into the moist skin 
the hard seeds of an Asiatic plant. Shagreen is 
made at Astrakan, Russia, and other places. It 
is used for covering sword scabbards, instrument 
cases, etc. 

Shale. [Ger., akin to scale. ] A rock easily split 
into slabs. Bituminous shale is impregnated with 
bitumen, and often accompanies coal. 



















ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


467 


Sham'rock. [Celt.] A three-leaved plant like 
clover ; the national emblem of Ireland. 

Shark. A large, fierce, and powerful fish, called the 
tiger of the ocean. It sometimes reaches a length 
of 35 feet. It has a strong, stout body, and a tail 
of irregular shape, its upper section being longer 
than its lower. Its skeleton does not consist of 
bone, but of hard gristle; instead of scales its skin 
is set with hard knobs, and the gill slits on the side 
of the neck have no covering. Its mouth is on the 
under side of its head, and it has to turn before bit¬ 
ing. It has several rows of teeth pointing backward 
and imbedded in the lining of the mouth. The fe¬ 
male lays two eggs, with leathery cases, that have 
strings at each of the four corners. (See Egg .) 
The sharks are voracious, and in nearly every 
case carnivorous. Some sharks, as the basking 
shark and the whale shark, grow to an enormous 
size. Most sharks are harmless to man, but some 
species, as the white and the blue sharks, will 
attack and devour man. Another species, the 
man-eater shark, found in all tropical and tem¬ 
perate seas, grows to a length of 36 feet. 

Shawl. [Per.] A woven or knitted covering for 
the shoulders, of wool, cotton, silk, or other 
textile material. India shawls are made from the 
wool of the Cashmere goat. 

Shears. A large pair of scissors used for cutting 
wool from sheep or their skins, also the nap of 
cloth. Shear steel is prepared from blistered 
steel by repeated heating, rolling, and tilting to 
increase its malleability and fineness of texture. 
Two or more poles fastened together at or near 
the top, and steadied by a guy from which pul¬ 
leys and ropes are hung for lifting weights or 
unstepping the low'er masts of ships, are called 
shears. 

Sheep. [AS.] A most useful ruminant animal, 
bearing w 7 ool, and valued for its flesh. The 

domestic sheep is 
gregarious and 
very timid. Among 
fine wool sheep are 
the merino, the 
French, the Saxon, 
and Silesian; 
among coarse-wool 
sheep are the South 
Down, Cotswold, 
Leicester, and 
Cheviot. The meat 
of the fine-wool 
sheep is not as good 
as that of the coarse-wool sheep. The merino 
sheep is a native of Spain, and valued for its 
wool. It is now much bred in Saxony, Silesia, 
Bohemia, and Australia, while in the United 
States the sheep are 95 per cent, merinos. The 
merino differs from the English sheep in having 
wool on the forehead and cheeks. It is a large 
breed, with heavy horns, and with fine wool 
curling in tendrils. The Cretan sheep has long 
horns; the Turkish sheep has a long* fat tail, 
which has often to be supported ; the Asiatic 
sheep has four horns ; the Rocky Mountain sheep, 
a wild species, is called big-horn . from its large¬ 


sized horns. The aoudad is an African sheep, 
having a long mane on the breast and fore legs. 
The argali and moufflon are wild sheep in Siberia 
and Sardinia respectively. The musmon is a 
wild species in European Turkey. The most 
common mode of cutting up a sheep is—(1) 
shoulder, (2) breast, (3) loin (best end), (4) best 
end neck, (5) scrag end neck, (6) head, (7) loin 
(chump end), (8) leg. 

Shell. [AS.] The outer part of an egg or nut, 
the pod of peas, and the hard covering of some 

kinds of ocean animals. 
Shell-fish are usually uni¬ 
valves, having one part; 
or bivalves, having two 
parts joined with a hinge. 
Shells are useful for pro¬ 
tection, and their strength 
and thickness are gener¬ 
ally in proportion to the 
dangers to which the ani¬ 
mal is exposed. Those in- 
habitingshallow places near the shore and exposed 
to the beating of the waves have stronger shells 
than those living in deep water. Fresh-water mol¬ 
luscs generally have delicate shells. The thin layers 
of the oyster-shell are deposits of shelly matter 
showung the lines of growth. All living shells 
have an outer layer of animal matter called epi¬ 
dermis, and they have no lustre till this is taken 
off. Mussel-shells show beautiful blue tints when 
the epidermis is removed. The bodies of all 
shell-fishes are enclosed by a delicate membrane 
called a mantle, which secretes the shell. Among 
other animals the tortoise has a shell,whose upper 
part is made of the flattened spines of the verte¬ 
brae, and of the ribs, the shelly plates being merely 
portions of the skin hardened into shell. (See 
Tortoise .) There are many other animals that 
form shells, some of them being microscopic. 
Chalk is largely made up of the shells of these. 

Shel'Iac. [Z«£, gum.] Lac or gum hardened and 
cut into thin plates. (See Lac.) 

Sher'ry. A kind of light-colored wine, chiefly 
got from Xeres in Spain. It is colored a straw 
color or amber color by mixing cheap wine and 
boiling it down. 

Shield. [AS.] A frame covered with skin or 
metal, worn on the left arm to keep off blows ; 
also the escutcheon or field on which are placed 
the bearings in coats of arms. 

Shilling. [AS.] A silver coin of the value of 12 
pence or twentieth part of a pound. 

Shin / gle. [Cor. from L. scindula , a wooden tile.] 
A thin piece of pine, cypress, cedar, or oak used 
as a roof tile ; loose stones on the sea shore or in 
the bed of a river. . 

ShirFgles. [L. cingulum , a girdle.] A disease 
which spreads round the body like a girdle. 

Ship. A large sea-going vessel with masts and 
sails, particularly one with three masts rigged 
with square sails. It is made up of hull, deck 
(q. v.), masts, yards, bow-sprit and rigging, 
ropes and chains. The front mast is the fore¬ 
mast, the middle mast the main-mast, and the 
hindmost the mizzen-mast, and when a fourth is 







468 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


used, the jigger. A full-rigged ship has from 21 to 
24 sails, and a four-masted ship as many as 36 sails. 

Ship'worm. A mollusc of unusual shape, whose 
scientific name is the Teredo . It looks like a 
worm, being long and slender in body. It bores 
with its cutting shell into wood, and often so 
riddles ship timbers with holes that they crumble 
at a touch. At one time these animals destroyed 
the piles which protected Holland from the sea, 
and a deluge was averted only by great labor and 
expense. They make long tunnels in wood which 
never break into one another. 

Shod / dy. A fibrous fabric made of material ob¬ 
tained by tearing refuse woollen goods, stock¬ 
ings, rags, or druggets. 

Shoe. [AS.] A covering for the foot, usually of 
leather. Fine shoes are made by the hand and 
shaped on a last, or are made by machinery. 


ANCIENT SHOES OR SANDALS. 

Shoes are largely made by machinery in the 
Eastern States of America, New York, and Phila¬ 
delphia. Wooden shoes , much used by the 
peasantry of Europe, are cheap, durable, and 
comfortable, though clumsy. Shoes made of 
vulcanized rubber, as a protection against damp¬ 
ness, are much worn as over-shoes. 

Shot. [AS.] Bullets or small pellets of lead shot 
from a gun. In war, some are composed of lead, 
wrought iron, or cast iron ; they are spherical or 
oblong, and include hollow, solid, and case-shot. 
Chain-shot was formerly used in naval warfare to 
destroy rigging. Shrapnel shell is a projectile 
for a cannon, consisting of a shell filled with 
bullets and a small bursting charge to scatter 
them at any point while in flight. 

Shovel. [From shove.'] A broad, slightly-hol¬ 
lowed blade with a handle for lifting and throw¬ 
ing earth, coal, grain, or other loose substances. 
A steam-shovel is a machine with a scoop or 
scoops, worked by a steam-engine, for excavating 
the earth in railway cuttings. 

Shrew=Mouse. An animal brown in color, and 
very like a common mouse, except that the nose 
is much longer and more pointed, the stomach is 


white, and the tail is square instead of round. 
These little .creatures are treated very cruelly. 
In some places many people believe that the 
bite of a shrew is poisonous, and that if one 
merely runs over the foot of a man or an animal 
sickness or even death will follow. The Ameri¬ 
can water-shrew has fringed feet. The o!d 
Egyptians worshipped the shrew. Many mum¬ 
mies of this little creature have been found in 
their temples. In Scotland it is sometimes called 
the ranny ; and also the fetid mouse, it having a 
musky smell, so strong that cats will not eat 
it, though they kill numbers. Like the mole, it 
makes long tunnels under the earth in search of 
food ; but it makes its nest above the ground in 
any little hole it can find. Some of them are the 
smallest of all mammals. 

Shrimp. [O.E.] A small crustacean, used as food, 
with a thin body, long feelers, and 38 legs of dif¬ 
ferent lengths. Between its head and tail it has thin 
shells in six parts, jointed, and each working into 
its neighbor. Its tail is wing-shaped, and helps 
it to swim or jump through the water, and can 
be expanded or folded up. The larger kinds of 
shrimps are called prawns. 

Shrub. [AS.] A tree-like plant or bush with 
no trunk but with several stems branching di¬ 
rectly from one root. 

Shuttle. [AS.] That by which the weaver 
shoots or throws the thread from one side of. the 
web to the other. The shuttle race is a shelf in 
the loom beneath the warp along which the 
shuttle passes. 

Shut/tlecock. A cork with feathers, driven 
back wards and forwards by a light bat in the 
game of shuttlecock and battledore. 

Sick / Ie. [AS.] A curved steel knife for cutting 
grain. The sickle has one side of the blade 
notched, so as always to sharpen with a serrated 
edge. The reaping-machine has now taken its 
place in harvesting operations. A grass hook or 
sickle is used for trimming grass borders or lawns 
where mowers cannot be used. 

SieiFna. A reddish-brown pigment made from 
earth got from Sienna in Tuscany. This clay is 
colored by the oxides of iron and manganese. 
Burnt sienna is the same clay made redder by the 
action of fire. 

Sieve. [AS.] A vessel with small holes in the 
bottom for separating fine particles from coarse 
ones. It is usually shallow, with the bottom 
made of wire, hair, or woven into meshes. 

SiFica. [L-] The substance of which flint, sand, 
and sandstone are chiefly composed. It is the 
oxide of the element silicon, and is very abund¬ 
ant in the form of quartz. Silicates are salts of 
silica or silicic acid. 

Silk. [AS., from L. sericum, silk.] Fine threads 
spun by silk-worms, but especially the Bombyx 
mori. The silk-worm was first kept in China 
for the purpose of manufacturing silk. From 
silk-worms’ eggs, in about a fortnight, little cater¬ 
pillars two inches long and light-colored come 
out; these must be fed with mulberry (q.v.) or 
lettuce leaves. In about a month the caterpillars 


































































ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


469 


reach their full size, and inside their bodies is a 
sticky substance which they convert into silk. 
From two little holes in its head each caterpillar 
draws out flossy threads of the sticky matter, and 
twists them together by means of a gum, winding 
them round and round its body until it is envel¬ 
oped in a ball of silk, called a cocoon , which is 
about as large as a grape or a pigeon’s egg. The 
cocoons from which silk is to be obtained are 
heated in an oven, and the inner balls are thrown 
into warm water, so as to melt the gum ; after 
which the silk from them is wound upon reels, 
and then made up into hanks. It is then known 
as raw silk . The thread of a single cocoon gen¬ 
erally measures about 600 yards, but some cocoons 
have measured 1,200 yards. The silk fibre is 
sent to the factories, or silk-mills, as they are 
called, where it passes through the processes of 
winding, cleaning, twisting, weaving, dyeing, 
and finishing. Silk is made into silk for dresses, 
satin, velvet, ribbon, sarcenet, stockings, fringes, 
buttons, gloves. 

Sflk=worm. The worm which spins or produces 
silk threads. For thousands of years the Chinese 
would not allow the eggs of the silk-worm to 
go out of the country. About 550, two monks 
are said to have brought to Europe a few eggs 
hidden in their canes. Now it is quite domesti¬ 
cated, and has been so long fed by man that the 
female is nearly as motionless as if she had no 
wings, and the male merely flutters without 
leaving the ground. 

SiFver. [AS.] A soft, white, shining metal which 
takes on a bright polish. It is found in combination 
as sulphurets and oxides, and with other metals. 
It is widely diffused. Of mineral ores associated 
only 1 in 17 is free from silver, and traces of it 
have been found in sea-water and in organic sub¬ 
stances. Gold never occurs in nature apart from 
silver, and is also found with lead ; yet there is a 
natural distinction between the veins of the sev¬ 
eral metals. The main sources of the world’s 
supply, after the discovery of America, were 
Mexico and South America; but the United 
States on the Pacific slope now yields silver in ex¬ 
cess of any other country. 

SFphon. [Gk.] A bent tube, with one arm longer 
than the other, for drawing off a liquid from one 
vessel to another at a lower level, the shorter 
arm being inserted in the liquid at the higher 
level. 

Skate. [Scand.] A large flat fish more or less 
square in form, and the thinnest of ray fishes in 
proportion to its bulk. It is the largest of ray 
fishes. The European blue or gray skate is used 
as food, and sometimes weighs as much as 200 
lbs. The American smooth or barn-door skate is 
also a large species, measuring often 3 feet across. 
Its nose is conical, and it has sharp spines above 
its eyes. Its jaws are covered with small, sharp- 
pointed teeth. 

Skeleton. [Gk. skeletos , dried.] The bony frame¬ 
work of an animal body. That of the human body 
is composed of 246 separate bones. At the joints 
the bones are joined together by bands of a sub¬ 
stance like gristle. The use of the skeleton is to 


form a foundation—a kind of stiff framework— 
on which the rest of the body can be built up. 
The bones of the head enclose and protect the 
brain ; the bones of the trunk perform a similar 
office for the organs situated in the chest and the 
abdomen ; the bones in the limbs impart rigidity 
to them, and aid us in performing work and in 
moving about. (See Bone.) 

Skin. [Scand.] The natural covering of animals 
and plants. The thickness of the skin varies in 
different parts of the human body, from one- 
eighth to one-fourth of an inch. On the hands 
and feet it becomes thick (or callous), but in 
other parts it is thin and delicate, while at the 
ends of the fingers and toes it grows into thin 
plates called nails. The hairs are only portions 
of the skin grown very long and narrow. The 
skin is composed of two layers: there is a lower, 
thick layer, full of the fine blood-vessels called 
capillaries, and full, too, of nerves—this layer is 
called the dermis; upon it lies an upper, thin 
layer, of a horny or scaly nature, in which are no 
blood-vessels and no nerves—this is called the 
epidermis. Just under the dermis there is 
usually a layer of fat. When we examine the 
outside of our skin through a magnifying-glass, 
we can see great numbers of little holes or pores. 
No fewer than 5,000 pores have been counted in 
the skin forming the tip of a finger ; and there 
are about i'/z millions of such pores in the skin of 
the whole body. Each pore is the end or open¬ 
ing of a tube called a sweat gland, which goes 
down, through the epidermis, into the dermis, 
where its lower end is coiled up into a little ball 
or knot. The oil glands are very similar to the 
sweat glands. Two are attached to each hair; 
and when the skin is in a healthy state this 
natural oil ought to be sufficient for the hair. 
The oily matter formed by these oil glands runs 
out on the skin and mixes with the sweat. The 
sweat produced by the skin of an ordinary man 
or woman every twenty-four hours measures not 
less than a pint and a quarter, weighing 1fb. 

Skull. [Scand.] The bony case which encloses 
the brain, and with the bones of the face and 
mouth gives shape to the head. It is rounded 
on the top somewhat like the large end of an 
egg, and in front and on the sides it has openings 
for the eyes, the nose, and the ears. The skull 
is made up of compact plates, joined by irregular 
saw-like lines or projections called sutures. The 
upper jaw and the bones of the nose and cheeks 
belong to the skull, and are immovable. The 
use of having the skull iu several parts is to 
allow the brain to grow, and to prevent a jar from 
affecting the whole skull. In many fishes the 
skull is almost wholly cartilaginous, with a layer 
of spongy bones. 

Skunk. [Ind.] An animal of the Weasel family, 
found only in America. There are eighteen 
species, of which the common skunk is found in 
the rocky parts of North America. It defends 
itself by giving out liquid secreted in two glands 
near the anus, the scent of which is so nauseous 
and persistent that it forms an effectual defense 
against other animals. It is about the size of a 




470 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


cat, with a broad body standing low on the legs. 
Its fur is coarse, the hair long, and the tail long 
and bushy. The claws on the fore feet are strong 
and suited for digging. It preys on mice and 
frogs. It does not run from its foes, its elevated 
white tail being a sufficient warning to all car¬ 
nivorous animals, none of which will attack it. 
The common skunk is black, with white on the 
body and tail. The spotted skunk of Mexico is 
smaller, and is also marked with black and white. 
The skunk is hunted for its fur, which is in con¬ 



siderable demand, but the hunter must be careful 
to avoid alarming the animal and causing it to 
discharge its obnoxious secretion. 

Sky / Iark. A bird which nests in the grass, but 
rises high in the air, singing as it rises. (See 
Lark.) The Australian skylark is a pipit, and 
though it rises it lacks the song of the true lark. 

Slag. [Scand.] The dross of melted mineral, or 
cinders from a volcano. 

Slate. [Fr.] A kiud of rock which splits into 
thin layers very readily. The largest slate quar¬ 
ries in the world are in Wales. Welsh slates are 
lightest and best. They are used for covering roofs, 
for cisterns, for mantelpieces, and for writing 
upon. Slate is very useful for roofing purposes, 
since it is cheap, light, and impervious to water. 
Slates are fastened to the rafters with nails, and are 
placed so as to overlap one another. 

Sling. [ VS.] A strip of leather, having a cord 
attached to each end, for throwing stones by 
rapidly whirling round the-head and suddenly 
letting one of the ends go ; also a bandage hung 
from the neck to support the arm or hand. 

Sloe. [AS.] A small bitter wild plum, the fruit 
of the blackthorn (Primus spinosa ); also the 
tree itself. 

Sloop. [Du.] A one-masted ship with fore-and- 
aft sails. The typical sloop has a fixed bowsprit, 
top-mast, and standing rigging, but those of a 
cutter can be rapidly shifted. 

Slot=machine. An ingenious instrument so 
arranged that its machinery is set in motion by 
the weight of a cent, a half-dime or other small 
coin. Slot-machines in great variety have been 
made, some adapted to set in action a weighing 
apparatus, others to drop out small articles, 
when the coin is dropped in. Among the latest 
devices is one to give out railroad tickets in 
exchange for the proper coin, used on the German 
railroads. 

Sloth. [AS.] This is a curious creature without 
fore teeth and canines. It is a native of Central 
and South America. Its shape is very different 
from that of gnawing animals, for its front legs 


are longer than those behind. Some sloths have 
three, others two, large strong curved claws to 
each foot. The two-toed sloths have two toes on 
the fore foot and three on each hind foot. These 
the sloth hooks round the branch of a tree, and 
hanging with its back downward moves with 
great speed among the thick forests. Its strong 
coarse hair is so like the color of the trees that it 
is not easily seen among the branches ; and there 
it has no enemies to fear except men and snakes. 
The natives of South America hunt it for its 
flesh, of which they are very fond. On the 
ground it moves with a slow, awkward shuffle, 
hooking its strong claws into the ground, and 
dragging itself along. When attacked it throws 
itself on its back, and tries to choke its enemy 
with its powerful arms. It lives on leaves and 
twigs, and completely strips one tree before it 
begins to strip another. 

Slug. A land-dwelling mollusc, without a shell, 
except a small internal one which protects the 
heart. The slugs are the pests of gardens and 
cultivated places, and give much trouble to gar¬ 
deners. 

Sluice. [Old Fr., from exclusa , shut out.] A door 
or gate, sliding in a frame, for shutting off or 
regulating the flow of water; also a long box 
used in washing for gold. 

Smelt. [AS.] A small salmonoid fish which as¬ 
cends rivers to spawn, much esteemed for food. 
It has a peculiar odor .—Candle fish is a kind of 
smelt found on the North Pacific coast, and is so 
oily that it may be used as a candle by drawing a 
wick through it. 

Snail. [AS.] A soft slimy land mollusc, usually 
protected by a spiral shell. Besides long ten¬ 
tacles tipped with black eye-specks, snails have a 
shorter pair, which are organs of smell. There 
are over 2,000 species of snails, and they are 
found in all parts of the world except the Arctic 
regions. Some are even smaller than a pin-head; 



while others, in France and Italy, cultivated for 
food, are fairly large. The Great Vine Snail was 
considered a table luxury by the ancient Romans. 
Snails are vegetarians, and have jaws and tongues 
of saw-like edge, with thousands of rasping points 
on each. On the approach of cold weather the 












ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


47i 


snail throws a film over the mouth of its shell, 
which tightens like a drum-head. Snails have 
astonishing vitality. They regain activity after 
having been frozen in solid blocks of ice, and 
endure a degree of heat for weeks which daily 
crisps vegetation. In very dry weather they 
close up the shell as in cold weather, to retain 
the bodily moisture. 

Snake. [AS. snaca, creeper.] A creeping reptile, 
whose gliding motion is due to having the ver¬ 
tebrae jointed with ball-and-socket joints. On 
each vertebra is a pair of ribs which are used as 
legs, working the snake backwards and forwards ; 
and its scales are used as feet, catching the 
ground and pulling or pushing the whole body. 
Its jaws are joined by an elastic gristle, so that 
they can be spread wide ; and its tongue darts far 
out beyond its lips, touching or feeling. Its 
teeth are not used for chewing but for holding 
and swallowing its prey. There are the black 
snake, blind snake, garter snake, green snake, 
ring snake, rock snake, milk snake, water snake, 
and dw T arf snake, and various venomous snakes, 
such as the rattlesnake and the copperhead. The 
python is sometimes 30 feet long, and the female 
incubates her eggs. (See Boa , Cobra , Rattle¬ 
snakeSerpent.) — Snake-bird or darter is a kind 
of gannet with a snake-like neck. 

Snap'ping-tur'tle. The common name of a family 
of reptiles, comprising turtles with the body high 
in front, low behind, large head, long neck, 
powerful jaws, tail long and strong. If assailed 
they raise themselves on their legs and tail, 
throw the body forcibly forward, and snap the 
jaws with great power upon their foe. They are 
a match for any enemy likely to attack them ex¬ 
cept man. They are frequently found upon the 
land near the water, devouring small animals. 
There are three species, two of which are Ameri¬ 
can. They are hunted for their flesh, which 
makes a rich and palatable soup. 

Snipe. The common name of a large family of 
birds, found in many parts of the world. The 
common snipes of Europe and America are much 
alike in size and plumage, being about 17 inches 
in total length, of which the bill is nearly 3 
inches. They fly very swiftly and in a zigzag 
manner, and are difficult to shoot, though much 
hunted as a delicious game bird. 

Snow. [AS.] Frozen moisture falling in soft 
white flakes. It is not produced, like hail, by 
the freezing of rain-drops, but formed by the 
direct passage of the vapor into the solid state. 
It falls to the earth in flakes, each flake consist¬ 
ing of a regularly shaped crystal, or, as more 
commonly happens, of several crystals grouped 
together. The most common form is that of six- 
pointed stars variously modified. Each star has 
a solid nucleus, from which six little rods of ice 
proceed at regular angles, and from the sides of 
these rods secondary rays may be given off, pro¬ 
ducing a countless variety of very beautiful 
figures. The snow-flakes are largest when the 
temperature is near the freezing-point, the snow 
being then soft and easily gathering into masses. 
The texture of snow being very loose, it is a bad 


conductor of heat; and being also a bad radiator 
on account of its white color, it forms an admir¬ 
able covering for plants, shielding them from 
the effects of severe frosts. 

Snow=bunting. An American bird, common in 
summer in the Arctic regions and in winter in 
the United States. It resembles the lark in 
its habits, and is generally very fat and much 
esteemed for the table. 

Snow=drop. A small bulbous plant, with white 

dropping or 
hanging flow¬ 
ers, often ap¬ 
pearing while 
the snow is on 
the ground. 
Snow=line. 
, The line on a 
mountain above 
which snow 
never melts. 
The lowest lim¬ 
it of perpetual 
snow in the Alps 
is at 9,000 feet 
above sea-level, 
and in the 
Andes, at the equator, 16,000 feet. 

Snow=shoe. A flat shoe worn to keep the foot 
from sinking in the snow. The frame of wood 
is three or four feet long and about a foot wide, 
with thongs or cords stretched across it, and 
having a support and holder for the foot. 

Snuff. [Du.] Tobacco or stalks of tobacco finely 
powdered taken into the nose. It is scented 
with essential oils or otherwise. It was formerly 
much used, but is now very little. 

Soap. [AS., akin to E. sapo.~\ A mixture of oil 
or fat with soda or potash for washing. Since 
the cheapening of caustic soda by the Le Blanc 
process, soda is chiefly used instead of potash as 
the alkali of soap. Common soap is a compound 
of fat or oils (q-v.) and caustic soda. Many kinds 
of soap are made, but they all consist of some 
fatty substance (as tallow) boiled with an alkali— 
either caustic soda or caustic potash. Yellow 
soap is made from tallow and caustic soda colored 
by rosin ; mottled soap , from dripping, etc., 
boiled wflth caustic soda ; Castile soap , from olive 
oil and caustic soda ; brown Windsor , from equal 
parts of tallow and olive oil boiled with caustic 
soda ; white or curd soap , from tallow and caustic 
soda. Transparent soap , is made by dissolving 
curd soap in spirits of wine. Marine soap , is 
made from cocoa-nut oil and caustic soda; it will 
dissolve in salt water (which common soap will 
not do), and is therefore much used on board 
ships. Soft soap is made by boiling caustic 
potash with some fish-oil.— Soapstone , or talc , is 
a silicate of magnesia used to make stoves, 
hearths, crayons, etc. 

So'da. [Ital.] A substance formerly got from 
sea-weeds, and in 1791 it was produced from com¬ 
mon salt by Ee Blanc. In this process salt is 
transformed into sodium sulphate by adding 
sulphuric acid ; theu by mixing with chalk and 



SNOW CRYSTALS. 






472 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


coal it is made into sodium carbonate. Soda can 
be produced by electricity from brine. It is the 
most important of all chemical products used in 
the industries. Caustic soda , or sodium hydrox¬ 
ide, is used in making soap, wood pulp for paper, 
etc.; cooking on washing soda is sodium bicar¬ 
bonate. 

So / da=water. Water mixed with a little soda and 
carbonic acid ; a beverage consisting of water 
highly charged with carbonic acid, to which fruit 
syrups are usually added. 

So'dium. A common metallic element of the 
alkali group, always found combined, as in 
common salt. When isolated it is a soft, waxy 
white metal, so readily oxidized that it combines 
with water and must be preserved under petro¬ 
leum. As a means of obtaining magnesium and 
aluminium, sodium is an important article of 
commerce. Its compounds are widely diffused 
in nature, and can be detected by the peculiar 
yellow color which they impart to a flame, or by 
the yellow line in the spectrum. 

Soil. [Fr., from E- solum , ground.] Earth in 
which plants grow. Soil consists of a mixture of 
earthy materials resulting from the disintegration 
of the rocks by natural agencies, and a deposit of 
organic matter arising from the growth and decay 
of vegetation on the earth’s surface. The influ¬ 
ence of earth-worms, ants, and other small crea¬ 
tures on the condition of the soil has lately been 
shown to be considerable. 

So'lan Goose. [Scand., Sulal] The gannet (q.v.). 

So / lar Spec / trum. [E.] The spectrum of solar 
light, characterized by numerous dark lines, 
called Fraunhofer lines , from being observed by 
a German physicist of that name. [See Spec¬ 
trum .] 

So / lar System. [E.] The sun, with the bodies 
revolving round it, and receiving from it their 
light and heat, and held by its attraction. It 
includes eight planets with twenty-two satellites, 
of which the Earth has one, Mars two, Jupiter 
five, Saturn nine, Uranus four, and Neptune one. 
There are more than four hundred asteroids, or 
very small planetary bodies, known between 
Mars and Jupiter. The meteoroids furnish the 
zodiacal light and the rings of Saturn. The year 
of Mercury is nearly 88 days; of Venus, nearly 
225 days ; of the Earth, over 365 days; of Mars, 
nearly 6S7 days ; of Jupiter, nearly 4,333 days ; of 
Saturn, over 10,759 days ; of Uranus, nearly 
30,687 days ; of Neptune, over 60,181 days. The 
four outer planets are very much larger than the 
interior ones. There are many comets included 
within the solar system. 

SoUder. [Fr., from E- solidus. ] Melted metal 
used for fastening pieces of metal together. 
Hard solder , for fusing at red heat, is composed 
of zinc and copper or silver and copper. Soft 
solder , for low temperature, in use among 
plumbers, consists of two parts lead and one 
part tin. 

Sole. [E.] A kind of flat-fish of the genus Solea. 
The common sole of Europe is much used for 
food. Eemon or French sole is another species. 
The megrim is the British smooth sole or scald fish. 


SoUstice. [Fr., from E. solslitium. ] The point 
in the ecliptic at which the sun is farthest from 
the equator, either north or south, and at which 
it seems to stand still. The 21st of June is the 
summer, and 21st of December the winter sol¬ 
stice ; for some days before and after these dates 
the length of day is very similar. Both points 
are 23 0 28 / from the equator. 

Soot. [AS.] The loose black particles from 
smoke in chimneys disengaged from the fuel in 
process of combustion, consisting chiefly of car¬ 
bon, and the result of imperfect combustion. 

Sor'rel. [Fr.] A plant like the dock, whose 
leaves have a sour taste. Mountain sorrel has 
rounded kidney-formed leaves. Red sorrel is 
found in the West Indies, and the calyxes and 
capsules are used for making tarts and acid drinks. 
Salt of sorrel is binoxalate of potash, and is ob¬ 
tained from common sorrel or Rumex acetosa. 

Sound. [Fr., from E. sonare.~\ That which can 
be heard. In physics, it is applied to the exter¬ 
nal cause which produces the sensation. In this 
sense the word sound stands either for the vibra¬ 
tions of the sound¬ 
ing body or for the 
impulses it has 
communicated to 
the air, and which 
immediately affect 
the ear. It can be 
shown by experi¬ 
ment that sound 
is the result of a 
vibratory m o v e- 
ment which when 
sufficiently rapid 
produces a sound. 
A bell, a glass plate, 
a tuningfork, a 
piano string, if put 
into a state of vibra¬ 
tion, will produce a sound if the vibrations take 
place in a suitable medium. It has been found 
that sound is not transmitted in a vacuum. A 
bell struck in the exhausted receiver of an air- 
pump is nearly inaudible. In water, sound travels 
nearly four times as fast as in air, in which its 
speed is about 1,093 feet per second. In solids 
the velocity varies widely. In inelastic sub¬ 
stanceslike lead or wax it is small, while in those 
like wood and steel it is large. Musical sounds 
differ from one another in respect to intensity , 
pitch , and character or timbre. The intensity 
depends upon the amplitude of the vibrations. 
Pitch is the quality which distinguishes an acute 
sound from a grave one. It depends upon the 
frequency of vibration. As with other forms of 
wave motion, sound may be reflected and re¬ 
fracted ; and if not in accord with each other 
their interference gives rise to beats. 

Soiip, [Fr.] Water with meat or vegetables 
boiled in it and used for food. Soup maigre is 
made chiefly from vegetables or fish, with a little 
butter and a few condiments. 

Sovereign. |TFr., from E. supremus .] A British 
gold com worth twenty shillings. 










































ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


473 


Spade. [AS.] An instrument for digging, having 
a broad oblong and nearly rectangular flat blade, 
usually of iron, with a wooden handle. 

Spaniels or Spanish Dogs. Handsome animals 
with long silky hair, drooping ears, bushy tails, 
and feet partly webbed. Water-spaniels are good 
swimmers, and field-spaniels can fetch game. 
Blenheim and King Charles spaniels are lap-dogs. 

Spank / er. [AS.] A fore-and-aft sail on the 
mizzen-mast attached to a boom and gaff. 

Spar / row. [AS.] The Sparrow family is a nu¬ 
merous one of perching birds. They help the 
farmer by keeping down caterpillars, grubs, and 
insects, which would otherwise overrun the 
fruits and crops ; but they are very combative 
and drive other birds away. The white-throated 
American sparrow has a black crown, yellow 
spots over the eyes, orange edges on the wings, 
and a white throat. It is called the peabody bird 
from the sound of its note. The English sparrow, 
introduced into the United States to destroy the 
caterpillars of the tussock moth, which are in¬ 
jurious to shade trees, has greatly multiplied and 
is the common bird of cities and towns. The 
hedge sparrow is the size of the robin, and 
belongs to a different family. Its beak is black 
and rather long and slender. The solitary spar¬ 
row is a species of thrush, and is a native of 
Southern Europe. It resembles the blackbird, 
and has bluish feathers. The Sparrow family 
includes finches, swallows, thrushes, and larks. 
(See Beak.) 

Spar / row=hawk. A small hawk which preys on 
sparrows and other small birds. It is the most 
pernicious of hawks, feeding on pigeons, par¬ 
tridges and young fowls. It is bluish gray in 
color, with a cream-colored breast. It builds in 
hollow trees or in ruins. It is found in large 
numbers all over the world. It lays four or five 
eggs of a white color, spotted with red. 

Spear. [AS.] A long shaft of wood, with a sharp 
iron point, used in fighting, hunting, or in 
catching fish. 

Spear=fish. A large, powerful fish found in the 
Mediterranean, related to and somewhat like the 
sword-fish. It has scales and ventral fins. 

Specific Heat. The quantity of heat required to 
raise the temperature of a pound of a substance 
one degree, taking as a unit of measure the 
freezing point quantity required to raise one 
pound of water at one degree. The specific heat 
of mercury is 0.033, that of water being 1. 

Spectacles. [L,.] Two glasses set in a light 
frame to help weak sight. They were invented 
by an Italian in the thirteenth century. For 
short-sighted eyes,spectacles with concave lenses 
are used, which form an image of the object 
nearer to the eye than the object itself. For 
long-sighted eyes, spectacles with convex lenses 
are used, which form the image at a greater dis¬ 
tance from the eye than the object. 

Spectroscope. [E. spectrum ; and Gk. skopeo , 
I see.] An instrument consisting of a telescope 
with a prism for separating the rays of light 
proceeding from the sun and stars or from burn¬ 
ing substances, so that, by the relations of the 



lines to one another, the composition of the sub¬ 
stances burned may be ascertained. 

Spectrum. A ray of light separated by a prism 
or otherwise into the colors of which it is com¬ 
posed. There are seven different bands of color 
—red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and 
violet. The spectrum of solar light or that of the 
light given off by burning bodies, is found to be 

crossed by very 
many dark lines 
cr spaces where 
thelightisinter- 
rupted. These 
are known from 
their discover¬ 
er, as the Fraun¬ 
hofer lines. If 
the substance 
burned is a gas, 
its lines are 
bright instead 
dark, and the 
rest of the spectrum 
is dark. Each sub¬ 
stance makes a dif- 
erent set of lines, 
and spectrum an¬ 
alysis is a method 
of examining the 
lines in any ray of light and determining by them 
what substance yields the ray. By this means it 
has been found that many earthly substances exist 
in the sun, such as hydrogen, iron, sodium, etc. 
Similar substances have been found in very dis¬ 
tant stars. Many of the nebulae give a spectrum 
of bright lines, from which we conclude, that 
they are composed of luminous gaseous matter. 

Spec'ulum. [L,.] A piece of polished metal 
which acts like a mirror, as in a reflecting tele¬ 
scope. Silvered glass mirrors being lighter and 
more easily made, have taken the place of 
metallic mirrors. 

Spermaceti. [L,. sperma , seed; and cetus , a 
whale.] A kind of fat from the head of the 
sperm whale used in making candles, ointments, 
and cosmetics. It is a semi-fluid substance which, 
on being taken from the animal, hardens as it 
cools. The large head is partly occupied by a 
cavity containing spermaceti, and other cavities 
throughout the body are also filled with it. It 
consists of salts of palmitic acid and ethal and 
hydrocarbon bases. 

Sperm Oil. Oil got from the sperm whale. It is a 
thin and valuable oil, and, like spermaceti, is 
used in ointments and medicine. It is slightly 
pressed from the other matters with which it is 
mixed, and one animal has been known to 
yield 6,000 gallons of this oil. 

Sperm Whale.- A kind of whale called also cacha¬ 
lot, from which sperm oil and spermaceti are 
obtained. Sperm whales frequent tropical seas 
and live in groups or shoals. They have large, 
square heads, with a single blow-hole near the 
extremity of the snout. They have no whale¬ 
bone plates in the mouth, but the lower jaw is 
furnished with large, conical, curved teeth, and 










474 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


when the mouth is closed the teeth fit into 
cavities in the upper jaw. They sometimes grow 
to the length of 80 feet. 

Sphere. [Fr., from Gk. sphaira , a ball.] A round 
body ; also the apparent surface of the heavens, 
which is assumed to be spherical and everywhere 
equally distant, in which the heavenly bodies 
appear to have their places. 

Sphinx. A fabulous monster of classic lore, with 
the head and bust of a woman, the body of a 
dog, wings of a bird, and tail of a serpent. 
The Egyptian sphinx was a winged lion with a 
human head and bust. This creature was carved 
in stone, and set up in rows as approaches to the 
great temples. The Great Sphinx, near the 
Pyramids of Egypt, is 62 feet high. 

Spice. [Fr., from L. species. ] A vegetable pro¬ 
duction, with a strong, sweet smell and sharp 
taste, used as a seasoning by mixing with food. 
The chief spices are ginger, cinnamon, nutmegs, 
cloves, allspice, and pepper ( q.v .). Allspice or 
pinento is a native of Jamaica, and is an ever¬ 
green tree. The berries are dried and much 
used for flavoring, as they contain the flavor of 
other spices. 

Spic / ules. Needle-shaped objects in sponges, 
which retain the shape of the sponge when the 
flesh is removed. Flints {q.v.) are filled with 
fossil spicules. 

SpPder. [AS., from spin.~\ An animal allied to 
the insects, which spins a web in order to catch 
flies for food. There are two divisions in the 
spider’s body. The upper, or head part has a 
horny covering, and is united to the abdomen 
by a short stalk. Spiders have four pairs of legs, 
ending in hooks. Near the mouth are hooked 
teeth which have slits at the ends from which a 
poisonous fluid is ejected. There are eight eyes 
on the back of the head. Some spiders spin no 
web, but jump upon their prey; others, as the 
tarantula, run it down ; but most snare their 
prey by traps in the form of exquisite webs. 
The webs of the house spider and cellar spider 
are woven in many shapes, but the garden 
spider weaves a geometrical web. At the end of 
the abdomen of the spider are from four to six 
spinnerets covered with tiny points, from each 
of which flows a gummy fluid which hardens 
into silk when it reaches the air. A web is fast¬ 
ened to an object by simply touching the spin¬ 
neret with the object. Having arranged the 
long rays or spokes, a spiral thread is run round 
and round. Then a silken den to hide in is built 
near by, with one long thread by which she can 
feel if a fly strikes the net. Nearly all spiders 
enclose their eggs in a cocoon, which sometimes 
the mother carries on her back. Gossamer spiders 
send out long floating lines which carry them 
through the air. The water spider makes a bell¬ 
shaped cell under the water, and takes down a 
little bubble of air into the bell to supply it with 
air. The trap-door spider lives iu warm countries, 
and has a nest in the ground lined with silk and 
covered with a lid made by layers of earth and 
alternate webs fixed to the n^st to make a hinge. 
From the gossamer web of the garden spider are 


taken the fine threads which are stretched across 
the lens in the astronomical telescope for accur¬ 
ate sighting. 

Spike. [L- spica , an ear of corn.] A piece of 
pointed iron or an ear of corn .—Oil of spike is a 
colorless or yellowish aromatic oil from broad¬ 
leaved lavender, used as varnish and as medicine. 

Spin'ach. [Ital. from L. spina , a thorn, or His- 
pania.~\ A vegetable used for food, some vari¬ 
eties having thorny or prickly leaves, belonging 
to the Goosefoot family, grown in almost every 
country. It is (also) called Spinage. 

SpFnal Cord. A long, round mass of nervous 
matter situated in the cavity of the spinal column. 
The brain is a soft mass of gray and white nerve- 
matter, about three pounds in weight, which fills 
the interior of the skull. From it a cord of 
nerve substance, about as thick as the little 



finger, and some eighteen inches in length, 
passes downwards from the brain along the centre 
of the backbone. This is called the spinal cord. 
L,ong but very fine nerves extend from the brain 
and the spinal cord to all parts of the body. 

Spinning. [AS.] Drawing out and twisting fibres 
into threads. Long threads are spun by mule 
spinning-machines, which carry hundreds of 
spindles. The spindles are set and run swiftly 
in one long straight row on a wheeled frame, 
which backs off and returns with them all at 
once. Ring-spinning or w T arp-spinning is twist¬ 
ing the thread used for warp. As it is spun, it is 
wound on small bobbins and rewound on larger 
bobbins or spools, and then wound on large 
rollers the same width as the cloth to be made. 
It is then starched and dried before weaving into 
cloth. 

Spitz Dog. A breed having erect ears and long 
silky hair, and called also Pomeranian. 

Sponge. [Fr., from the Gk.] The animal occupy¬ 
ing the lowest rank among the many celled 
animals, and next above the Protozoa, or single- 
celled animals. It consists of a network of horny 
or fibrous substance, or of lime or silica. This is 
covered and filled with a slimy flesh, through 
which run numbers of tubular passages. The 
sponge remains in the place to which it is 
attached under water, drawing in water and 
letting it out again, and feeding on the particles 
in the water. Coarse sponges are fished up with 
harpoons. Men dive for the fine sponges, and 
cut them off with knives, and the skeletons 
washed of their slimy flesh and dried are the 
sponges of commerce. The large bath-sponges 
come from the Mediterranean and the Bahamas. 
The zimocca conies from the Mediterranean. The 
yellow hard-head sponge is found in American 
waters ou tlic Florida coast. It is dense, thick, 











ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


473 


and hard. The finest, softest, and most delicate 
sponge is the Turkish toilet sponge, from the 
Red Sea, the Indian Ocean, and the Grecian 
Archipelago. Sponges are of all shapes and 
colors—like a vase, trumpet, globe, or branch of 
a tree. Neptune’s cup is a curiously-shaped 
sponge. Venus’s flower-basket is made of glassy 
threads. Sponges are useful for the bath, are 
made into a kind of cloth as a foundation of car¬ 
pets and rugs, and are sometimes used to stuff 
cushions. 

Spoon'bill. A long-legged wading bird akin to 
the heron, having a bill like a spoon. Its bill is 
wide and flattened at the tip, and it scoops up its 
prey, hike the heron it fishes, and like the duck 
it searches for worms in the mud. Its color in 
the first year is a dark chestnut, the second year 
it changes to red, and the third year to bright 
scarlet. The royal spoonbill of Australia is white, 
and the male has a crest. 

Sprat. [Du.] A small fish somewhat like young 
herring or the pilchard. The sprat is marked by 
a deeply-serrated abdomen, while the young her¬ 
ring is without this. Sometimes called a garvie. 
(See Whitebait.) 

Spring. [AS.] An outflow of water from the 
ground. The water of springs consists of rain¬ 
water which has soaked into the ground and 
percolated through the rocks, sometimes for a 
distance of several miles. Water easily passes 
through porous rocks, such as sandstone, but it 
cannot pass through clay. It then travels along 
the junction of two strata for a greater or less 
distance until it finds its way to an outlet and 



INTERMITTENT SPRING 


reappears at the surface as a spring. Springs of 
this simple character are very common, and are 
known as surface springs. An Intermittent 
Spring is one that flows and stops alternately 
being connected with a reservoir ( b ) by a sutured 
siphon (a). Mineral springs have mineral in¬ 
gredients, which they hold in solution. 

Springbok. [Du.] A South African gazelle, 
noted fox jts swiftness, springing action, and 


graceful form. It has a white stripe on the back 
and tail. 

Spring=tide. The highest tide at or soon after 
new and full moon. It rises higher than the 
average tide. (See Tides.) 

Spruce fir. [From Prussia .] A kind of fir, but 
unlike firs in having pendent cones with per¬ 
sistent scales and leaves arranged round the 

shoots. The 
sprouts are 
S’ used to 
fl. a v o r 
spruce beer 
and the 
wood is 
used for 
fences, boat 
building, 
cooperage, 
etc. There 
are many 
varieties in 
Norway 
and the 
north-west 
of America. 
Frequently 

SQIRREL, S e f 11 1 U 

parks. 

Square. [Fr., from Ital.] Having four equal sides 
and four right angles. In carpentry, the square 
has at least one right angle and two or more 
straight edges. It includes a carpenter’s square, 
L, a T square, and a try square d . 

Squash. The fruit of a species of the gourd plant, 
to which the pumpkin and melon also belong. 
It was grown in America by the Indians before 
the whites came ; also in Europe in early times. 
It is smaller than the pumpkin, the chief kinds 
being the round flat ones with scalloped edges 
and the long crook necks. An English variety is 
the vegetable marrow or egg-squash. It is much 
used in New England in pies, and is a common 
table vegetable throughout the United States. 

Squid. Any one of numerous species of cephalo- 
pods with ten arms, a long, tapering body, and a 
caudal fin on each side. The squid is abundant 
in the North Atlantic, and is used as bait in cod¬ 
fishing. It is also known as calamary, and has a 
sac of ink-like fluid, which it discharges from a 
siphon tube to hide it from its foes. (SeeSepia.) 

Squir / rel. [Low L-, from Gk.] A beautiful little 
gnawing animal, of different colors and sizes, 
found in all parts of the world except Australia. 
The tail is not only the squirrel’s greatest orna¬ 
ment, but is of the utmost use to it in leaping. 
The hairs stretch out on both sides like a fan, 
and serve to guide the animal. The flying- 
squirrel is so called from its having a skin, as 
thin as paper, but covered with fur, stretching 
between the front and hind legs, which makes a 
kind of wing, with which it can jump from tree 
to tree. It is found in Java, India, America, and 
Siberia. The common red squirrel lives among 
trees, building a round nest at the top of a very 
high tree. It eats nuts, acorns, and corn, and 














476 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


* lays up a store of food for use in winter and 
spring. Its hind legs are longer than its front 
ones, between which it holds its food. The chip¬ 
munk or ground squirrel is so called because, 
though it can climb trees very well, it does not 
live in them, but makes its nest in burrows deep 
under the ground. It has large cheek-pouches, 
in which it carries its food to its underground 
store-houses. It is a beautiful striped animal, 
and is common in North America, where it is also 
called the chipping squirrel. 

Stag. [Scand.j The male of the red deer of 
Europe. Its horns are long and branching, and 
when of full growth will often weigh twenty-four 
pounds. When the horns carry twelve points or 
tines the stag is a royal one. There are antlers 
in existence with many more points than this, 
one in Saxony having 66 points. 

Stalactite. [Gk., to drop.] A stalk of lime 
hanging from a limestone cave. It is due to 
water carrying lime which makes its way through 
the cave roof, and evaporates, leaving the lime 
hanging like an icicle. Stalagmite is the stalk 
of lime on the floor of the cave which has 
dropped in water from the roof. 

Sta'men. [U-, a thread.] One of the thread-like 
pollen-bearing stalks in the centre of a flower. 

Star. [AS.] One of the bright bodies seen in the 
sky at night, whose distance is so great that as 
seen from the earth they appear only as points of 
light. By astronomers the stars are looked upon 
as the suns of remote systems. Tike our sun, 
they emit light; and when the spectroscope is 
applied to the light which they give out, it is 
found that the materials of which the stars are 
composed agree with those known to be present 
in the sun and in our earth. The distance of the 
stars is so great that when viewed from the earth 
they are always seen in the same direction; 
hence, as they maintain an invariable position 
relative to each other, they have been named 
fixed stars. This term is used in a comparative 
and not an absolute sense, as it is known that 
many of them are in a state of motion, although 
it can be perceived only by delicate observations. 
They are divided into classes, according to their 
apparent brightness. These are termed magni¬ 
tudes. The brightest stars are said to be of the 
first magnitude, those that fall short of this of the 
second, and so on. Down to the sixth or seventh 
magnitude the stars are visible to the naked eye, 
and from the eighth to the sixteenth by powerful 
telescopes. The three or four brightest classes 
are distributed with tolerable uniformity over the 
celestial sphere ; but of the total amount visible 
to the naked eye and by means of the telescope, 
by far the larger number are in or near the Milky 
Way. In certain parts of the heavens the stars 
are collected into groups in a more condensed 
manner than in neighboring parts. Such groups 
are called clusters. One well-known group is 
called the Pleiades, in which six or seven stars 
may be noticed by the naked eye, but which 
photography has shown to consist of 2,326. Many 
nebulae that were formerly thought to be masses 
of glowing gas have been recently found to be 


clusters of stars so remote that their individual 
members are imperceptible except with instru¬ 
ments of great power. Photography has revealed 
stars so far distant that a message sent 1,900 
years ago would only have just reached them, 
and would be still on the way to others, going 
with the speed of light, or 186,000 miles a second. 

Starch. [AS.] One of the main constituents of 
plants. It is composed of carbon, oxygen, and 
hydrogen, the last two in the proportions re¬ 
quired to form water. It is near to sugar in 
chemical composition and is converted into it in 
the life history of the plant. Wood fibre belongs 



POTATO STARCH CORPUSCLES. 


to the same class of compounds. These make 
up the great bulk of the plant, the remain¬ 
der being its oily matter and its nitrogenous 
substance, which forms the protoplasm' of its 
cells. Starch for commercial use is chiefly 
obtained from wheat, maize, rice, and potatoes; 
and in France from horse chestnuts. Starch in 
maize is from 60 to 80 per cent.; wheat, 60 ; rye, 
60 ; oats, 46; barley, 57 ; rice, 61 ; potatoes, 61. 
Starch is found in the form of little grains con¬ 
tained in the cells of plants. It is insoluble in 
cold water ; but in hot water the grains swell up 
until they burst and form a jelly-like mass. Corn 
starch is made in the United States^ by soaking 
Indian corn in water containing caustic soda and 
hydrochloric acid to dissolve the gluten, grind¬ 
ing, washing on sieves, and finishing by various 
processes. Rice starch is largely made in Eng¬ 
land, France, and Belgium. Starch is useful for 
stiffening cloths, sizing paper, making paste, 
dextrine, glucose, detecting iodine, and as an 
article of food. (See Rice , Sago.) 

Star=fish. A star-shaped sea animal which creeps 
over rocks and sand, feeding on mussels and shell¬ 
fish. The five rays are made of limestone plates, 
joined by a tough membrane. Under each ray 








ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


477 


is a groove with hundreds of tiny transparent 
tubes moving separately. The tubes act as feet 
and carry the animal forward. When the star¬ 
fish feeds, it not only bends its rays into a cup 
shape to hold its prey, but numerous tiny suckers 
spring up to help. Star-fishes have a liver and 
intestines, and these organs extend into the five 
rays. They have nerves which end in a red eye- 
speck at the end of each ray. They do great 
damage to oyster beds, as they eat the oysters, 
which they force to open their shells. They are 
dredged from the beds and used as manure. 

Starring. [AS.] A small greenish-black British 
song-bird, which can be taught to whistle tunes 
and sometimes to speak a few words. It builds 
in church steeples, in ruins, or on rocks. The 
food of the starling consists of insects, cater¬ 
pillars, worms, and snails; but it also feeds on 
grain, fruits, and seeds. In severe winters it 
frequents the sea-shore, but in summer it is found 
in the‘farmers’ garden, where it makes harsh cries 
and chattering sounds before retiring to rest. In 
America, bobolinks, cow-birds, meadow-larks, 
orioles, and red-winged blackbirds are all star¬ 
lings. The bobolink is black and white. The 
oriole is called a hanging bird because of its pe¬ 
culiar nest, which is like a pouch or pocket. 

Steam. [AS.] Water in the gaseous state. The 
clouds of vapor which are seen to issue from a 
kettle of boiling water are also popularly called 
“ steam ; ” but these white clouds consist chiefly 
of condensed steam, and do not possess the pro¬ 
perties which belong to steam considered as a 
gas. Dry steam is as much invisible as atmos¬ 
pheric air. Owing to the great pressure which 
it exerts, to the large amount of heat which it 
can carry, and to the ease with which it can be 
condensed, steam has been found better fitted 
than any other gas for use in engines employed 
for the production of mechanical work. 

Steam-engine. An engine worked by steam. The 
chief parts are the piston,cylinder, and valve gear. 
The piston works in a cylinder, to which steam 
is admitted by the action of the valve gear, caus¬ 
ing the piston to move backward and forward 
and communicate motion to the machinery. The 
atmospheric engine constructed by Newcomen 
near the beginning of the eighteenth century 
was the first in which a beam was made to 
oscillate by the elastic force of steam. It was 
used for pumping water out of mines. The con¬ 
densation of the steam in the space below the 
piston produced a vacuum, and the piston was 
forced down by the pressure of the atmosphere. 
One of Watt’s first improvements was the intro¬ 
duction of a separate chamber for the condensa¬ 
tion of the steam. Another improvement intro¬ 
duced by Watt was double action. By this 
arrangement the steam was introduced alternately 
above and below the piston. This consisted in 
cutting off the steam from the boiler before the 
piston had reached the top of the cylinder. It 
need scarcely be said that many later improve¬ 
ments have been introduced in the steam-engine, 
greatly increasing its powers. 


Steam=turbine. A new form of steam motor, in 
which the steam is thrown against the valves of 
a turbine-wheel, which it causes to turn with 
great rapidity. These machines develop great 
power in small space. They have been placed in 
torpedo boats, driving them through the water 
at the unequaled speed of over 35 knots an hour. 

Ste'arin. [Gk. stear, tallow.] A constituent of 
animal fats, as beef and mutton suet; and some 
vegetable fats as of cocoa. It is remarkable for 
its solidity, and raises the melting-point of fat. 
It is prepared by mixing ether with suet, and is 
used in making soap. 

Steel. [AS.] A hard metal made by heating iron 
with charcoal. Steel is the form of iron in which 
the amount of carbon is intermediate between 
that contained in cast iron and in wrought iron. In 
steel, the carbon is either chemically united with 
the metal or dissolved in it. It may contain 
silicon and manganese in small quantities, but 
sulphur or phosphorus is regarded as an impurity. 
It is malleable and ductile, fusible, and capable 
of acquiring, by being tempered, great hardness, 
which renders it suitable for cutlery and the 
different varieties of cutting tools. Steel was at 
one time always prepared from wrought iron 
by heating the bars for some time in contact with 
charcoal. This method of preparation is known 
as cementation. The process of manufacturing 
steel known as the Bessemer or pneumatic pro¬ 
cess is of very great industrial importance. It 
consists in blowing air through molten pig iron 
in a vessel called the converter. The carbon and 
the silicon which the pig iron contains are thus 
oxidized, and the iron is brought to the condition 
of wrought iron. After the iron is completely 
deprived of carbon, a certain quantity of pure 
cast iron is added in order to supply the carbon 
necessary to convert it into steel. The metal is 
then cast into ingots. This kind of steel is used 
for railway axles and rails, for boiler plates, and 
for ships. Targe buildings, as churches, colleges, 
and schools, are now made with frame-work of 
steel. The walls are double, and the air between 
acts as a non-conductor of heat. 

Sten'cil. A thin plate of metal or other material 
with letters or a pattern cut through it. It is laid 
flat on a surface, a brush dipped in paint or ink 
rubbed over it, and the letters or pattern thus 
transferred. Stencils are much used by mer¬ 
chants to mark boxes or barrels. 

Steppe. The vast, low plains of Europe and Asia, 
extending from Holland to Russia and thence 
through Siberia and Mongolia. The name is 
specially applied to the broad and largely arid 
pasture lands north and east of the Caspian, and 
the Siberian lowlands. 

Stereoscope. [Gk.] An optical instrument of 
magnifying-glasses, with a slide for two slightly 
different pictures of the same thing, which when 
looked through throws both pictures into one, 
and gives the figures the appearance of solidity. 

Stereotype. [Gk.] A metal plate, being an 
exact copy in a solid form of a page of type. 
Stereotyping by plaster of Paris was discovered 
by Gedin the eighteenth century. Electrotypes 





478 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


have now taken the place of stereotypes in book- 
work. In newspaper offices, where speed is 
important, the paper process of stereotyping is 
still much used. In this process the type is 
placed under a press, and a matrix is made of damp 
paper by forcing the type into the paper. After 
the paper is dry type-metal is poured over it, and 
the metal plates are trimmed and planed. 

Stethoscope. [Gk.] A medical tube used for 
listening to the beating of the heart or the sound 
of the lungs in breathing. 

Stickleback. [AS.] A very small fish with two 
or more prickles on its back. It builds a nest 
somewhat like that of a bird. The male gathers 
weeds and erects a barrel-shaped house. He 
secretes in his body a sticky slime, which as soon 
as it touches w T ater grows firm and hard, and with 
this he cements the nest. There is a hole right 
through the nest, so that the water flows over the 
eggs. In times of danger the father opens "his 
mouth, and the whole swarm of young fishes 
rush in for protection. Sticklebacks inhabit 
both salt and brackish water. 

Sting. [AS.] The sharp point with which bees, 
wasps, etc., defend themselves. The sting of a 
female bee is a dart with barbs at the end of the 
abdomen connected with a poison gland ; and the 
sting is sometimes used in different bees for bor¬ 
ing, cutting, and sawing holes in which to place 
the eggs. Male bees have no stings, and are 
harmless. When the bee leaves the sting in the 
wound it dies. The wasp saves her sting after 
inflicting a wound. The sting ray has one or 
more large sharp barbed dorsal spines on its 
whip-like tail. The stings of nettles are hairs 
with a poisonous secretion. 

Stone. [AS ] A piece of rock, or the hard centre 
of fleshy fruits. Building stones are natural or 
artificial. Natural stones are chiefly granite, 
marble, limestones, sandstones, and also slates. 
The hard stones are generally got by blasting, 
others by channeling and wedging, while the 
more fragile are sawn out in the quarries. Large 
masses of stone are called rock , smaller pieces 
stone , and finer pieces gravel , or still finer grains 
of sand. Precious stones include diamonds ( q.v .), 
emeralds and beryls, sapphires (q. v.), and rubies 
(q. v.), amethysts, serpentine, malachite (q.v.), 
turquoise, jasper, jade, and chalcedony. 

Stone=age. The era of primitive man, when his 
only tools and weapons were made of stone. In 
the old stone-age rudely chipped stone imple¬ 
ments w T ere used ; in the new stone-age the im¬ 
plements were smoothed and polished. Great 
numbers of these stone utensils have been found, 
in all parts of the earth. The stone-age was fol¬ 
lowed by the bronze-age, and that by the iron- 
age. 

Stone 7 ware. A coarse stuff used by potters, and 
the vessels of it glazed and baked. 

Stork. [AS.] A wading bird of the family 
Ciconidse, nearly allied to the heron, with long 
slender legs and rather thick neck. The bill is 
as long as the head, and tapers to a point. In 
Holland, storks give up their aquatic habits and 
nest on tall trees, towers, or chimneys. Some¬ 


times frames or false chimneys are made on the 
tops of houses for storks to build on. The nest 
is built of sticks and dry grass, and there are 
three or four bluish-white eggs, which take 
thirty days to hatch. The storks feed on garbage, 
snakes, frogs, rats, mice, and vermin. In winter 
they migrate to warmer regions. Before starting 
on their flight they assemble in large flocks of 
two or three thousand, and the common belief is 
that they consult as to their journey. When 
they return to Holland in spring, they are wel¬ 
comed as harbingers of that season. The white 
stork is fouhd in Europe ; the black stork in 
Europe, Asia, and Africa ; the black-necked stork 
is the East Indian jabiru. 

Stove. [Du.] A kind of box, generally made of 
iron, which stands in some part of the room, 
supplied with fuel from time to time through a 
door. Stoves are more economical than grates, 
since less of the heat produced goes up the chim¬ 
ney, but they are not so healthful. Anthracite 
requires a stove with a base burner, that causes a 
smaller draft of air, much in use in the United 
States. Oil and gas stoves are much in use for 
heating, and gas stoves are coming into large use 
for cooking purposes. 

Straw. [AS.] The stalks or stems of wheat, rye, 
and other cereal grasses, after the grain has been 
thrashed. It is woven into hats, and made into 
boards and paper. Chip hats are not made out 
of straw, but from splints of Lombardy poplar. 

Straw 7 berry. A widely cultivated perennial 
plant, having a red, small berry, with delicious 
taste. In cultivation its runners spread along 
the ground. The flowers have five petals, and 
are mostly wdiite, seated on a Convex receptacle, 
which enlarges in the fruiting season, and be¬ 
comes pulpy and edible; so that what is popu¬ 
larly called the fruit is only the end of the flower 
stem greatly altered, and bearing the real fruit 
in the ripened ovaries over its surface, or sunk in 
the succulent mass. There are many varieties. 
Fragaria vesca is the European kind, and Fra- 
garia Virginica the American. The fruit has 
been enormously increased in size by cultivation. 

Strych / nine. [L-, from Gk. strychnos, night¬ 
shade.] A strong poison got from the seeds of 
nux vomica. It is obtained as a white crystalline 
substance, and has a bitter, acrid taste. It is in¬ 
soluble in water, but dissolves in alcohol. In 
medicine it is used as a stimulant for the nerves. 

Stuc'co. [Ital., from a Ger. root of stuck , a 
piece.] A kind of plaster made of lime, sand, 
and finely - crushed marble, for ornamenting 
walls. 

Stur 7 geon. [Old Fr.] A long, narrow fresh¬ 
water fish, the roe of which is made into caviare, 
and the air-bladder into isinglass. It has free 
gills, and its body is more or less covered with 
bony plates, in five longitudinal rows. The tail 
is heterocercal, having the vertebrae continued 
into the upper lobe, which is longer than the 
lower one, and the skeleton cartilaginous. It 
runs up rivers to spawn. The eggs sometimes 
make up nearly one-third of the fish, and there are 
over three million in one female. Sturgeons are 



479 


encyclopedic dictionary of common things 


found in Europe and America, and in one season 
200 tons of caviare have been made on the Cas¬ 
pian. It is now made largely on the Delaware. 

Suck'er. A fish of the carp family, many kinds 
of which are found in the rivers and lakes of the 
United States. It has no teeth, its lips being 
formed for sucking. It is found in the rivers in 
early spring, and is caught in dip-nets. The 
buffalo sucker of the Mississippi is sometimes 
more than a yard long. 

Sug / ar. [Fr. from Arab.] The sweet j uice of the 
sugar-cane and other plants pressed out and 
dried. It is soluble in water, generally cryscalliz- 
able, neutral to vegetable colors, and is an or¬ 
ganic chemical compound cf carbon, hydrogen 
and oxygen. There are two distinct sugars— 
saccharoses or sucroses, and glucoses ( q . v.) or 
amyloids. The saccharoses include cane-sugar, 
beet, palm, sorghum, and maple sugar. The first 
two yield nearly the whole sugar-crop of the 
world. The cane-sugar comes from the tropics, 
that of the beetroot from the north temperate 
zone, very largely from Germany. After sugar 
is boiled and strained and purified by adding 
lime, and filtering through cotton and charcoal, 
it is poured into molds, and when cool forms 
loaf-sugar. The liquid which remains after the 
sugar crystallizes, is called molasses, it being a 
dark, sweet, sticky liquid, much used in cooking. 
Glucose or grape-sugar is made from starch by 
the action of heat and acids. Much of it is pro¬ 
duced from maize, being largely sold as the glu¬ 
cose sirup. 

SuUphur. [U.] A yellow mineral, occurring in 
large quantities either as pyrites (sulphides), 
gypsum (sulphates), or native, mixed with gyp¬ 
sum. It is found in volcanic regions. It is puri¬ 
fied by distillation, and is obtained by sublima¬ 
tion as a lemon-yellow powder (flowers of sul¬ 
phur) or as sticks (brimstone). It burns with a 
blue flame and a peculiar irritating odor. It is 
used in gunpowder, and in making matches, in 
medicine, and in making sulphuric acid. Sul¬ 
phur is also obtained as crystals.— Sulphuric 
acid , the most important compound of sulphur 
and oxygen, is a heavy, corrosive oily liquid, 
colorless when pure, but usually of a brownish 
color. It is used in the manufacture of hydro¬ 
chloric and nitric acids, alizarin, soda, and 
bleaching-powders; in making ether, parch¬ 
ment, and nitro-glycerine, and in etching iron. 
It was formerly called vitriolic acid, and is popu¬ 
larly called vitriol or oil of vitriol. (See Epsom 
Salts.) 

Su'mach. A genus of small trees and shrubs, 
having numerous species, found in all parts of 
the world except Australia and the polar regions. 
The leaves of a kind grown in America are used 
by the Indians for tobacco. The seeds of an¬ 
other kind yield Japan wax or varnish. Chinese 
galls come from another species, and are largely 
used in tanning and dyeing. There are twelve 
kinds in the United States, and two of them are 
poisonous. These are the poison ivy and the 
swamp sumach, which cause a skin eruption, at¬ 
tended with violent itching. The Virginian or 


stag’s-horn sumach is a common American spe¬ 
cies. The leaves are pinnate, the flowers in a 
crowded panicle, and the fruit globular, covered 
with hairs. Their scarlet leaves in autumn are 
conspicuous forest ornaments in America. 

Sun. [AS.] The body in the heavens that gives 
light and heat, and round which the earth and 
planets revolve. (See Solar System.) It is about 



92million miles distant from the earth, and its 
diameter is about 860,000 miles. It revolves on 
its own axis once in 25^ days. Its luminous 
surface is called the photosphere, above which 
is an envelope largely of hydrogen, called the 
chromosphere, visible through the spectro¬ 
scope, or at the time of a total solar eclipse. 
Above the chromosphere, and extending for 
millions of miles, are rays of light called the 
corona. Dark spots appear on the sun’s disc, and 
consist commonly of a black central portion with 
a surrounding border of lighter shade. These 
change in their size from points to spaces 50,000 
miles in diameter. It has been established that 
a maximum and a minimum number of sun 
spots occur in periods of 11 years. The sun is 
not a fixed body, round which the earth and 
other planets circulate, but it, with all the planets, 
has a motion through space. In regard to physi¬ 
cal structure , the sun is believed to be a mass of 
incandescent (glowing hot) gases, the tempera¬ 
ture of which is so high that none of the chemical 
elements entering into its composition can exist 
in any other than the gaseous state. The quan¬ 
tity of heat given off by the sun is enormous. 
There are several theories as to its origin, the 
most probable being that it is due to a gradual 
shrinkage of the sun’s mass which reduces its 
power of containing heat. 

Sun=dial. An apparatus in common use as a time¬ 
keeper when clocks and watches were scarce and 
costly. It consisted of an upright style whose 









4S0 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


shadow was thrown by the sun on a plate of 
metal. As the day went on the shadow moved 
over the marks on the dial, indicating the hours 
and their divisions. 

Sun=fish. A genus of fishes with short, rounded, 
and flattened bodies. There are small species in 
many streams, and the great sunfish of the At¬ 
lantic grows to the length of 4 feet and the weight 
of over 500 pounds. 

Sunflower. A tall plant, a native of America, 
having large marginal ray flowers with yellow 
rings. The seeds are used as food for cattle and 
poultry, and yield an excellent oil. The flowers 
abound in honey, and the leaves are useful as 
fodder. One of the tuberous species is the 
Jerusalem artichoke. 

SwaFIow. [AS.] A small bird, with small legs 
and weak feet, but with long, pointed wings and 
a forked tail, which are both favorable to switf 
flying. It flies at a rate of from 60 to 90 miles 
an hour, and delights in circling round places 
where insects abound, upon which it feeds. The 



house-martin or town swallow fixes its mud nest 
under the eaves of houses. The sand-martin with 
its tiny beak bores holes in sandstone rocks, where 
it makes its nest at the farthest extremity with 
loose hay and a few goose feathers. There are a 
number of American species, a common one 
being the barn-swallow. The nest of the esculent 
swallow, which inhabits Ceylon and Sumatra, is 
much valued by the Chinese. It consists of sea¬ 
weed, which the birds swallow and mix with 
their saliva, and then deposit in layers round 
their nests, and the whole is hardened by the air. 
The nests are glued on rocks or inside caverns, 
near the sea-shore. When boiled, these nests, 
-which are in reality a fine gelatine, yield a good 
quality of glue or jelly, which is made into soup. 
(See Swift.) 

Swan. [AS.] The largest and most graceful of 
all swimming birds. When full-grown its feathers 
are white, but when young they are bluish-gray. 
Its feathers are thick and oily, and cast off water. 
Its feet are webbed, and it swims rapidly. Its 
legs are placed far back, and this gives it a wad¬ 
dling walk. Its neck is longer than its legs, and 
so it can reach its iood. It feeds on roots and 


seeds of water-plants, and is fond of worms, 
small fishes, and snails. Its nest is built of grass 
and reeds on the banks of rivers or lakes. The 
swan is found all over the world, and being beau¬ 
tiful on the water, is when tame kept on ponds 
and ornamental waters. The black swan of 
Australia has a red bill crossed with a white band. 
The South American black-necked swan has a 
bright rose-colored double knob on its bill. 

Sweet=bread. Part of the inside of an animal, 
with a sweet taste and a likeness to bread, used 
as food. The thymus gland is called neck or 
throat sweet-bread, and the pancreas the belly 
sweet-bread. 

Sweet Flag. A kind of reed which flourishes 
along the banks of rivers or grows in swamps 
and ponds. It is found in the cooler sections of 
Europe and North America, also in some parts 
of Asia. Confectioners use its roots, which have 
a strong smell and a biting taste, in making 
some kinds of candy. 

Sweet=pea. An annual plant, Lathyrus odora- 
tus, or its many-colored sweet-scented blossoms. 

Sweet=potato. A plant which is not allied to the 
white potato, but belongs to the morning-glory 
family. It is a creeping vine, bearing long root 
tubers of sweet taste. It was probably of Ameri¬ 
can origin, but is now widely cultivated. Many 
tropical varieties are known as yams. It needs 
a warmer climate than the Irish potato, and does 
not do well in Europe, but is widely grown in 
the United States, many millions of bushels 
being raised annually. 

Sweet=will / iam. A kind of pink of many differ¬ 
ent colors and varieties. 

Swift. [AS.] A quickly-flying bird of the Swal¬ 
low family. Its form and habits resemble those 
of the swallow. It has a shorter bill, but it has 
no complex vocal muscles. It nests in church 
steeples and under the tiles of roofs, and screams 
shrilly. The Australian and American swifts 
have rigid tips to the tail feathers. The Ameri¬ 
can chimney-swallow is a swift which has ac¬ 
quired the habit of building in chimneys, fasten¬ 
ing it* nest, which is made of small twigs, to the 
wall by a strongly adhesive secretion. This glue 
is spread over the whole nest, and becomes very 
hard. 

SwordUfish. A large fish with the upper jaw 
long and pointed like a sword, which pierces 
four or five inches of solid wood. Its dorsal fin is 
high, and ventral fins are absent. It swims very 
fast, and is one of the deadliest enemies of the 
whale, which protects itself by diving to the bot¬ 
tom of the sea, whither the sword-fish cannot 
follow. It is plentiful on the coasts of Massa¬ 
chusetts, where it is caught by the harpoon, and 
its flesh, though coarse, is eaten. 

Sycamore. [Gk.] A kind of fig-tree in Egypt 
and Syria; the great maple in Europe and the 
plane tree in America. 

Syr'inge. [Gk.] A tube fitted with a piston for 
sucking up and squirting out water and other 
liquids, used for injecting them into wounds or 
openings of the animal body, or in gardens for 
throwing liquids upon plants. 










ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


48l 


T 




with small scale-like leaves and clusters of white 
or pink flowers. Its bark is used as an astringent, 
and the ashes of the plant yield sulphate of soda. 

Tambourine. A musical instrument consisting 
of a piece of parchment stretched on the top of 
a hoop, furnished with little bells. In play it is 
struck by the hand or elbow, and the bells jingled. 

Tan'ager. A group of American birds conspicu¬ 
ous for their brilliant colors. They represent the 


finches of Europe and Asia. The most beautiful 
of them, the scarlet tanager, comes from Mexico 
to the United States in April, its range extending 
to Canada. The male is of a bright scarlet. 

Tandem. A Uatin word meaning at length. Ap¬ 


plied to horses driven one in front of the other. 
A bicycle carrying two, three or four persons. 

Tan / nic A'cid. Acid derived from tannin , which 
is the astringent principle of oak-bark or gall- 
nuts, and is used in tanning and as an astringent. 
It is the basis of common ink. It is sometimes 
used to describe all astringent substances in the 
vegetable kingdom—in willow, tea, coffee, etc. 

Tanbing. [Fr. tanner , from Armorican tann , 
oak-bark.] The turning of skins into leather 
(q. v.) by steeping in water mixed with oak-bark. 

Tape. [AS., from L. tapete , cloth for hangings.] 
A narrow woven band used for tying and bind¬ 
ing.— Tape-worm , along, flat, parasitical worm, 
with small head, no mouth, but having suckers 
and sometimes hooks for adhesion to the walls of 
the intestines. The pork thread-worm from pigs, 
the beef tape-worm from young cattle, and the 
broad tape-worm are parasites of man. 

Tap / estry. [Fr. tapisserie. ] Cloth of wool and 
silk, covered with woven or sewed figures, for 
hanging on walls. Tapestry carpet resembles 
Brussels carpet in having the colors of the warp 
printed before weaving. 

Tapio / ca. [Braz.] A granular substance got by 
heating the manioc root. The manioc or cassava 
root is bitter, and has a poisonous sap, which by 
grating, pressing, and baking is lost. It is grown 
in the West Indies and in Africa. Tapioca is 
much used in puddings and as a thickening for 
soups. 

Ta / pir. [Braz.] An animal with a thick skin, 
short ears, short neck, and long prehensile upper 
lip. It is between three and four feet high and 
from five to six feet long, and in general form 
reminds us of the hog. The tapir has three toes 
on the hind feet and four toes on the fore feet, 
but the outermost toe is of very little use. Its 
long nose is like a rudiment of the elephant’s 


Tack. [Celt.] A small nail with a broad, flat head ; 
also the direction of a ship in regard to the trim 
of her sails—the starboard tack when close 
hauled with the wind on her starboard side, the 
port tack when on the port side. In tacking or 
changing the direction, a vessel is brought to 
point at first directly to windward, and then so 
that the wind will blow against the other side. 

Tack le. [Scand.] Ropes and pulleys for lifting 
weights. Ground-tackle are anchors, cables, etc.; 
gun-tackle , the apparatus for hoisting cannon. 

Tad / pole. A frog ( q . v.) in its youngest state. In 
this stage it breathes by means of external or in¬ 
ternal gills, and has a fin-like tail. 

Tail. [AS.] The long flexible part of an animal 
that terminates its body behind. It contains a 
series of movable vertebrae, and is covered with 
flesh and hairs or scales. The tail of birds con¬ 
sists of fused vertebrae ; the tail of fishes ends in 
a caudal fin. Woodpeckers climb and rest on the 
stems of trees with their tail feathers. 

Tail / or=bird. An Asiatic or East Indian bird that 
makes its nest by sewing together the leaves of 
trees, and in doing so uses its beak and claws in¬ 
stead of a needle. 

TaFlow. [AS. or Scand. talgl\ The fat of animals 
of the ox or sheep kind. Its solidity is due to 
the large amount of stearin it contains. It is 
used to make candles ( q . v.). —The Tallow-tree 
grows in China, and produces from its seeds a 
substance resembling tallow. 

TarrFarind. [Arab.] A lofty, wide-spreading tree 
in the Indies, with flowers in racemes, pinnate 
leaves, and pods abounding in acid pulp of cool¬ 
ing and laxative qualities. West Indian tamar¬ 
inds are preserved in sirup, but East Indian fruits 
are put up without sirup. 

TarrEarisk. [L,. tamariscusl\ A tree or shrub 


TAPIR. 


31 C 
















482 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


trunk. There are two kinds of tapirs: one, a 
native of South America, is of a dusky-brown 
color; the other lives in Sumatra and Java, and 
is black, with a broad white band across the body* 
Tapirs are harmless, gentle creatures, but they 
can give a severe bite with their big teeth when 
attacked. They have great strength and can 
force their way through the thick underwood of 
tropical forests to the water, of which they are 
veiy fond. 

Tar. [AS.] A black, sticky liquid, distilled from 
pine trees and from coal. When charcoal is pro¬ 
duced, an arrangement is made for collecting tar. 
Froth wood-tar is distilled wood-vinegar or pyro- 
lignean acid, from which is produced wood- 
naphtha. Wood-tar is got from the Scotch fir, 
the Siberian larch, and other fir-tree roots. Coal- 
tar is a product in making gas, and yields crude 
naphtha and pitch. Mixed with wood-naphtha, 
crude naphtha is a solvent of resins. Benzole, 
carbolic acid, and aniline colors are all obtained 
from coal-tar. (See Coal-tar .) 

Tarantula. A poisonous spider found near Taren- 
tum, in South Italy ; others are found in Texas. 
(See Spider.') 

Tare. [O.E.] The vetch or tare somewhat re¬ 
sembles the pea. The “winter” vetch is sown 
in autumn, and is cut in May ; spring vetches are 
sown in February. The vetch likes clayey or 
marly soil, and is cut little by little as fodder for 
cattle and horses, or sheep are penned upon it. 
The winter vetch is useful, as it comes when 
other forage is scarce. 

Tarpaulin or TarpaiPling. A piece of coarse 
canvas covered with tar to keep out wet. 

Tartan. Woolen cloth woven in stripes or 
checks, formerly much worn by Scottish High¬ 
landers, whose clans were known by the dif¬ 
ferent-colored tartans. Trews are trousers made 
of tartans. 

Tea. [Chin.] The leaves of the tea-plant. The 
tea-plant, chiefly cultivated in China and in 
Assam, is a low bushy shrub, bearing a small 
white flower, and having leaves with saw-like 
edges, like those of the rose. Either black or 
green tea can be made from the leaves of the 
same plant. For black tea, the leaves are picked 
and exposed to the air in large heaps for one or 
two days. They are then placed on tables, and 
rolled by hand, and then dried or roasted in 
large iron pans, when their color changes to a 
dark, almost black, hue. For green tea, the 
leaves are dried almost as soon as picked, when 
they preserve much of their natural color. The 
dried leaves of the tea-plant contain a white 
crystalline substance called thein. When boiling 
water is poured on the leaves, thein, or the active 
principle of tea, is dissolved out. The liquid so 
obtained is called an “infusion.” Green tea 
contains rather more thein than black tea, and so 
produces a stronger infusion. Tea is a favorite 
table beverage from its stimulating properties. 
The cultivation of this plant in the Southern 
United States has proved successful. 

Teak. [Malabar.] A tree found in India, the 
East Indies, and in Africa, the wood of which is 

C Pros. 


very hard and durable. It is used in ship-build¬ 
ing, and in the construction of buildings. 

Teal. [O.E.] A small fresh-water duck. The 
male is handsomely colored, and has a bright 
green or blue patch on the wings. In America 
teals are valued as game birds. 

Telautograph. A form of telegraph, invented 
by Prof. Elisha Gray, by which writing and 
drawings can be transmitted and reproduced in 
fac simile. 

TePegraph. [Gk. tele , far ; and graphein , to 
write.] Stretched wires along which messages 
are sent by electricity. (See Electric Telegraph.) 
The messages are given by a pointer in the 
Wheatstone, by a fillet of paper in Hughes’s, by 
dots and dashes in Morse’s, and by symbols in 
Bain’s system. 

Telepathy. [Gr. tele., far; pathos, feeling 
with.] The supposed transfer of thought from 
mind to mind without speech or other physi¬ 
cal communication. It is claimed that the 
thought of one person has been recognized by 
another through a distance of many miles. 

TePpherage. [Gr. tele., far; pherein, to carry.] 
A method of conveying goods along a suspended 
wire by aid of an electric motor. It has been 
used to carry ore from a mine and to convey logs 
from a forest. 

Telephone. [Gk. tele, far; and phone, a sound.] 
An instrument which enables persons to talk to 
each other at considerable distances by electric 
wires. In its use a thin sheet of metal is set in 


Line-wire 



DIAGRAM OF TELEPHONE TRANSMITTER. 

NS, N S’ cylindrical steel magnet surrounded at one end by 
a coil of wire, bb’, whose ends are connected by wires, with 
line wire and the earth, E e, is mouthpiece in front of 
which is a very thin sheet of metal which vibrates. 

vibration by the tones of a person’s voice. These 
vibrations cause rapid alternations of strength in 
a current of electricity passing through a wire. 
At the opposite end of the circuit the varying 
currents act to set a second thin plate in vibra¬ 
tion, and sounds are conveyed to the listener’s ear 
like those of the speaker’s voice. In this way 
the human voice can be transmitted for more 
than a thousand miles, and by a recent invention 
may soon be heard several thousand miles away. 

TePescope. [Gk. tele, far; and skopein, to see.] 
An instrument consisting of a tube and magnify¬ 
ing glasses for seeing things at a distance. In re¬ 
flecting telescopes the image is formed by one or 
two concave mirrors, a large one at the lower 
end and a small one at the upper end. Sir 
William Herschel’s telescope contained one 

















ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


483 


mirror. In refracting telescopes the image is 
formed by refraction in an object-glass, and is 
magnified by an eye-glass. The largest refracting 
telescopes, made by Alvan S. Clark, are that at 
the Lick Observatory, Mount Hamilton, Cali¬ 
fornia, which has a 36-inch object-glass, and 
magnifies from 180 to 3,000 diameters ; and the 
Yerkes of the Chicago University, with a 40-inch 




THE LICK TELESCOPE. 

object-glass and 64 feet of focal length. One of 
48-inch object-glass was shown at the Paris Ex¬ 
position of 1900. The Lick telescope separated 
the closest double stars known to us, and dis¬ 
covered the fifth satellite of Jupiter. Lord Rosse’s 
telescope at Parsonstown is a reflector with 72- 
inch aperture. Common’s reflector at Ealing is 
5 feet in diameter. If the brightness of a star seen 
with the eye alone is one, with a 2-inch telescope 
it is 100 times as bright; with a 4-inch telescope 
it is 400 timesas bright; with an 8-inch telescope 
it is 1,6oo times as bright; with a 32-inch telescope 
it is 25,600 times as bright; with a 36-inch teles¬ 
cope it is 32,400 times as bright. That is, stars 
can be seen with the 36-inch telescope which are 
30,000 times fainter than the faintest stars visible 
to the naked eye. 

TerrEperature. [L-] The amount or degree of 
heat in any person, place, or thing ; the condi¬ 
tion which indicates whether heat will flow from 
one body to another, the body parting with heat 
being said to have a higher temperature, and the 
one receiving it a lower temperature than the 
other. In practice, temperature is measured by 
the expansion produced by heat in a liquid or a 
gas in a thermometer. 

TeiEdril. [Fr. from L. tener , tender.] The long, 
slender, leafless shoot of a plant by which it 
clings to a support. They are the ends of stems, 
as in the grape vine; axillary branches in the 
passion flower, or ends of leaves in the pea, 

TerEtacle. [L-] A kind of arm or fleshy process 
attached to the head or body of some insects and 
other animals, by which they feel, grasp, or move. 


Ter / ra=cot / ta. [L. terra , the earth ; coda , baked.] 
A kind of pottery or baked red clay. (See 
Brick.) 

Terrier. [Fr. terre , the earth.] A small dog 
that burrows into holes in the earth after rabbits, 
rats, etc. The Skye has long hair and drooping 
ears. English and black and tan have short, 
close, smooth hair and upright ears. Fox ter¬ 
riers are both smooth and rough in variety. 

Thatch. [AS.] A covering of straw, reeds, or 
rushes for roofs of buildings or stacks of hay or 
grain. Palm leaves are used in the West Indies 
for thatching. 

ThermonEeter. [Gk. thermos , hot; and metron , 
measure.] An instrument for measuring changes 
of temperature by the contraction or expansion 
of a liquid or a gas. The three scales at present 
in use are—(1) the Fahrenheit, in common use 
in Great Britain and the United States ; (2) the 
Centigrade, used on the Continent and in scien¬ 
tific works generally ; (3) Reaumur’s scale, used 
in Russia. In Fahrenheit’s scale the freez¬ 
ing-point is marked 32°F. and the boiling-point 
2i2°F. the intervening space containing 180°. 
In the Centigrade scale the space between 
the two points is divided into 100 equal parts— 
the freezing-point being marked o° C., and the 
boiling point ioo° C. In Reaumur’s scale the 
freezing-point is marked o° R., and the boiling- 
point 8o° R., the space between the freezing and 
the boiling-points being divided into 80 equal 
parts. Since 180° on the Fahrenheit scale cor¬ 
respond to ioo° on the Centigrade, the length of 
one degree Fahrenheit is ioo-i8oth or 5-9th of 
one degree Centigrade, and any reading on the 
Fahrenheit scale is converted into the cor¬ 
responding Centigrade reading by the following 
rule : Subtract 32 and multiply the remainder by 
5-9th. When very low temperatures are required 
an alcohol thermometer is used, because mercury 
freezes at about -38° F. Air is of great use in 
determining temperatures above those at which 
mercury can be employed (mercury boils at 66o° 
F.). Other types of thermometers are maxi¬ 
mum, minimum, and solar radiation or self¬ 
registering thermometers. (See Fahrenheit, 
Reaumur.) 

ThirrEble. (From thumb.) A sheild for the finger, 
used in sewing. It is usually made of metal, and 
has on the outer surface small pits to catch the 
head of the needle. A machine-made silver 
thimble takes more than 20 men to make it. 
The silver is rolled into strips, cut, punched, 
edges turned, stamped into shape, indented, pol¬ 
ished, and engraved. 

Thistle. [AS.] A plant with prickles along the 
stalks and leaves. There are many varieties. 
The cotton thistle, the musk thistle, and the bull 
or spear thistle are used as national emblems of 
Scotland. Seeds of thistles have downy fibres, and 
are thus easily blown about and carried great dis¬ 
tances. 

Thrush. A large family of insect-eating birds, 
found in nearly all parts of the world. The 
wood-thrusli is one of the most abundant Ameri¬ 
can species, and is noted for the beauty of its 


























484 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


song. The hermit-thrush and the mocking-bird 
(q. v.) are other American species. The brown- 
thrush, or thrasher, as it is called, is a handsome 
bird, with habits like those of the mocking-bird, 
which it ranks next to as a singer. The song- 
thrush of Europe, sometimes called the throstle 
in England and the mavis in Scotland, is much 
like the wood-thrush. The robin, the blue-bird, 
and the wren belong to the thrushes. 

Thun'der. [AS.] The loud noise which follows 
lightning. The rattle of a discharge of atmos¬ 
pheric electricity. 

Thyme. [Gk.] A pungent, sweet-smelling plant, 
much used to give a relish to seasoning and 
soups. Oil of thyme, distilled from it, is used in 
liniments. 

Tick. A species of insect parasites which are often 
very annoying. They are of minute size and 
have the mouih shaped like a sucker. They are 
found in thick woods on plants, and attach them¬ 
selves to any animal that passes. They at¬ 
tach their sucker to the skin and work their way 
into the flesh, sucking the blood. They multiply 
so fast that many horses and cattle die from ex¬ 
haustion, due to loss of blood. The ox-tick, 
when filled with blood, is half an inch long. The 
water-tick, another variety, always lives in the 
water. 

Tides. [AS.] The rising and falling of the sea, 
caused by the moon’s action. Owing to gravity, 
the moon exerts an attraction on every part of 
the earth, whether liquid or solid, but only the 
liquid parts which constitute the ocean are free 
to yield to the attractive force. When the moon 
is overhead, the water is drawn outwards and 
heaped up on the side of the earth next the 
moon. The projecting portions of the w T ater ur. 
der the moon, on both sides of the earth, repre¬ 
sent the positions of high tides, while the low 
tides occupy the intermediate positions, and we 
experience what is called high or low water, ac¬ 
cording as the higher or lower part of the wave 
reaches our shores. The sun as well as the moon 
produces tides; but owing to its greater distance, 
the effect produced by the sun is small in com¬ 
parison with the attraction of the moon. When 
the sun and the moon act together we have 
spring tides ; when in opposition we have neap 
tides. When the tide rushes up a narrow chan¬ 
nel, it rises to an unusual height. In the Bay of 
Fundy the rise and fall is not less than fifty feet, 
and in the Bristol channel there is a rise of about 
thirty-eight feet at spring tides. In the Medi¬ 
terranean the tides have only a small range, 
varying from one to two feet. 

TFger. [Gk.] A carnivorous quadruped, like the 
lion in all its habits, except that it roams 
about by day as w y ell as by night. In color it is 
yellow, with black stripes across the body. Its 
body is longer and stronger than the lion’s, but 
shaped more like a cat’s. It has no mane. Its 
under part, as well as the chest and throat, are 
white, and so are the long hairs on each side of 
its face. The tail is like a cat’s in shape, and has no 
tuft at the end. The tiger is found chiefly in India 
and Ceylon. Indian princes hunt it with elephants. 


Tile. [AS. tigel.~\ A piece of baked clay of a 
curved or flat shape used in roofing houses or for 
drains. (See Brick.) 

Tin. [AS.] A metal white, like silver, easily 
melted or beaten out. Owing to the fact that it 
does not tarnish either in dry or moist air, it is 



TIGER. 


much used for cooking-vessels, especially in the 
form of tin-plate. Tin is also used in the prepa¬ 
ration of several important alloys, such as 
bronze, pewter, Britannia metal, bell-metal, etc. 
It does not occur in the native state, the tin of 
commerce being obtained from the dioxide, 
known to miners as tinstone. The chief Euro¬ 
pean supply of this mineral is derived from the 
mines of Cornwall. It is also met with in the 
Malayan peninsula, the isle of Banca, and Aus¬ 
tralia. Deposits have been found in the United 
States, but none that paid to work. In order to 
prepare the metal, the tinstone is broken into 
fragments ; and as it remains among the debris 
unchanged in character, it can, like gold, be 
separated from the lighter portions of rock by 
washing. It is then reduced to the metallic 
state by roasting in a furnace.— Tin-foil , tin 
beaten out very thin, like a leaf. 

Tin=plate. The name given sheet-iron coated with 
tin. It is largely manufactured in South Wales, and 
of late years in the United States. The plates are 
dipped in acid and afterwards washed in water to 
insure their being perfectly clean. They are 
then toughened by passing them between polished 
rollers, coated, and passed between steel rollers. 
Tin-plate is used extensively in the manufacture 
of kitchen utensils, and for the tins required in 
preserving meat, fruit, and vegetables. 

Tin^sel. [Fr.] A thin kind of cloth interw T oven 
with gold or silver threads, or thin metal covered 
thinly with gold or silver. 

Tint. [Fr.] A shade of a color. Red and black 
make brown ; red and yellow, orange ; blue, 
black, and red, olive ; blue and lead, pearl; blue, 
white, and lake, purple ; blue, white, and black, 
pearl gray ; white and lake, rose ; white and 
brown, chestnut; white and carmine, pink; 
white and green, bright or pea green ; white and 
lampblack, lead; white and purple, French white; 





ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


485 


white and yellow, straw ; white, yellow, and red, 
cream; white, yellow, and Venetian red, buff; 
white, lake, and Vermillion, flesh color. 

Tit/mouse. [O.E.] A little song bird which feeds 
on insects. The blue, marsh, crested, and long¬ 
tailed titmice are the best known European 
species. The chickadee or black- cap tit is a com¬ 
mon American species, and the tufted tit the 
largest. Tit is the titlark ; tomtit is the blue 
titmouse or the wren. 

Toad. [AS.] A crawling animal like the frog, 
but without teeth, and more terrestrial in its 
habits. It has a thick and heavy body, covered 
with wart-like glands, which secrete an acid 
fluid. The tongue is well developed, and can be 
protruded rapidly to capture insects. The skin 
absorbs moisture, and is cast off at intervals and 
swallowed. The winter is spent in a torpid state 
in holes and crevices. Toads are long-lived, and 
are found all over the world. They feed on 
insects injurious to vegetation. Tree-toads have 
loud, shrill cries, and are often brightly colored. 
The Surinam toad of Guiana is eaten by the 
natives. Its eggs are not laid in water, but are 
received by the male, who deposits them on the 
back of the female, where the skin thickens 
between the eggs, till each is invested in a sac, 
in which the young go through changes, and 
each emerges a perfect toad. 

Tobacco. [Span., from Ind.] A plant of the 
Nightshade family, the leaves of which when 
dried are used for smoking. It was found in 
America—in use among the Indians—by the 
Spanish discoverers. The plant is four or five 
feet high, has a moist, hairy stem, and leaves 
sometimes two feet long. The leaves are arranged 
round a single stalk, and the flowers, which are 
white and shaped like a funnel, grow at the top 
of the plant. Only plants grown for seed are 
allowed to blossom. It is grown in the West 
Indies, in the southern United States and in other 
countries. Much is grown in the Philippine 
Islands. Tobacco leaves rolled up tightly form 
cigars. The leaves are also twisted, pressed into 
cake, or cut fine. In making chewing and smok¬ 
ing tobacco in the United States, the leaves are 
sweetened, colored, and flavored with molasses, 
liquorice, salt, soda, saltpetre, and aniseed. Snuff 
is the leaf and stalks ground into powder. Much 
tobacco is used in the form of cigarettes. 

Toboggan. An Indian sledge, made of a piece of 
birch-bark, with the front end turned up, and a 
rope attached to drag it over the snow. This 
became much used by the white settlers in 
Canada, and is now employed in the sport of 
sliding down a hill of snow, or a timber slope 
called a toboggan slide. In this form it is made 
of hickory splints, 5 to 15 feet long. 

Toma'to. [Span.] An annual plant of the Night¬ 
shade family ; also its fruit, which was formerly 
called love apple. It is of a red or yellow color. 
The tomato is of South American origin, but is now 
an important article of diet in the United States, 
England, France, and Italy. Its stem is weak, 
its leaves irregular, and both are clothed with 


hairs of a resinous substance. It has yellow 
flowers, and its fruit requires a high temperature 
to ripen. 

Tongue. [A.S.] The fleshy movable organ of the 
mouth, used to taste or speak.In some insects, 
as the butterfly,it is a very curious organ. 

Tooth. [AS.] A small, hard body in the jaws, 
used for biting and chewing food. Tike the nails 
and hair, teeth may really be considered as 

portions of the 
skin made com¬ 
pact and dense 
by the deposit 
of various min¬ 
eral substances. 
Man has two 
sets of teeth; 
the first set, the 
milk-teeth or 
temporary teeth, 
are twenty i n 
tongue and eye of butterfly. number They 

are got when two years old. At six years the 
permanent teeth, growing up from beneath the 
milk-teeth, push the latter out, and at ten all the 
temporary teeth have been replaced by per¬ 
manent teeth, altogether thirty-two in number— 
sixteen being placed in the upper, and sixteen in 
the lower jaw. Teeth are of different shapes, 
because some are intended for one purpose, and 
some for another. The part of the tooth im¬ 
bedded in the gum is called the fang , while that 
above the gum is known as the crown ; the crown 
of each tooth is overlaid with a pearly-white 
enamel. The eight teeth in the front of the 
mouth—four in the upper, and four in the lower 
jaw—have sharp cutting edges like chisels, and 
are called incisors ; they are useful for biting or 
separating food. One on each side above and 
below are the four canine teeth or eye-teeth, 
called canine because they are so large and 
prominent in the dog (Eatin canis, a dog), and 
also in all beasts of prey. These canine teeth 
are useful for tearing and for biting the food. 
Farther back in the jaws are eight teeth (two on 
each side above and below) called pre-molars y 
because they are next to the molars , twelve large 
teeth which occupy the hinder parts of the jaws. 
Both molars and pre-molars are mainly useful in 
grinding the food ; whence their name, from the 
Eatin word mola , a mill. The four last molars 
at the ends of the jaws are called the “wisdom 
teeth,” because they are the last to be cut, 
usually not making their way through the gum 
till the age of twenty one. The teeth are not 
perfectly solid. Inside of each tooth there is a 
little hollow called the pulp-cavity, which con¬ 
tains several nerve-branches. These nerves pass 
along each fang into the gum, and are there con¬ 
nected with other nerves which go to the brain. 
When from any cause the enamel of the tooth is 
worn away, the delicate contents of the pulp 
cavity are exposed to the air, and to pressure 
from any little hard bits of food which may get 
inside the hollow place. Cold or pressure on the 
nerves produces the intense pain called toothache. 






486 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


To'paz. A mineral ranked among the precious 
stones. It is found in Scotland, Cornwall, 
Saxony, Siberia, the United States, Mexico, and 
Brazil. The finest varieties are found in Brazil 
and the Ural Mountains, and are of a deep 
yellow tint, while those of Siberia are blue, the 
other colors found being white and green. They 
are frequently found in the cavities of granite 
rocks, and consist of a silicate of alumina in which 
fluorine takes the place of oxygen. It is next to 
the sapphire in hardness. The topaz of the an¬ 
cients, obtained from Topazos , an island in the 
Red Sea, was chrysolite. 

Torpe / do. [L.] A kind of fish related to the rays, 
with the power of giving an electric shock ; also 
an explosive below the water to explode an 




enemy’sship when touched or fired by electricity, 
or a sub marine boat carrying the explosive. 

Torpe / do boat. A recent form of naval vessel 
used to discharge torpedoes against a hostile 
vessel for the purpose of destroying it. These 
vessels are small and very swift, some of them 
making over 30 knots an hour. As yet they 
have not proved very serviceable in naval war¬ 
fare. 

Tor'toise. [Fr., from L,. tortus , twisted.] A 
creeping and swimming animal (so called from 
its crooked feet) covered with a hard shell, with 
openings for the head, legs, and tail. The tor¬ 
toise is also called turtle, but this name is some¬ 
times restricted to the marine species, tortoise to 
the land species, and terrapin to fresh-water 
species. Tortoises are mostly used for food ; and 
the green turtle, a marine animal, is extensively 
used for soup. The common box tortoise is more 
thoroughly protected than ordinary turtles, be¬ 
cause it has joints at the bottom of the shell, and 
can draw up the under parts all round the edge 
of the box.— Tortoise-shell. The shell of the 
hawk’s-bill turtle, separated into thin plates, 
softened in hot water, and shaped in molds, in 
which it may be impressed with ornamental 
figures. It is used for combs, knife-handles, etc. 

Tou / can. [Braz.] A fruit-eating bird, with a 
very large but light and thin beak, often as long 
as the body of the bird- It is brightly colored. 


Tourmaline. A mineral found frequently in 
granite, gneiss, and mica schist. Some varieties 
are more or less transparent, others opaque. The 
transparent colored kinds are used as jewels, and 
prisms of tourmaline are used in experiments 011 
the polarization of light. 

Tow / er. [Fr. from L. Tunis.] A building of con¬ 
siderable height used for observations or for 
architectural effect. Gay-Lussac's and Glover's 
towers are used in making sulphuric acid. The 
Tower of London is famous in history as a State 
Prison. The Leaning Tower of Pisa, Italy, is 
180 feet high, and is 14 feet out of perpendicular. 
The Eiffel Tower , Paris, is 985 feet high and 
built in 1889. 

Trade=winds. Persistent winds which rise in the 
torrid and lower temperate zones and blow 
steadily towards the equator, being deflected 
westw’ardly by the earth’s rotation, so that 
they become northeast or southeast winds, 
as they are north or south of the equator. 
They are caused by the ascent of heated air 
in the equatorial region, and the inflow of 
colder air to take its place. The ascending 
air outflows to the north and south and 
gradually descends to the surface, making 
what are known as anti-trade winds. The 
trades diverge to the north or south as the 
sun does so in its annual round. 

Tram 7 way. [E. train, a bar ; and way.] The 
English term for a street railway ; a road 
laid with beams or rails, on which wagons 
or carriages can run easily. 

Transit instrument. An instrument for 
detecting the time of transit of a star across 
the meridian. It consists of a telescope 
mounted on a horizontal axis. 

Trap. [AS.] A contrivance to prevent the passage 



THE LEANING TOWER OF PISA. 

of offensive gases along a drain. The siphon trap, 
which is perhaps the best and simplest, is merely 
a bend in the pipe, which remains filled with 


























ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 



water. There ought to be traps placed where the 
pipes from the inside of the house join the drain, 
and there should also be a trap just where the 

drain joins the sewer. 
But drains and sewers 
ought both to be venti¬ 
lated —to have openings 
for the bad gases to es¬ 
cape. 

Trapeze'. [Gk.] A 
swinging bar, hung 
from a roof, on which 
athletes perform. 
Trawl. [Fr.] A net like 
a bag used for catching 
fish. It is attached to 
a beam with iron frames 
at its end, and is dragged 
TRAP * at the bottom of the sea. 

Trea'cle. [Fr., from Gk. theriaka , drugs for heal¬ 
ing the bites of wild beasts.] Molasses drained 
from sugar-refining molds. 

Tre'foil. [Fr., from L. tres , three; and folium , 
leaf.] A three-leaved ornament, like the three¬ 
leaved clover. 

TreFIis. [Fr., from I,. trichila , an arbor.] A kind 
of network made by crossing strips of wood or 
iron, forsupportingclimbing plants,or asascreen. 

Tre'pan. To take out a portion of the skull in 
case of injury to the head or disease of the brain. 
This is done by means of a small circular saw, 
which cuts out a round piece of the bone. In 
healing, the bone throws out granulations, which 
gradually ossify, but do not quite close up the 
opening. 

Trichi'na. A minute worm which infests the intes¬ 
tinal canal of certain animals, including man 

and the hog. This is in 
the adult procreative 
state. The young, larval 
trichinae bury themselves 
in the muscles, where 
they exist as spirally- 
coiled worms in minute 
cists. Their danger to 
man is in their immense 
numbers. In a cat, a 
single ounce of flesh was 
estimated to contain 325,000 trichinae. They enter 
man principally through partly cooked pork. 
Thorough cooking destroys them and obviates 
the danger of infection. 

Tri'cycle. [Gk.] A vehicle with three wheels, 
one or more of which are turned by the feet by 
means of pedals. 

Trout. [AS., from Gk. trogein^ to eat.] A beauti¬ 
ful silvery fresh-water fish of the genus Salmo , 
very much prized for food,, and a favorite fish for 
anglers.. The most important are the brown- 
trout and the salmon-trout. Its habits are soli¬ 
tary and very predaceous. It feeds upon worms, 
minnows, insects, and caterpillars. The minnow 
is the most taking bait for large trout. The trout 
is found in lakes and rivers, but the most brilliant 
and beautiful fishes are found in streams flowing 
over chalky and rocky soils. River-trout attain 



487 

to a length of 30 inches. Sea-trout or bull-trout 
are found 3 feet in length. 

Tridac'na. The largest of the bivalve molluscs. 
A single shell has been known to weigh more 
than 500 pounds. The valves are deeply fur¬ 
rowed and handsomely grooved, and are used as 
ornaments for grottoes and fountains. The 
animal is edible, and one makes a meal for several 
persons. 

Tri'lobite. A fossil crustacean belonging to the 
primary geologic age. There are numerous 
species in the Silurian and Devonian periods and 
a few in the coal strata,—named from their three- 
lobed bodies. Their nearest modern representa¬ 
tive is the King-crab. 

Trol'ley. Formerly a small truck or set of wheels 
carrying a box or car-body. Now a grooved 
wheel which rolls in contact with an electric 
wire, and takes off" the current to transmit it to 
the motor of an electric or trolley car beneath. 

Trump'et. A wind musical instrument with a 
clear and ringing tone. Its scale in the lower 
octaves is limited to the first natural harmonics, 
but by valves or pistons trumpets can produec 
every note in their compass. 

Tset/ se fly. An African insect, whose bite is 
harmless to man, but nearly always fatal to the 
ox, horse, or dog. It is about the size of the 
common house-fly, and lives by sucking blood. 
It is thought to transmit a disease germ to the 
blood. 

Tube=rose. A variety of the primrose, cultivated 
in gardens for its vari-colored, gay-looking 
flowers. 

Tu'lip. [Fr., from Per., a turban.] A garden 
plant growing from a bulb, and so called because 
of its supposed likeness to a turban. In the 
seventeenth century the cultivation of tulips in 
Holland became a mania, and tulip-bulbs were 
sold and resold as stocks on ’Change. 

Tulle. [Fr.] A kind of thin silk or muslin netting 
for veils ; so called from Tulle, a town in France. 

Tum'bler. A large drinking-glass, formerly so 
made that it could not be set down without 
tumbling over, and thus requiring the liquid to be 
finished at one draught; a kind of pigeon which 
tumbles when flying. , 

Tun / ing=fork. An instrument of steel like a fork, 
which when struck gives out a fixed tone taken 
as a key-note. 

Tun'nel. [Fr.] A passage underground or through 
a hill. The St. Gothard tunnel is 9^ miles long 
(48,840 feet); that of Mont Cenis, 39,840 feet; 
Hoosac, 25,08afeet; that under the Mersey 4 ]/ z 
miles, including approaches. Tunnels are now 
blasted out with nitro-glycerine fired by elec¬ 
tricity. 

Tun'ny. [Gk., to dart along.] A large fish of 
the Mackerel kind, found in the Mediterranean 
and Atlantic. 

Tur'bine. [L,.] A water-wheel with curved floats 
or buckets, against which the water acts either 
from above downward or from below,, or inward 
from an external casing. 

Tur'bot. [Fr., from L,. turbo , a whipping top.], 
A large, round flat-fish of the Flounder kind,, 















































4 88 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


used for food. The upper side is brownish and 
lower side white. It is voracious and feeds on 
other fishes. It is abundant in the North Sea. 
At one catch off Jutland 240,000 were caught, 
averaging more than one pound each. There 
are no turbots on the American coasts. 

Tureen 7 . [Fr., from L. terra , earth.] A large, 
deep dish of earthenware in which soup is served. 

Tur 7 key. A large scratching fowl, which received 
its name because it was by some supposed to 
come from Turkey, but really a native of North 
America. It is now bred in many countries. The 
tame turkey is duller in hue of feathers, but 
is generally much larger than the wild turkey. 
Its flesh is much valued, and in the United States 
roast turkey is the favorite Christmas dish. 

Turmeric. The root of an East Indian ginger¬ 
like plant. It is used as a curry, to give color to 
varnishes, to dye silks and woolens yellow, and 
as a test for alkalies. 

Tur 7 nip. [Fr. tour , a turn; and AS. naep, a 
turnip.] A plant with a large round root, taper¬ 
ing downwards. A native of Europe and the 
temperate parts of Asia. It is a common garden 
vegetable, and in many countries it is largely 
grown for sheep and cattle food. The Swedish 
turnip, or ruta baga , is much used in Europe for 
this purpose. 

Turpentine. [Gk. terebinthos.'] The oily resin 
of the terebinth and some kinds of larch, fir, and 
pine. A cut is made through the bark of the 
tree, and the sap flows into jars. This is viscous 
like honey, and is crude turpentine. Oil of tur¬ 
pentine is distilled from crude turpentine, the 
solid part being yellow resin, used in making 
soap. Turpentine is used extensively in mixing 
paints and varnishes, and is also used in medi¬ 
cine. 

Turquoise 7 ( turkois ). [Same word as Turkish .] 
A precious stone of bluish-green or sky-blue 
color, brought from Persia. It is a phosphate of 
aluminium, its color beingdue to the presence of 
iron or copper. 

Tur 7 tle. [From Span, for tortoise.~\ A reptile 
enclosed in a double shield or shell, from which 
the head, legs, and tail are protruded, but under 
which they can be drawn. The shell is an expan¬ 
sion of the vertebrae and ribs. Turtles do not 
shed their shells, and have no teeth, but have 
horny jaws. They are ocean swimmers, coming 
on shore only to lay their eggs in the sands. 


Some of them are very large. The name is also 
often given to the land tortoise. (See Tortoise .) 
The green turtle is much esteemed as a table 
delicacy. 

Tusk. [AS.] A very long, pointed tooth on each 
side of the mouth, found in certain wild animals, 
as wild boars, elephants, etc. 

Twi 7 light. [AS. twi , double; and light .] The 
dim, faint light before sunrise or after sunset. It 
is produced when the sun is 18 0 . below the 
horizon by the reflection of the sun’s light from 
the higher regions of the atmosphere. In the 
tropics the duration of twilight is shorter than in 
more northern latitudes. 

Tym 7 panum. [Gk.] The drum of the ear ( q . v.) 

Type. [Gk. typtein , to strike.] A letter cast in 
metal in a mold or cut in wood for printing. In¬ 
cluding fancy types, some three or four hundred 
varieties of face are made. Besides ordinary 
Roman and Italic, the varieties most in use are 
Old English, Old Style, Clarendon, Antique, 
Black Letter, and Script. The principal sizes are—■ 
Ruby, Diamond,Pearl, Agate, Nonpareil, Minion, 
Brevier, Bourgeois, Longprimer, Small Pica, Pica, 
English, Greatprimer. Type-metal is an alloy of 
lead and antimony, sometimes with a little tin 
or nickel or copper. In type-founding a punch 

or die is first 
Ill made on the end 
of a bar of soft 
steel, and then 
hardened ; then 
a matrix is made 
in copper, with a 
mold or box in 
two parts for 
casting. 

Typewriter. A 

machine which is 
used to print 
Roman letters 
in place of script 
writing—f o r all 
work usually 
done with a pen. There are many kinds, but 
most of them have key boards ; by depressing 
these types are pressed against the paper through 
an inked ribbon. 

Ty 7 phoon. A ferocious whirlwind or tornado, 
common in the China seas, and of irresistible 
violence. 



TYPEWRITER. 


u 


Um 7 ber. [Fr., from L. umbra , shade.] A brown 
or reddish kind of earth, consisitng of clays mixed 
with oxides of iron and manganese. It is used 
in oil and water-color painting. 

Umbrel 7 la. [L. umbra, shade.] A shade or screen 
used as a protection from the rays of the sun or 
from rain. It is formed of strips of whalebone or 
steel fastened to a stick or hollow iron rod and 
covered with silk, cotton, or alpaca. Umbrella 
silk is made chiefly in Lyons and Crefeld.—The 
umbrella tree is an American magnolia with 


white flowers and rose-colored fruit, the leaves 
being crowded on the top of the flowering branch 
in an umbrella-like circle. 

U'nival ve. A mollusc whose shell consists of only 
one piece, as distinguished from the bivalve, or 
double-shelled molluscs, like the oyster. The 
univalves are the most numerous of the molluscs, 
and differ very greatly in size, shape, and color, 
many of them being very graceful and beautiful. 
A familiar example is the land snail. 








ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


IKpas. [Malay.] A poison, used to poison arrows, 
contained in the upas trees, a native of Java and 
Borneo. It was formerly supposed to have fatal 
effects, from its severe narcotic properties, to all 
animals which came under its shade. These 
stories are fabulous, but it exudes a gum resin 
which is very poisonous. It belongs to the 
bread-fruit genus. 

U / ranium. [From the planet Uranus, discovered 
about the same time.] A metal discovered in 
1789, as a constituent of several minerals. It 
is a very hard metal, resembling nickel and iron 
in appearance. Peroxide of uranium is used to 
color glass green or greenish-yellow, and a sub¬ 
oxide is employed in porcelain painting to pro¬ 
duce an intense black. The metal is rare and 
costly. 

LFranus. The planet next beyond Saturn, and 
supposed to be the outermost until the discovery 
of Neptune. Its distance from the sun is 1,771, 


489 


000,000 miles ; its diameter 31,700 miles ; its year 
84 earthly years in length. 

LFric Acid. A crystalline body present in the 
urine of man and of most mammals, and some¬ 
times called lithic acid, because of its presence in 
calculus. 

Ur'sa. [L-] The Bear—a name given to two 

groups of 
stars near 
the north 
polar star. 
The Ursa 
Minor, or 
Lesser 
Bear, con¬ 
tains the 

_— pole star. 

The Ursa Major, or Great Bear, consists of a group 
of seven bright stars, two of which— the pointers 
—point to the pole star. 


1 

! 


, - 1 

X ' Inx 


THE GREAT BEAR 


V 


Vaccination. [L. vacca, a cow.] Jenner in 1796 
noticed that persons who had much to do with 
cows, and who had caught from these animals a 
mild disease known as cow-pox, did not after¬ 
wards catch small-pox. The lymph by which the 
cow-pox is transmitted is a clear fluid obtained 
from a cow or a calf, or from the swelling on the 
arm of a vaccinated person. This lymph is intro¬ 
duced into the body by scratching the arm and 
then rubbing into the blood the lymph from 
little glass tubes. 

Vac / uum. A space devoid of matter. The term is 
ordinarily applied to the results of the exhaustion 
of air from a chamber of glass or other substance. 
The vacuum produced by the air pump is far from 
perfect, and various means are in use to produce 
a more complete exhaustion. A very efficient 
one is the Sprengel pump, in which mercury 
flows down a long tube of narrow bore, and 
carries with it the air from a connected vessel. 
The best vacuum obtainable by the air pump is 
150 times the millionth of an atmosphere ; while 
the Sprengel pump yields .005 of the millionth of 
an atmosphere. 

VaFance. [Fr. Valence , a town near Lyons.] The 
hangings round a window or the lower part of a 
bed. 

Valve. [L. valva, the leaf of a folding door.] A 
kind of flap or lid in a pipe or a blood-vessel 
which allows a fluid or gas to flow only in one di¬ 
rection, as in the common pump. There are a flap- 
valve, puppet-valve, ball-valve and slide-valve. 
A safety-valve is held shut by a spring or weight, 
and opens automatically to allow steam, gas, or 
water to escape when the pressure becomes too 
great. The valves in the blood-vessels assist the 
flow of blood through the veins. 

VaniFIa. A climbing plant, native of Mexico 
and tropical America, with long pod-like capsules 
and a delicate odor. From it is extracted an oil 
used in confectionery and perfumery. The pods 
are cut and ground,and mixed with weak alcohol, 


Varnish. [Fr., from L. vitrum , glass.] A liquid 
laid on a surface to make it glossy. According 
to the solvents used, varnishes are divided into 
spirit, turpentine, and oil varnishes. The chief 
resins used in varnishes are copal, mastic, lac, 
benzoin, amber ; and these are mixed in alcohol, 
turpentine, ether, linseed and olive oils. 

Vas'eline. A yellowish, translucent, and odorless 
substance, obtained in the purifying of crude 
petroleum, used as an ointment and in the arts. 

Vault. [Fr., from L. volutus , rolled.] A roof or 
ceiling in the form of anarch, or an underground 
room with arched roof. A groined vault has the 
roof groined, or with different cylindrical sur¬ 
faces intersecting one another. 

Vegetable. [L-] A plant grown for food, as the 
cabbage, potato, turnip, etc. The vegetable 
kingdom is the primary division of living things, 
which includes all plants, and is divided into 
Phanerogamia , or plants having distinct flowers 
and seeds—sub-divided into exogens (q.v.), end- 
ogens (q. z\), and gymnosperms; and Crypto- 
gamia y or plants without true flowers, and repro¬ 
duced by minute spores,—subdivided into ferns, 
mosses, and liverworts, and the algae, fungi, and 
lichens. 

Vegetation. The growth of plants. Vegetation 
occurs over the whole globe under the most 
opposite conditions. Plants flourish in the bed 
of the ocean as well as on land ; under the ex¬ 
tremes of cold and heat in the polar and equa¬ 
torial regions; on the hardest rock and the soft 
alluvium of the plains ; amid the snow of the 
mountains, in boiling springs, in dark caverns 
or mines. Different circumstances produce dif¬ 
ferent species and genera. Absence of humidity, 
and extremes of temperature, are the conditions 
fatal to vegetable life. Trees and plants which 
occur in the plains dwindle with increased eleva¬ 
tion. Plants are capable of extended naturaliza¬ 
tion, but distinct vegetable regions occur in 
different zones or on different heights. 





490 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


VeFlum. [L,. vilulus ,'a calf.] Calf-skin prepared 
for writing, and finer kinds of parchments. 

Velocipede. A vehicle propelled by the feet of 
the rider. The common form is the two-wheeled 
bicycle, but tricycles and quadricycles are some¬ 
what in use. 

VeFvet. [Ital. velluto.’] A pile formed of silk, 
or a mixture of silk and cotton, by short pieces 
of thread crowded together, or woven with a 
third set of threads so closely that they stand up 
and hide the warp and woof. The rows of loops 
are slit with a sharp knife. Cotton velvet is an 
imitation velvet made of cotton, and sometimes 
called velveteen. 

Veneer 7 . [Fr.] A thin slice of wood of one kind 
glued on the surface of another to give it a good 
appearance. (See Wood.) 

Ve'nus. The second planet in order from the sun, 
from which it is 67,000,000 miles distant, and 
around which it revolves in nearly 225 days. Its 
diameter is about 7,760 miles, very near to that 
of the earth. The length of its day is not known. 

VerarFda. [Port.] A kind of covered gallery or 
balcony in front of a house. 

Verbe'na. [L-] A herbaceous plant with beauti¬ 
ful flowers. Essence of verbena is prepared from 
the lemon verbena, a plant with a lemon flavor. 

Ver'digris. [L., green of brass.] Acetate of 
copper ; poisonous green rust formed on brass or 
copper. It is used for making green paint and 
for dyeing wool black, in gilding and in calico 
printing. 

Vermicelli. [Ital., from L. vermis , worm.] 
Dough of wheat flour forced through small pipes 
or holes into zvorm-like threads. Macaroni is 
made through larger tubes. 

VermiFion. [Fr., from L. vermis, worm.] A 
bright scarlet color got from the cochineal worm 
or insect. The vermilion of commerce is got 
by heating sulphur and mercury, and also by 
electricity. It is used in painting and in making 
sealing-wax. 

Vernier. A small scale made to slide along the 
edge of a larger one, 10 divisions of the smaller 
being equal to 9 or 11 of the larger. Invented 

by Pierre Ver¬ 
nier to measure 
tenth and hun¬ 
dredth parts. 

Vertebra 
[t,., a joint.] One 
of the twenty- 
six separate 
bones, called 
vertebrae, firmly 
united together 
to form the 
spinal column 
or backbone (g.v.) in man and the higher animals. 

Vice. [Fr. vis, a screw.] An instrument with two- 
strong jaws, closed by a screw, lever, or cam, 
for holding things firmly when being filed. In 
the blacksmith’s vice the front jaw reaches down 
further than in the machinist’s and is loosely 
fastened at the bottom. Carpenters use wooden 
vices. 


Vine. [Fr., from L. vinum.’] A climbing plant 
bearing grapes from which wine is made. All 
the European varieties are supposed to belong to 
one species, Viiis vinifera. The chief districts 
are France, Spain, Portugal, Germany, Austria, 
and Italy, and this species is also grown in vari¬ 
ous other parts of the world, including Cali¬ 
fornia. There are several different species in the 
United States. (See Grape, Wine .)—Also any 
climbing or trailing plant, as hop vine, etc. 

VirFegar. [Fr.] A sour liquid, used as a relish 
for food, made from wine, cider, beer, malt, etc. 
The sourness is due to the presence of acetic acid, 
and of this there is from 3 to 5 per cent. 

VFolet. [Fr., from L. viola .] A low creeping 
plant with a small flower, having a delicate 
fragrance. Sweet violet is the Viola odorata. 
Pansy is the Viola tricolor, and is also called 
heart’s-ease. 

VFolin. [Fr.] A musical instrument with four 
strings, played with a bow. Its tones are bril¬ 
liant and of great power and variety, and in the 
orchestra it is the leading and most important 
instrument.— Viola, a violin a fifth lower in 
compass than the ordinary violin.— Violoncello 
[Ital.], a large bass violin with four strings, an 
octave lower than the viola. 

VFper. [Fr., from L. vivus, living; and pareo, I 
beget.] A poisonous serpent; so named because 
it was the only serpent that was supposed to 
bring forth its young alive. The varieties include 
the common viper, the asp, the African horned 
viper, with a horny scale over each eye, Indian 
viper, and the red viper or copper-head, an animal 
like a rattlesnake without the rattles. 

VFtascope. A moving series of photographs, giv¬ 
ing the appearance of a living picture. Various 
names are given to the different forms of this, as 
biograph, mutascope, etc. 

Vit/riol. [Fr., from L. vitrum, glass.] A glassy- 
looking substance consisting of sulphur and 
copper or zinc. Also the popular name for 
sulphuric acid ( q. v.). Blue vitriol is sulphate 
of copper; green vitriol is copperas, or ferrous 
sulphate; red vitriol is a native sulphate of 
cobalt; white vitriol is zinc dissolved in sul¬ 
phuric acid, and is a sulphate of zinc. 

Volca'no. [Ital., from L- Vulcanus, god of fire.] 
A burning mountain, with an opening at the top 
called a crater, from which fire, steam, lava, 
cinders, etc., are thrown up. 

VuFcanite. India-rubber ( q.v .), or similar sub¬ 
stance, hardened by heating with sulphur, and 
made into combs, buttons, etc. 

Vult/ure. [U.] An important family of birds of 
prey. The neck of the vulture is bare, but at the 
lower part there is a loose fold of skin covered 
with feathers under which it draws its head to 
keep it warm. Vultures, feed upon carrion, and 
seldom attack living animals. The condor, king 
vulture, turkey buzzard, griffin, and lammergeir 
are all vultures. The condor is the largest vul¬ 
ture of the New World and is found in the Andes. 
The lammergeir is found in Europe, Asia and. 
Africa,. 
























ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 

w 


Wa'fer. [Fr. from Ger.] A thin cake of paste 
used in closing letters.—A thin cake or piece of 
ground bread used in the mass. This is usually 
unleavened, circular, and stamped with a crucifix 
or monogram. 

Wag / tail. A small song-bird belonging to the 
genus Motacilla , and so called because it jerks 
its tail up and down. The common water wag¬ 
tail is also called the pied wagtail. It is mixed 
white and black in color, and lives on the edges 
of ponds and streams. The Wood wagtail is 
found in Asia, and has a slender bill and short 
legs. 

Wainscot. A boarding or lining of oak or other 
timber in panels. 

WalUflower. A perennial plant with sweet¬ 
smelling flowers, growing in old walls and among 
ruins. It varies in color from yellow to orange 
and deep red. 

WaFnut. [AS.] A tree of large size, with alter¬ 
nate, pinnate leaves, found chiefly in North 
America. The black walnut is a beautiful timber 
tree found in the United States, with a heart- 
wood of a warm brown color, a favorite wood for 
furniture making. The nut is round and oily, 
enclosed in a hard shell with a fibrous outer 
covering. The white walnut is a North American 
tree w 7 ith long oily nuts, and hence called butter¬ 
nut. It also yields a valuable wood. There are 
some species found in Asia, whose wood is used 
in cabinet making, and the nut used for dessert 
and pickling. The nut yields walnut oil used 
in cooking. 

WaFrus. [Du., from Scand., the whale-horse.] 



A large polar animal allied to the seal—also 
named Morse. Two of its upper teeth are pro¬ 
longed into huge tusks, which measure from one 
to two feet, and weigh nearly five pounds. It is 


one of the largest animals of the frozen regions. 
It sometimes measures eighteen feet in length, 
and weighs a ton. It is hunted for the blubber 
or fat that encases its flesh, which yields oil, and 
for its ivory tusks. Like the seal, it is a very 
clumsy animal on land or ice, and it is always found 
near open water. All it wants is a comfortable 
spot to lie on, the sea being its refuge in times of 
danger. The walrus is caught by means of a 
barbed spear or harpoon, which is suddenly 
thrust into its body by the native hunter, who 
has crawled slowly and silently within striking 
distance. 

Warp. [AS.] The threads running the long way 
way of the loom and crossed by the woof. (See 
Spinning , Weft.) 

Wart. [AS.] A small, hard growth on the skin, 
generally on the hands.— Wart-hog is a large 
African wild hog with large fleshy tubercles or 
warts behind the tusks, and a second pair behind 
the eyes, and with a mane along its back. 

Wasp. [AS.] An insect somewhat like the bee> 
but its wings when at rest are laid over the body, 
and it has a deep division between the thorax 
and abdomen. Some live in colonies and some 
alone. When winter approaches all the wasps 
die except the females, which sleep through the 
cold. The nests of social wasps are built of 
paper, beautifully variegated and very durable. 
The young of social wasps feed on insects and 
larvae brought to them by the old wasps, who 
feed mainly on honey and pollen of flowers and 
sweet juices of fruits. Some wasps make their 
nests in holes in the ground, and others fasten 
them to walls or the branches of trees. The 
sting of the wasp is barbed like that of the bee. 
Dry seasons are favorable to them. Sugar in 
some fruits, as grapes and plums, most attacked 
by wasps, turns into alcohol in the process of 
rotting, and this makes wasps somnolent, but 
inclined to sting. The mud-wasp deposits a 
supply of stunned spiders with its egg in a cell 
for the larva to feed upon. Sand and wood wasps 
are solitary kinds. The females dig out cells in 
rotten wood with their jaws. Sand-wasps dig 
holes using the hairs on their legs. (See Hornet.) 

Watch. [AS.] A pocket timepiece. The train 
of wheels is the same as in a clock, but the main¬ 
spring and balance take the place of the weight 
and the pendulum in a clock. Watches are 
made mostly in Switzerland, England, France, 
and the United States. American watches are 
all made by machinery, the parts being cut so as 
to fit in all watches of the same kind. Watches 
are distinguished by the kind of escapement used 
—as verge, lever, duplex lever, and chronometer 
watch; also by the cases they are enclosed in— 
as open-faced, and hunters and half-hunters, 
which have closed and half-closed faces. Keyless 
watches, wound up by a knob on the stem, have 
taken the place of those wound up by a key. 

Wa / ter. [AS.] The fluid which falls in rain and 
forms ri vers and, sea$. Like air, water was formerly 












492 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


considered a simple substance; but a*bout a 
century ago the compound nature of water was 
discovered. Now it is a familiar fact that it is 
composed of two elements, oxygen and hydro¬ 
gen, in the proportion of two parts of hydrogen 
to one of oxygen. At temperatures below freez¬ 
ing point (32 0 F.) water exists in the solid form 
of ice ; between freezing point and boiling-point 
(212 0 F.) it takes the liquid form; and above 
boiling-point it exists in a gaseous state as vapor 
or steam. When the sun shines on the seas and 
rivers, the heat evaporates daily a quantity of 


A DROP OF WATER, MAGNIFIED. 

water. Rising up into the air, and carried along 
by the winds, this water-vapor is condensed, and 
falls as rain. Rain-water is in reality a kind of 
distilled water. It is not perfectly pure, for in 
falling it dissolves some of the carbonic acid gas 
out of the air, and also brings down impurities as 
soot. Water containing carbonic acid dissolves 
limestone and gains a condition called hardness, 
which may be removed by boiling or by adding 
lime-water. Pure water is clear, without taste, 
and colorless. Water is most commonly seen in 
the liquid state, but it is easily converted into a 
solid or into a gas. When liquid water is cooled, 
it contracts, or becomes less in size, until it 
reaches 30° ; if cooled still more, it begins slowly 
to expand ; but when it is as cold as 32 0 , it sud¬ 
denly expands, becoming about one-tenth larger, 
and forming the solid called ice. This is the 


reason why water-pipes often burst in frosty 
weather. The blood, which carries the food to 
all parts of the body, and removes the waste 
matter from every organ, is more than three 
parts water; more exactly, in 100 lbs. of blood 
there are 79 lbs. of water. Water forms about 
two-thirds of the total weight of the body. In 
100 lbs., lettuce contains 96 lbs.; cabbage, 92; 
apples, 83; fish, 78 ; potatoes, 75 ; lean meat, 
72 ; bread, 40; cheese, 34; rice, 15 ; butter, 10, 
parts of water. 

Watermelon. A fruit of a species of the genus 
cucumis , to which the cucum¬ 
ber also belongs, also the com¬ 
mon musk-melon or canta¬ 
loupe. The watermelon plant 
is a running vine that bears a 
very large, round fruit, with 
dark-green spotted rind, and 
pink or white flesh, sweet in 
taste, and very juicy or watery. 
This makes it much prized in 
warm countries. 

Wa / ter=gas. A kind of gas 
made by forcing steam over 
glowing coke. This yields a 
heat-giving mixture of hydro¬ 
gen and carbon monoxide, 
which is charged with carbon 
and made suitable for illumi¬ 
nating purposes by passing 
through a volatile carbon. 
Wa'terspout. A whirling 
storm at sea, similar in appear¬ 
ance to a tornado on land. 
From a dense cloud descends a 
conical pillar, of funnel-shape, 
under which the sea is violently 
disturbed, rising in a cone. 
Sometimes the two cones meet, 
but they more frequently dis¬ 
perse before meeting. 
Waterwheel. A wheel turned 
by flowing or falling water and 
setting machinery in motion. 
There are three kinds, over¬ 
shot , undershot , and breast 
wheels, named from the level 
at which the water strikes their float boards. A 
turbine is a horizontal wheel with a vertical axis, 
driven by the weight and impulse of the water as 
it falls on the vanes around the axis. 

Wave. [AS.] A moving ridge or swell on the 
surface of water. Waves in deep water move 
onward, but the water of which they are com¬ 
posed is continually changing. Scoresby gave 
600 feet as the maximum length of sea waves. In 
1888 the Umbria was struck by a wave 50 feet 
high.—Heat, sound, and light are supposed to 
travel in waves. The wave theory of light re¬ 
gards its phenomena as due to transverse waves 
in an ethereal medium, their amplitude causing 
brightness of light, and their frequency causing 
its color. The colors of the spectrum are estimated 
to result from various rapidities of vibration, rang¬ 
ing from 459 to 727 millions of millions per second- 













ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


493 


Wax. [AS.] A thick sticky stuff of a yellowish 
color made by bees ( q . v.) to form cells for 
honey, and used in making sealing-wax (q. zi.), 
in modeling and in making wax-cloth or floor¬ 
cloth. Mineral wax is a substance resembling 
wax, found in connection with deposits of rock- 
salt and coal, and is also called ozocerite. Chinese 
wax is secreted by the wax-insect used in candles 
and medicine. Wax-palm is a tree found in the 
Andes. Its stem is covered with a secretion con¬ 
sisting of resin and wax, which when melted 
with fat makes excellent candles. Wax-bill is 
an Asiatic and African finch-like bird with a beak 
red like sealing-wax. 

Wea / sel. [AS.] A small flesh-eating animal 
with red and white soft silky fur. Its body is 
about seven inches long, its legs are short, and it 
has five claws on each foot. Its head is round, 
its muzzle sharp, its ears small and pointed, its 
jaws powerful, and it has whiskers like those of a 
cat. Its sense of smell is keen, its sight good, its 
hearing quick, and it glides like a snake, or runs 
swiftly, and jumps or climbs walls and trees with 
great ease. It is seldom seen during the day, 
but prowls at night in search of food. It feeds 
on rabbits, moles, mice, frogs, and birds. It is 
fond of blood, and likes to suck eggs in the 
poultry-yard, making a small hole in the end of 
the shell. Farmers favor weasels because they 
kill many vermin. In attacking their prey, they 
generally seize the animal by the back of the 
neck and drive their teeth into the brain. The 
weasel makes a nest of dry grass and leaves in a 
tree or ditch. 

Weather. The state of the air at any time as re¬ 
gards heat, moisture, wind, rain, clouds, and 
electricity. The pressure of the atmosphere is an 
important factor in bringing about atmospheric 
changes, because air always flows from a re¬ 
gion of high pressure to one of low pressure. The 
pressure of the atmosphere at any place is ob¬ 
tained from the readings of the barometer; but 
the direction and force of the wind depend upon 
the relative distribution of pressure at a given 
time over a large extent of country, and not upon 
the actual reading of the barometer at the particu¬ 
lar place. Simultaneous observations are made 
at as many different stations as possible within 
the given area, and are communicated to a cen¬ 
tral station, where the readings are compared 
and the distribution mapped out. The direction 
of the wind can then be inferred from the fact 
that it blows from where the pressure is high to 
where it is low. The place where for the time 
being the pressure is lowest is said to be the seat 
of a barometric depression, and the heaviest fall 
of rain generally takes place in the neighborhood 
of such a depression. In the Weather Bureau of 
the United States, 83 per cent, of the forecasts 
given twenty-four hours previously have proved 
correct. 

Weav'er=bird. A bird like a finch or sparrow, 
found in Asia and Africa, with hanging nest com¬ 
posed of interlaced grass. Some make their 
nests in the shape of a retort, with the opening 
at the bottom of the tube. 


Wedge. [AS.] A piece of wood or metal, thick 
at one end and thin at the other, for splitting or 
fastening. The wedge is one of the six mechani¬ 
cal powers. 

Weed. [AS.] Wild plants in cultivated ground. 
Weeds injure crops in several ways. They absorb 
some of the plant-food which has been prepared 
for the crop, and they keep air and sunlight 
from the cultivated plants, which look sick and 
weakly in consequence. The hoe is an instru¬ 
ment much used for destroying w T eeds. On a 
good farm, land is fairly clean , or free from 
weeds.— Sea-weed , any marine plant of the class 
Algae, or any plant growing in the sea. 

Weft. [VS.] The cross threads of a web carried 
by the shuttle from selvage to selvage, woven 
into the warp. 

Well. [AS.] A deposit of water reached by a 
hole sunk in the earth. The water in wells is of 
the same nature as that of springs. Many towns 
are supplied with water from deep wells which 
reach beds of sandstone, lying perhaps 500 or 
1,000 feet below the surface. The water of 
shallow wells in towns is almost certain to con¬ 
tain sewage, which has passed from cess-pools or 
leaky drains through the soil and gravel or sand 
until it has reached the well. (See Artesian 
Well.) 

Whale. [AS.] A large swimming animal. The 
whale is not a fish, for its young are born alive, 
and are suckled, instead of coming out of eggs as 
young fishes do. Seals have feet that are more 
fitted for moving through the water than for 
moving on land ; but whales cannot move on land 
at all, for they have no feet. Some kinds of 
whales are the largest animals in the world. 
Whales are sometimes found in large herds, or 
“schools” as they are called. They are killed 
for their oil by the harpoon ( q . v.). When a 
harpoon has struck a whale, the rope fastened to 
its handle is quickly let out over the side of the 
boat, and the whale pulls it so swiftly that the 
men are obliged to pour water over it to prevent 
setting the wood on fire. When once a harpoon 
has pierced a whale, it can only be got out by 
cutting the flesh. A dying whale often struggles 
so fiercely that it is dangerous for a boat to be 
near it. The bomb-lance and gun now used in 
killing whales are safer and more expeditious. 
The sperm whale (q. v.) has very sharp teeth in 
its lower jaw, with which it can crush a boat. 
One monster actually destroyed nine boats. Its 
jaw is 16 feet long, 7 or 8 broad, and about 10 in 
height. The thrasher, a large and voracious 
shark with a long upper lobe on its tail, often 
beats or fights the whale. The Greenland whale, 
the rorqual, and one or two other kinds, have 
whalebone instead of .teeth. The whalebone, of 
which there are 360 plates or pieces in one 
animal, is fastened to the upper jaw of the mouth, 
and hangs down. Each piece is from 10 to 14 
feet in length, and is 11 inches broad at the root; 
and one whale yields one or two tons of whale¬ 
bone. The blubber or inner skin, which con¬ 
tains the oil, may be 16 inches thick, and a large 
whale may yield 275 barrels of oil. The throat 





m 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


of the Greenland whale is so narrow that it can 
swallow only the very smallest animals, such as 
shrimps and small jelly-fish, which are caught as 
in a net by the brush-like fringes on the edges of 
the whalebone. The throats of the spermaceti 
and rorqual whales are much larger. The rorqual 
is the largest member of the Whale family. 
Some of them are 85 feet long. But they are so 
savage, and their oil and blubber so inferior, that 
whalers do not often attack them. The whale 
has no hair, but the blubber keeps the outer skin 
oiled, enables it to resist the water, keeps out the 
cold, and from its lightness causes the body of 
the animal to float easily. The whale moves by 
its tail, which is so strong that it enables the 
largest of these animals to leap right out of the 
water. It uses its fins, or fore limbs, to balance 
itself, and also to grasp its young, of which it is 
very fond. The whale cannot remain long under 
water, and must come up for air every little 
while. But the nostrils of>the animal are placed 
on the top of its head, so that when it rises very 
Mttle of its body is seen. These nostrils are 
called blow-holes, and through them it spouts up 
spray as well as its own warm breath to a great 
height. The sperm whale has only one blow¬ 
hole. When under water the animal can protect 
both nostrils and ears by a sort of round stopper 
of skin and muscle, which fits so closely that not 
a drop can get in. Whales, often in hundreds, feed 
on the outskirts of herring and other fish shoals. 
The dolphin and porpoise are smaller members 
of the Whale family. 

Wheat. [AS.] One of the cereal plants from 
whose seeds bread is made. After Indian-corn, 
it is the most important of American food plants, 
and is widely grown in the temperate regions of 
the remainder of the world. Rice replaces it in 
importance in the tropics and in China. Wheat 
is, on the whole, the hardiest of the cereals, 
though oats are grown in regions where there is 
not enough heat to ripen the wheat. It is also 
the most costly of the cereals, yielding less and 
exhausting the soil more. There are many varie¬ 
ties —autumn and spring , from the times of 
sowing; red and white , from the colors of 
the grains; bearded , having ears w T ith awns; 
beardless , having none; and rivetts , with a 
coarse straw. An average crop is from 25 to 30 
bushels of wheat and 3,000 lbs. of straw from each 
acre. Silica and potash are especially needed by 
wheat, and so it grows well on stiff clays which 
contain much silica. Wheat has never been 
found growing wild in any part of the world. It 
was cultivated in Britain in the time of the 
Romans. It is now chiefly produced in North 
America, France, Russia, Germany, Italy, Hun¬ 
gary, and India. The United States is the great¬ 
est wheat producer, yielding in some years more 
than 600,000,000 bushels, while the yield of the 
whole world in 1899 was 2,725,000,000 bushels. 

Wheel. [AS.] A circular frame turning round 
on an axle. The radii are spokes which are 
fixed in the nave or hub, through which is in¬ 
serted the axle.— Wheel and axle , one of the six 
simple machines or mechanical powers, consist¬ 


ing of a wheel fixed to an axle, used for raising 
weights by a rope. The principle of equilibrium 
is the same as in the lever, but continuous. The 
g tin in power is in proportion to the size of the 
circumference of the wheel as compared with 
that of the axle. If the circumference of the 
wheel be ten times that of the axle, then one 
pound attached to the wheel will balance ten 
pounds applied to the axle. 

Whelk. [AS.] A shell-fish with a spiral shell, 
belonging to the genus Buccinum. It is common 
on the coasts of Europe and North America, and 
is used for food. 

Whey. [AS.] The watery part of milk separated 
from the curd in making cheese. The greater 
part of the whey is water ; but in this water are 
dissolved the milk-sugar and the mineral matter 
of the milk; the mineral matter is chiefly phos¬ 
phate of lime. In 100 lbs. of cow’s milk there 
are 92 lbs. of whey, consisting of—water, 86 lbs.; 
milk-sugar, 5 lbs.; mineral matter, 1 lb. 

Whippoor=wiIl. A North American bird of the 
Goatsucker or Nightjar family. It takes its name 
from its loud and plaintive nocturnal cry. Some 
regard it as a bird of ill omen. 

Whirlpool. A body of water whirling in a circle, 
and drawing into its centre whatever enters its 
waters. Whirlpools are situated in channels 
similar in configuration and in tidal phenomena. 
Chary bdis is in the Straits of Messina. Maelstrom 
is on the north-west coast of Norway. Corrie- 
vrekin is in Jura Sound, Scotland. The Niagara 
whirlpool is really a large eddy in which whirl¬ 
pools are constantly forming. 

Whiskey. [Celt, wisge , water.] Spirit distilled 
from grain, potatoes, etc. Scotch or malt whis¬ 
key has the malt dried over a peat fire ; Irish or 
grain whiskey is made from raw barley. 

Whist. [From hush.~\ A game of cards for four, 
in which each person holds thirteen cards, and 
when these are played out the cards are shuffled 
and again given out. In short whist five points 
make the game, and two games a rubber. 

White / bait. A small fish of the Herring kind, 
prized for food. It is supposed to be the fry of 
both herrings and sprats, the proportion of the 
latter being greater in winter, while the herrings 
are more numerous in the summer. Thames 
whitebait possibly find more suitable food there, 
and may be superior in condition and flavor. 

Whortleberry. [Cor. of myrtillus.] A plant 
which grows abundantly in heaths and woods, 
and bears evergreen leaves, and a blue berry 
which may be eaten ; also the bilberry, and in 
America the huckleberry. The cowberry has red 
fruit. The cranberry is closely allied to the 
whortleberry. 

Wil low. [AS.] A tree whose branches are 
slender and easily bent, used for basket making 
and wicker-work. The Weeping willow is a very 
ornamental species of Chinese origin, and has 
long slender branches that hang down almost per¬ 
pendicularly. The Pollard willow is one with its 
trunk cut back to throw out fresh and numerous 
osiers. The White willow, the largest species 
known in Britain, and the crack willow, ate used 



ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


495 


in making charcoal. Willows occur in temperate 
and moist climates, but they have not been found 
in Australia or the South Sea islands. 

Win / cey. A cloth made of linen and wool mixed. 
Also called linsey-woolsey. 

Winds. Currents of air having their origin in the 
different pressures which exist in various regions 
of the atmosphere. Since the sun is shining 
more powerfully upon the equatorial than upon 
the more northern regions of the globe, the 
heated and therefore rarefied air ascends, while 
a current of colder air flows in from the poles on 
both sides to take the place of the ascending air. 
The ascending column of air flows over from the 
equator towards both poles, so that the general 
atmospheric circulation consists of an under cur¬ 
rent from the north and south poles towards the 
equator, and of an upper current from the equa¬ 
tor towards both poles. This general circulation 
proceeds in spite of other circulations on a 
smaller scale or of a local character which may 
be going on at the same time. North-east and 
south-east trades occur in the northern and in the 
southern hemisphere. (See Weather and Trade 
Winds.) 

Wine. [AS., from L. vinum.~\ A drink made 
from the sweet juices of fruits, which are pressed 

out, allowed t o 
ferment, and then 
bottled. Grapes 
are chiefly used 
for wine-making. 
Sherry and port 
are made in Spain 
and Portugal . 
Claret is a light, 
rather acid kind 
of wine, made in 
France; from 
which country 
we also get cham¬ 
pagne , a wine 
which contains 
much carbonic 
acid gas. The 
ancient Egyptian wine press. w j nes of Southern 

Europe excel in body and strength, but lack the 
aroma of Rhine wines. Large quantities ofwine are 
now produced in the United States, especially in 
California. On an average, igo lbs. of wine con¬ 
tains from io lbs. to 15 lbs. of alcohol. When 
wine is heated in a closed vessel, the alcohol 
rises out of it as vapor. If the vapor be then 
made to pass through a tube surrounded by cold 
water, it will be condensed to brandy. 

Wing. [Scand.] The appendage of the body of a 
bird or insect, by means of which it flies. The 
framework of the bird’s wing is formed of a set 
of bones corresponding to those of the human 
arm and hand, but having only one perfect 
finger, corresponding to the index finger; and 
stretched over this framework is a thin covering 
of flesh and muscle from which grow the quills 
and smaller feathers, and these when spread out 
make up the broad wing. The upper surface is 
rounded, and the air can easily slide from its 


edges as it mounts in the air. Bats are the only 
mammals which fly, and their wings are arms 
and fingers lengthened out, and supporting a 
skin spread out like the cover of an umbrella on 
its ribs. There are other mammals, like the 
flying squirrel, the flying lemur, etc., which 
have a partial power of flight. The wings of in¬ 
sects are thin, often transparent, membranes. 
Some insects use them for only a brief period of 
their lives ; the ants, after their marriage flight, 
cast off their wings and live without them after¬ 
wards. Some, as the flies, have two wings, but 
most insects have four. 

Witch. A woman supposed to have a compact 
with the devil or with evil spirits, and given the 
power to perform supernatural acts. A man with 
similar power is called a wizard. Supposed 
witches have been persecuted from the times of 
Moses downward until about a century ago, and 
great numbers of persons have been put to death 
on accusation of witchcraft. 

WiiFtergreen. A common American plant, 
about 4 or 5 inches high, with small whitish 
flowers and red berries. It is also known as par¬ 
tridge-berry, checker-berry, mountain tea, and 
by other names. The plant has a pleasant aro¬ 
matic taste and odor, and yields the oil of winter- 
green , used as a stimulant, for flavoring syrups, 
and in perfumery. 

Wireless Telegraphy. A newly invented method 
of sending electric telegraph messages without 
the aid of wires. The best-known invention is 
that of Marconi, an Italian electrician, the mes¬ 
sage being sent by the use of a powerful current 
of high frequency, which passes through the 
ether or the earth and acts on a suitable receiv¬ 
ing instrument many miles distant. The dis¬ 
tance to which messages can be sent is annually 
increasing. 

Wolf. [AS.] A carnivorous animal of the Dog 
family. It is very cruel, fierce, and destructive, 
but is capable of great affection. In many re¬ 
spects it is like a neglected savage dog. It does 
not bark, but gives a hoarse howl; nor does it 
lap like the dog, but drinks by sucking. There are 
many kinds, varied in size, thickness of fur, and 
in color. The ordinary color is a yellowish gray, 
but there are also black, brown, and white wolves. 
They are found in Europe, Asia, and North 
America, but not in South America or Africa. 
Wolves do not lie in ambush, but run down their 
prey in open chase, their favorite prey being the 
allied species of the domestic dog and the Arctic 
fox. The coyote or American prairie wolf and 
the Japanese wolf are smaller species than the 
ordinary wolf or Canis lupus. 

Wood. [.AS.] The solid part of trees ; trees cut 
down and sawn into boards. .The wood used in 
the construction of houses is chiefly obtained 
from pine and from fir trees, the wood of both 
being called pine-wood. When sawn into boards 
it is known as deal ; when split into thin narrow 
strips, it forms laths. The wood should be sea¬ 
soned or thoroughly dried by exposure to the air 
for one or two years after the tree has been cut 
down. For making furniture, hard woods, such 




































ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


496 

as oak, maple, cedar, ebony, walnut, mahogany, 
and rosewood, are used. The two latter are often 
cut into very thin slices, called veneers , which 
are then glued on the surface of beech or some 
other cheap wood and made into furniture. Be¬ 
sides its importance in building and the manu¬ 
facture of furniture, wood is necessary as fuel, 
and is greatly used in countries covered with 
forests where coal is not easily obtained. The 
toughest wood is pig-nut hickory ; next, white 
oak and white ash. (See Lumbering .) 

Wood / bine. [AS.] A climbing plant with sweet¬ 
smelling flowers; the honeysuckle. 

WoocTchuck or Ground=hog. An American 
species of the Marmots, a genus of rodents. This 
animal, from 15 to 18 inches long, burrows in 
the earth, and often commits great havoc in 
fields of clover, of which it is very fond. The 
Prairie-dog is allied to the marmots. 

Wood'cock. A bird allied to the snipe, frequent¬ 
ing woods, and considered as game. It is noc¬ 
turnal in its habits. The little woodcock is the 
snipe. 

Woodpecker. A bird having a hard pointed bill 
for pecking holes in trees, and a long tongue for 
drawing out insects from holes or crevices. This 
tongue is armed near the end with sharp barbs, 
pointed backward like a fish-hook. The tongue 
is fastened to cartilages which extend up to 
behind the skull and over the forehead, and in 
consequence of this it can be thrust out some 
distance beyond the beak. Apple and maple 
trees are sometimes pierced by the woodpecker’s 
holes in rings one above the other, just as 
farmers pierce the maple. The nest is lodged in 
a pear-shaped hole made in a tree-trunk, much 
larger than the circular entrance at the top. 

Wood = pulp. A fibrous material prepared from 
wood by grinding or by chemical means, and 
used, soaked in water, for making printing and 
other paper, and for various small wares, such as 
plates, basins, and pails. It has been used as a 
filling for car-wheels, in making bricks and tiles, 
etc., and even for making an imitation silk 
thread. 

Wool. [AS.] The natural covering of certain 
animals, the best known of which is the sheep. 
The sheep is a tame or domestic animal, but in 
certain countries, as Asia, North America, and in 
parts of Europe (Sardinia and Corsica), wild 
sheep still abound. The entire coat of wool 
growing on any one sheep is called its fleece. 
This fleece is usually cut off or shorn once a year. 
The countries producing most wool are England, 
Australia, Cape Colony, Saxony, Spain, United 
States, and Mexico. Wool is remarkable for its 
softness, and the wavy nature of the separate 
fibres. When the fibres are drawn through the 
fingers in one direction, they feel smooth ; but 
in the opposite direction they are rough, and 
seem to catch. The wool, being cut and care¬ 
fully prepared, is spun into yarn by a machine 
which twists the fibres together, so as to form 
them into a long thread ; the waviness of the 
fibres and the projecting scales help them to 
hold firmly together. The yarn is then woven 


into cloth. Any piece of woolen stuff consists 
of two sets of threads—one set called the warp, 
running the long way of the piece ; and another 
set called the weft, running across, and inter¬ 
lacing with the warp. Lastly, the woolen cloth, 
as we may now call it, is dyed and pressed ; the 
nap is raised by a process called teaseling, and 
the material is then ready to be made into clothes. 
When wool is spread out in a thin layer, well 
moistened, and then beaten smartly with a rod, 
the fibres become matted together, and form a 
material called felt , of which hats, carpets, etc., 
are made. Wool is a bad conductor of heat, and 
so prevents its escape from the body. At the 
same time wool is a good absorber of moisture, 
soaking up the perspiration as soon as it comes 
out of the skin. Owing to the roughness of the 
fibres, woolen materials gently chafe or rub the 
skin, and so promote its healthy action. 

Worm. [AS. wyrm, a worm or snake.] Earth¬ 
worms are humble animals, yet they are valuable 
aids to the agriculturist. On making a section 
down through the earth for several feet, there 
will be found innumerable tunnels formed by 
worms. A naturalist considers that they average 
100,000 to the acre, and in especially rich ground 
in New Zealand it was estimated that there were 
348,840 in a single acre. This vast body of worms 
is continually at work boring this way and that, 
coming to the surface during the night and re¬ 
treating to greater depths during the day ; and 
their tunnels constitute a system of irrigation 
and ventilation. Rain, instead of running off, 
enters the holes, and so penetrates the earth, 
thus being held for a longer time. Air also finds 
its way below the surface. But this is a very 
small part of the work accomplished. Worms 
are continually swallowing the earth and deposit¬ 
ing it at the surface, and working it over and 
over. Darwin states that the vegetable mold 
thus transported in some places amounts to ten 
tons an acre. Worms not only carry all this 
material to the surface, but they drag vast quan¬ 
tities of leaves and other matter down that serve 
to enrich the soil and render it capable of pro¬ 
ducing larger crops. Some worms are a foot in 
length. Their bodies are formed of a large num¬ 
ber of rings. On each ring there are a great 
many bristles. Grubs move forward by means of 
their tiny feet, snakes by means of their scales, 
and worms by means of their bristles. Their 
bodies are very elastic. The worm pushes for¬ 
ward its head, the bristles in the front part of its 
body take hold of the ground, and the rest of the 
body is then pulled along. In addition to the 
earth-worms, the name worm is applied to a 
large variety of elongated water animals, very 
many of them dwelling in the ocean, also to 
numerous internal parasites, some of which 
dwell in the human body. (See Tape.) 

Worst/ed. [From Worsted or Worstead, a village 
in Norfolk.] Wool twisted into thread used for 
knitting stockings. Long yarn is made by draw¬ 
ing, gilling, and combing. Short wools are first 
carded and afterwards combed. Worsted for 
carpet-yarns or knitting-yarns is carded only. 



497 


encyclopedic dictionary of common things 


Wort. [AS.] A plant of the Cabbage kind ; also 
the sweet liquor obtained by steeping crushed 
grain in hot water, which ferments and forms 
beer (q.v.). 

Wren. [AS.] A small brown bird having active 
and lively habits. It has a domed nest needlessly 
large for the size of the bird, and near an occu¬ 
pied nest are generally one or more nests unfin¬ 


ished. It is extensively found in Europe, and 
inhabits Palestine. The winter wren and house 
wren are common in North America. In Britain 
there are the wood wren and willow wren ; also 
the chiff-chaff, which, from its nest, is sometimes 
called “oven” bird. Wrens, like robin red¬ 
breasts, whistle all the year round, times of hard 
frost excepted. 


Y 


i 


Yacht. [Du.] A swift, light boat fitted up for 
pleasure-sailing or for racing. Yacht-racing dates 
from the beginning of the nineteenth century, 
during which it was greatly developed. Im¬ 
portant international yacht races took place be¬ 
tween England and the United States, in nearly 
all of which the latter was victorious. 

Yak. [Tibetan.] A large ox, very sure-footed, 
found in the plains of Central Asia. It is like 
the long-horned Scottish cattle, but more strongly 
built. In color it is black, and it has long hair, 
especially at the hind quarters, where it touches 
the ground. The wild yak is found always just 
under the snow-line ; the tame yak is seldom em¬ 
ployed below 12,000 feet above sea-level. The 
tails of domestic yaks are employed in India as 
fly-flaps. 

Yam. A large plant, with roots somewhat like the 
potato, grown in warm countries. The clusters 
of flowers are separately small, but together are 
showy. Most yams contain an acrid matter 
which is lost in cooking. The true yam is some¬ 
times confused with the sweet potato, which is 
convolvulus. 

Yarn. [AS.] The fibre of cotton, flax, hemp, 
silk, or wool spun into threads. Throughout all 
the changes of modern yarn-spinning, the ro¬ 
tating spindle continues to be the chief imple¬ 
ment. 

Yawl. [Du.] A small ship’s boat rowed with 
four or six oars. 

Year. [AS.] The time which the earth takes to 
go round the sun. The tropical year is the in¬ 
terval between two successive passages of the sun 
through the first point of Aries. Its mean length 
is 365 days 5 hrs. 48 min. 49.7 sec. Owing to the 
precession of the equinoxes it is shorter than the 
sidereal year , which is the interval which elapses 
between the time of the earth’s leaving a given 
point in its orbit and the time of its returning to 
it. It consists of 365 days 6 hrs. 9 min. 9.6 sec. 
The order of the seasons is determined by the 
tropical year. The year is accounted 365 days in 
length, except every fourth year, which is named 
leap year and has 366 days. As this would make 
the average year rather too long, the last year of 
the century is not leap year unless its unit num¬ 
ber can be divided by four. Thus 1900 was not 
leap year, but 2000 will be. 

Yeast. [AS.] The froth that rises on the top of 
liquors in the process of fermentation; or the 
substance used for raising dough to be baked into 
bread ( q . v.). Although yeast looks like a liquid 
to the naked eye, yet under the microscope a 

32 C 



YEAST FUNGUS, MAGNIFIED 400 TIMES. 


drop of yeast is found to contain thousands of ex¬ 
tremely small rounded bodies, which are tiny 

plants of the Fun¬ 
gus kind. The 
yeast-plant feeds on 
part of the starch in 
the flour, and the 
result is that this 
starch is changed 
into grape-sugar. 
Leaven is only a 
little flour and water 
which has been left 
exposed to the air 
until some of the 
“spores” or 
“seeds” of the yeast-plant (which are always 
floating about in the air) have settled in it and 
begun to grow, which they do with wonderful 
rapidity. 

Yellow Bird. This bird is known as the American 
Gold-finch or Thistle-bird. It is generally dis¬ 
tributed over North America. The male is bright 
yellow, with black tail and wings marked with 
white and with black on top of the head ; the 
female is yellowish brown above and darker brown 
below. They are usually seen in flocks, feeding 
on the seeds of thistles, sunflowers and other 
plants. 

Yel / low=hammer. A British song-bird with yellow 
feathers. This bird breeds late, and continues to 
sing until late in the year. 

Yew. [AS.] An evergreen tree like the pine, 
used either in hedges or separately. Its wood is 
hard and close-grained, and its young branches, 
owing to their toughness, were formerly much 
used for bows. Old yews are common near 
churches. The leaves have poisonous properties. 

Yolk or Yelk. [AS.] The yellow part of an egg. 
It has a thin skin around it, and has in it a little 
jelly-like germ, from which the young bird 
develops. (See Egg.) 

Yuc'ca. [Span.] A kind of lily peculiar to North 
America. Some kinds have underground stems 
and dagger-like leaves; others have palm-like 
stems crowned with dense tufts of leaves. They 
yield coarse fibres used for ropes and cloth, and 
are grown as ornamental plants. The plant is 
popularly called “Adam’s Needle.” 

Yule. [AS.] The old English word for Christmas, 
still used in provincial parts of England. The 
bringing in of the Yule log , for burning on the 
Christmas hearths, was a festive ceremony. 





498 


ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF COMMON THINGS 


z 


Ze'bra. [Port.] A kind of wild ass, of the genus 
Equus, perhaps the most beautiful animal of 
this tribe. It is pale yellow or white in color, 



with black or brown stripes. It lives in large 
herds in the mountainous parts of Africa, and is 
very wild. Few zebras have ever been tamed. 

Ze / bu. [Fr.] A variety of the Ox family with 
short horns, long ears, and a large hump over 
the shoulders, found in India and the Asiatic 
islands, and along the east coast of Africa. Some 
are of large size and others as small as a sheep. 

Ze / nith. [Fr., from Arab.] The point in the 
celestial sphere which a person standing on the 
earth at any point sees directly overhead; 
directly opposite to the nadir. 

Zinc. A metal of a bluish-white color, having a 
crystalline structure. It is brittle at ordinary 


temperatures, but when heated it becomes malle¬ 
able, and does not lose this quality when cooled. 
If raised to a red heat in a closed vessel, it will 
boil and pass off in vapor, and when heated in 
the air it burns with a bright flame. When ex¬ 
posed to damp air, a thin coating of rust is formed, 
which prevents the further oxidation of the 
metal. Combined with copper, it forms the alloy 
brass, and it also forms an ingredient in German 
silver. In the metallic state it is used for roofing, 
for rain-pipes, for gutters, and as a coating for 
sheet-iron and iron wire. Iron covered with zinc 
in this way is known as galvanized iron. Zinc 
is also used in some electric batteries ; and as an 
oxide it is employed as a pigment. 

Zo / diac. A broad belt running round the heavens 
parallel to the ecliptic, and extending about 8° 
on each side of it. It is the area within which 
the motions of the sun, moon, and the greater 
planets lie. The stars in the zodiac have been 
divided into twelve groups called constellations— 
Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, 
Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricorn, Aquarius, 
Pisces. These divisions do not now coincide 
with the constellations as formerly ; for by the 
precession of the equinoxes they have been 
moved back about 25 0 behind the constellations. 

Zodiacal Light. A remarkable luminous appear¬ 
ance in the sky, seen in the west after sunset, 
and in the east before sunrise, at certain seasons 
of the year. It is a triangle of light, of greatest 
intensity within the tropics, where its brilliancy 
sometimes rivals that of the Milky Way. It 
stretches through the sky nearly in the direction 
of the sun’s equator. It is only during the spring 
and autumn that in our latitudes it can attain 
sufficient height in the sky to be distinguishable. 


Arab, or Ar. 
AS. . . . 
Braz. . . 
Celt. . . 
Chin. . . 
Cor. . . . 
Dan. . . 
Du. . . . 
Fr. ... 
G. . . . 
Gk. . . . 
Goth: . . 
H . . . . 
Heb. . . 
Hind. . . 
Icel. . . 
Ital. . . . , 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


The following are the most common abbreviations used in this book : 


Arabic. 

Anglo Saxon. 

Brazilian. 

Celtic. 

Chinese. 

Corresponding. 

Danish. 

Dutch. 

French. 
German. 

Greek. 

Gothic. 

Hayti. 

Hebrew. 
Hindu. 
Icelandic. 
Italian. 


L. 

L. Lat. . . 
Malay . . . 
O. E. . . . 
O. F. . . . 
Pers. . . . 

PI. 

Port. . . . 

q- v. 

Sax. 

Scand. . . . 
Sing. . . . 
Sp. or Span 
Swed. . . . 
Turk. . . . 
W. Ind. . , 


Latin. 

Low Latin. 
Malayan. 

Old English. 

Old French. 

Persian. 

Plural. 

Portuguese. 

which see. 

Saxon. 

Scandinavian. 

Singular. 

Spanish. 

Swedish. 

Turkish. 

West Indies . 












































BOOK VII. 

BIOGRAPHY 

THE WORLD’S GREAT MEN AND WOMEN AND WHAT SHOULD BE 
REMEMBERED OF EACH—ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED—A BOOK OF 
UNTOLD VALUE FOR LEARNING THE RIGHT THING ABOUT THE RIGHT 
PERSON—A THOUSAND WORTHIES OF ALL TIMES AND ALL COUNTRIES. 

GREAT MEN AND GREAT WOMEN OF ALL TIMES 


AOC V 


























































































4 















































































































































































• 























































♦ 

















William II of Germany 


Nicholas jf 


<Sv/ede.M 




^LFONS^IH of SFA^ 


Victor Er^ a °™ ly 


THE GREAT MONARCHS OF EUROPE 























































Famous Men and Women 

A DICTIONARY OF DISTINGUISHED PEOPLE OF THE WORLD- 
EMBRACING THEIR NATIONALITY, VOCATION, GREATEST 
ACHIEVEMENTS, AND DATES OF BIRTH AND DEATH. 


A bbott, J. S. C. American historian. Life of 
Napoleon Bonaparte; History of Russia. 
Born, 1805; died, 1877. 

Abbott, Emma. A noted American singer and 
prima donna. Mrs. E. J. Wetherell. Born, 1849 ; 
died, 1891. 

Abbott, Lyman. American clergyman and 
author ; succeeded Beecher as pastor of Plymouth 
Church; editor Outlook. Born, 1835. 

Adams, John. American President and diplo¬ 
matist, graduated at Harvard ; school-teacher and 
lawyer; defended British soldiers implicated in 
Boston Massacre, 1770; delegate to Continental 
Congress, 1774; commissioner to France, 1778; 
minister to Holland, 1781 ; one of the negotiators 
of treaty of peace with Great Britain, 1782; 
minister to Great Britain, 1785-88; Vice-Presi¬ 
dent, 1789-97 ; President, 1797-1801. Born, 1735 ; 
died, 1826. 

Adams, John Quincy (son of John). American 
President and diplomatist, graduated at Harvard ; 
minister to Holland, 1794; to Prussia, 1797 ; 
elected to U. S. Senate by Federalists, 1803 ; re¬ 
signed, 1808 ; minister to Russia, 1809 ; one of the 
negotiators of the treaty of peace with Great 
Britain, 1814; minister to England, 1816-17; 
Secretary of State, 1817-1825 ; President, 1825- 
29 ; M. C., 1830 till his death. Born, 1767 ; died, 
1848. 

Adams, Samuel. American Revolutionary patriot 
and statesman ; Governor of Massachusetts ; one 
of the foremost popular leaders of the Revolu¬ 
tion. Born, 1722 ; died, 1803. 

Addison, Joseph. English man of letters, poet, 
humorist, moralist, dramatist; Under-Secretary 
of State, 1705 ; M. P., 1708. His poem The Cam¬ 
paign , 011 the battle of Blenheim, had a great 
success. Much of the Tatler (edited by Steele) 
and three-fourths of the Spectator are his. Born, 
1672 ; died, 1719. 

/Eschines. Athenian orator; rival of Demos¬ 
thenes, and supporter of Philip of Macedonia. 
Orations. Born, B. c. 389 ; died, 314. 
/Eschylus. Sublime Athenian tragic writer. 
Agamemnon the Persian. Born, b. c. 525 ; 
died, 456. 

/Esop. Greek fabulist of the 6th century b. C. 
Fables. 


Agassiz, Louis. Swiss naturalist and man of 
science, Professor at Harvard ; founder of the 
Museum of Comparative Zoology at Cambridge, 
Mass. Researches on Fossil Fishes. Born, 18^7; 
died, 1873. 

Agricola, Cnaeus Julius. Roman general ; built 
line of fortresses across Scotland ; father-in-law 
of the historian Tacitus. Born, 37 ; died, 93. 

Agrippina. Mother of the Emperor Nero, in¬ 
famously cruel and sensual; put to death by Nero. 
Born, 15 ; died, 60. 

Aguinaldo, Emile. A Philippine soldier and 
statesman ; leader of the revolt against Spain and 
the war against the United States ; captured and 
took oath of allegiance to the United States in 
1901. Born, i860. 

Alaric I. King of the Visigoths, captured Rome. 
Born, 350 ; died, 410. 

Albert, Prince Consort of England ; husband of 
Queen Victoria ; man of noble character. Born, 
1819 ; died, 1861. 

Alcibiades. Athenian statesman and commander. 
Led Athenian fleet; conquered at Cyzicus and 
Cynossema ; annexed Chalcedon and Byzantium. 
Handsome, talented, fickle, vain. Born, 450; 
died, 404. 

Alcott, Louisa M. American author. Little 
Women; An Old Fashioned Girl; Hospital 
Sketches. Born, 1833 ; died, 1888. 

Aldrich, Thomas Bailey. American novelist and 
poet. Prudence Palfrey; The Story of a Bad 
Boy. Born, 1836. 

Alexander the Great, King of Macedonia, con¬ 
queror. Aristotle was his tutor. He came to 
the throne in 336, razed Thebes, and was chosen 
by the Greeks commander of the forces against 
Persia ; invaded Asia Minor (334), beat Darius at 
the Granicus, and cut the Gordian knot; defeated 
Darius at Issus (333) ; captured Tyre (332), in¬ 
vaded Egypt and founded Alexandria; routed 
Darius at Arbela (331) ; took Babylon, Persepolis, 
Susa, and invaded India till his army refused to 
proceed farther; died at Babylon. Born, B. c. 
356 ; died, 323. 

Alexander VI. (Borgia.) Pope 1492-1503. In¬ 
famous for his crimes. Born, 1430 ; died, 1503. 

501 




502 


FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


Alexander I. Czar of Russia (1801-25) ; one of the 
chief opponents of Napoleon, reorganized Rus¬ 
sian army. Born, 1777 ; died, 1825. 

Alexander II. Czar of Russia (1855-81); liberator of 
the serfs. Assassinated. Born, 1818 ; died, 1881. 

Alexander III. Czar of Russia (1881-94.) Born, 
1845 ; died, 1894. • 

Alfieri. An Italian dramatist. Spent his youth 
in dissipation ; reformed and devoted himself to 
dramatic art. “ Cleopatra ” was his first success¬ 
ful drama. Tragedy was his forte. Buried at 
Florence. Born, 1749; died, 1803. 

Alfred the Great. King of Wessex. Came to 
throne 871 ; lived in concealment to escape 
Danes ; routed Danes, 878 ; allowed them to settle 
in his kingdom ; repelled invasion of the North¬ 
men, 896 ; founded a navy ; established schools 
and a police system; encouraged literature. 
Born, 849 ; died, 901. 

Allen, Ethan. American Revolutionary soldier; 
captured Ticonderoga “ in the name of the great 
Jehovah and the Continental Congress.” Born, 
1737 ; died, 1789. 

Alva, Duke of. Noted Spanish general during 
reign of Charles V. and Philip ; Governor of the 
Low Countries ; noted for his merciless cruelty. 
Born, 1508 ; died, 1582. 

Ames, Fisher. American orator and statesman ; 
Federalist member of Congress. Speeches. Born, 
1758 ; died, 1808. 

Amurath I. Sultan of Turkey ; first of the Sul¬ 
tans to make European conquests. Born, 1319; 
died, 1389. 

Andersen, Hans Christian. Danish author. Fairy 
Tales for Children; The Improvisalore; The 
Poets ’ Bazaar. Born, 1805 ; died, 1875. 

Andre, Major John. English soldier in the Ameri¬ 
can Revolution, hanged as a spy. Born, 1731 ; 
died, 1780. 

Anne. Daughter of James II. Queen of England. 
Literature flourished in her reign. Born, 1664 ; 
died, 1714. 

Antiochus. King of Syria. “The Great;” in¬ 
vaded Greece ; defeated by the Romans. Born, 
b. c. 237 ; died, 187. 

Antoinette, Marie. Queen of Louis XVI. of 
France. Guillotined. Born, 1755 ; died, 1793. 

Antonius, Marcus (Mark Antony). Roman orator 
and statesman ; triumvir with OctavianuS and 
Lepidus. Lover of Cleopatra ; defeated at Ac- 
tium. Born, b. C. 83 ; died, 36. 

Appius Claudius. Roman patrician. Decemvir ; 
attempted to dishonor Virginia, daughter of Vir- 
ginius. Died, b. c. 449. 

Aquinas, Thomas. Scholastic Italian theologian. 
Author of Summa Theologia , to this day a 
standard authority in the Roman Cathohc 
Church. His writings fill 17 folio volumes. 
While a member of the Council of Lyons, fell 
sick and died at that city. Born, 1226 ; died, 1274. 

Archimedes. Syracusan mathematician and en¬ 
gineer; made many discoveries in hydrostatics 
and mechanics. On the Sphere and Cylinder. 
Born, b. c. 287; died, 212. 

Aristides. “The Just.” Athenian statesman. 
Rival of Themistocles. Died, b.c. 468. 


Aristophanes. Greatest Greek comedy writer. 

The Knights. The Clouds. The Birds. Born, 
b. c. 444 ; died, 380. 

Aristotle. Greek philosopher. Father of scien¬ 
tific natural history, and of logic. Tutor of 
Alexander the Great; taught at Athens in the 
Lyceum ; left works on physics, metaphysics, 
ethics, dialectics, logic, mathematics, politics, 
economics. Born, b. c. 384 ; died, 322. 

Arius. A noted Catholic theologian, a presbyter 
of Alexandria in the 4th century. Founder of 
Arian sect. Born, 280 ; poisoned, 336. 

Arkwright, Sir Richard. Noted English inven¬ 
tor. Began life as a barber. Invented the spin¬ 
ning frame. Was mobbed because his machine 
threatened to interfere with labor. “ This man,” 
says Carlyle, “ gave to England the power of 
cotton.” Became very wealthy. Born, 1732 ; 
died, 1792. 

Arminius, James. Dutch theologian ; founder of 
Arminianism ; denied Calviuistic doctrines of 
grace and predestination. Born, 1560; died, 
1609. 

Arnold, Benedict. American traitor. Tried to 
surrender West Point to the British. Born, 
1740; died, 1801. 

Arnold, Edwin. English journalist and poet, 
editor of the London Telegraph. The Light of 
Asia; Light of the World. Born, 1832. 

Arnold, Matthew. English poet and critic. God 
and the Bible; Poems; Essays in Criticism. 
Born, 1822 ; died, 1888. 

Arnold, Thomas. English educator and historian. 
Master of Rugby School. History of Rome. 
Born, 1795 ; # died, 1842. 

Arthur, Chester A. American President; born in 
Vermont and educated at Union College ; ad¬ 
mitted to the bar ; Quartermaster-General of New 
York during the Civil War ; Collector of the Port 
of New York, 1871-78; Vice-President, 1881; 
succeeded to Presidency on death of President 
Garfield, September, 1881. Born, 1830; died, 1886. 

Ascham, Roger. Tutor of Queen Elizabeth. The 
Schoolmaster; Toxophilus or the School of 
Shooting. Born, 1515; died, 1568. 

Astor, John Jacob. American millionaire ; founder 
of the present Astor family. Born, 1763 ; died, 
1848. 

Attila. “The Scourge of God.” King of the 
Huns. Invaded the Roman Empire. Died, 453. 

Audubon, John James. American naturalist. Birds 
of America. Born, 1782; died, 1831. 

Augustine, Saint. Bishop of Hippo in Africa. 
Theologian, De Civitate Dei. Professor of rhe¬ 
toric and philosophy at Milan, 384; was for a 
time immoral, but was converted about 386. 
Ordained priest 391. He wrote against the Pela¬ 
gians, the treatises On the Grace of Christ , and 
On Original Sin. Born, 354 ; died, 430. 

Augustus (Octavianus). First Roman Emperor. 
Conqueror at Actiuru, Patron of literature. Born, 
b. c. 65 ; died, a. d. 14. 

Aurelian. Roman Emperor. Conquered Zenobia 
and annexed her kingdom of Palmyra. Born, 
212 ; died, 275. 



FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


Austen, Jane. English novelist. Sense and Sen¬ 
sibility ; Pride and Prejudice; Emma . Born, 
1775 ; died, 1817. 

B ach, John Sebastian. German composer. The 
Nativity. Produced both secular arid sacred 
music in great variety. Born, 1685 ; died, 1750. 
Bacon, Francis, Viscount St. Albans, Lord 
Verulam. English statesman and philosopher. 
Novum Organum ; Advancement of Learning. 
Counsel to Queen Elizabeth at 28 ; found guilty 
of corruption, 1621. Among his works are 
Essays; and On the Wisdom of the Ancients. 
His Novum Organum applies inductive method 
to study of science. Born, 1561 ; died, 1626. 
Baker, Sir Samuel White. Noted English trav¬ 
eler in Africa and India. Wrote five books of 
travels. Born, 1821 ; died, 1893. 

Balboa, Vasco Nunez de. Spanish adventurer. 

Discoverer of the Pacific. Born, 1475 ; died, 1517. 
Baltimore, Lord George Calvert. English states¬ 
man. Founder of Maryland. City of Baltimore 
named for him. Born, 1580; died, 1632. 

Balzac, Honor6 de. French novelist. Comedie 
Humaine. Born, 1799 ; died, 1850. 

Bancroft, George. American diplomatist and his¬ 
torian. Minister to England, and to Germany ; 
Secretary of the Navy. History of United States. 
Born, 1800 ; died, 1891. 

Barneveldt, Jan van Olden. Dutch statesman, 
patriot, liberal leader. Beheaded. Born, 1549 ; 
died, 1619. 

Barnum, Phineas T. American showman. Born, 
1810; died, 1891. 

Baxter, Richard. English Dissenting minister, 
writer. The Saints' Rest. Born, 1615 ; died, 1691. 
Beauharnais, Alexander, Vicomte de. First hus¬ 
band of the Empress Josephine. Born, 1760 ; 
died, 1794. 

Becket, Thomas &. Archbishop of Canterbury. 
Murdered ; had controversy in defence of rights 
of the Church with Henry II. of England, whom 
he excommunicated. Born, 1117 ; died, 1170. 
Bede, “ The Venerable.” Anglo-Saxon historian. 
Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation. 
Born, 672 ; died, 735. 

Beecher, Lyman. American Congregational 
preacher, and theologian. Views on Theology. 
Born, 1775 ; died, 1836. 

Beecher, Henry Ward. American preacher, lect¬ 
urer, and orator, at Brooklyn, N. Y. Star 
Papers. Born, 1813 ; died, 1887. 

Beethoven, Louis von. German composer. Ninth 
Symphony. For a time organist to the Elector 
of Cologne ; settled in Vienna, where he produced 
(1802) his Sinfonia Eroica. In 1805 appeared 
his opera of Lenore. He composed many 
symphonies, cantatas, and overtures. Born, 
1770 ; died, 1827. 

Bell, A. G. American inventor. Inventor of the 
Bell telephone. Born, 1847. 

Bennett, James Gordon. American journalist. 
Proprietor of the N. Y. Herald. Born, 1795 ; 
died, 1872. 

Berlichingen, Goetz von (“The Iron-Handed”). 
German hero. Immortalized by Goethe. Slain 


in war of peasants against nobles. Born, 1480 ; 
died, 1562. 

Bernard, Saint. Abbot of Clairvaux. French 
ecclesiastic. Born at Dijon, in Burgundy. He 
was active in bringing about the crusade of 1146; 
canonized in 1174. Born, 1091 ; died, 1153. 
Bernhardt, Sarah. The most noted French actress 
of modern times, if, indeed, she may not be called 
the most famous actress of all time. She traveled 
over the countries of Europe and America a 
number of times, always rendering her plays in 
the French language, yet commanding higher 
prices than any other person on the stage, the 
popular prices for choice seats in 1900-1901 in 
New York and Philadelphia being $10 to $25. 
Born, 1844. 

Besant, Sir Walter. English novelist. Eminent 
chiefly for the healthy realistic type of his work. 
Champion of the cause of Authors versus Pub¬ 
lishers. Born, 1838; died, 1901. 

Bismarck, Otto von. German statesman; 1847, 
member United Diet and leader of Conservatives; 
ambassador to Russia, 1809; Prime Minister of 
Prussia, 1862 ; Chancellor of the German Empire. 
Born, 1813; died, 1898. 

Black, William. Scotch novelist; originally a 
journalist. A Daughter of Heth; Stra?ige Ad¬ 
ventures of a Phaeton ; A Princess of Thule; 
Madcap Violet. Born, 1841; died, 1899. 

Black Hawk. Indian chief. Hero of the Black 
Hawk War. Born, 1768 ; died, 1838. 

Blackstone, Sir William. English judge, and law 
writer. Commentaries. Born, 1723 ; died, 1780. 

Blaine, James Gillespie. American Republican 
politician ; U. S. Senator from Maine ; Speaker, 
House Representatives ; Secretary of State. Born, 
1830; died, 1893. 

Blake, Robert. Great English admiral and sea 
king. Annihilated Spanish fleet in Santa Cruz 
Bay. Born, 1598; died, 1657. 

Bliicher, Gebhard L. von. Prussian field marshal; 
decided the battle of Waterloo by coming with 
his force in the evening. Born, 1742 ; died, 1819. 

Boleyn, Anne. 2d Queen of Henry VIII. Be¬ 
headed. Born, 1507 ; died, 1536. 

Bolivar, Simon. Liberator of the Spanish South 
American colonies. Born, 1783 ; died, 1830. 

Bonaparte, Caroline M. A. Sister of Napoleon I. 
Wife of Murat. Born, 1782 ; died, 1839. 

Bonaparte, Jerome, born, 1784; died, i860. 
Joseph, born, 1766 ; died, 1844. Louis Napoleon, 
born, 1778; died, 1846. Brothers of Napoleon. 
Kings respectively of Westphalia, Spain, Holland. 

Bonaparte, Maria Letitia. Mother of Napoleon I. 
Born, 1750 ; died, 1836. 

Bonaparte, Napoleon. Napoleon I. Emperor of 
France. Captain of Artillery, 1792 ; crushed in¬ 
surrection in Paris, 1795 ; married Josephine 
Beauharnais, and took command of the army of 
Italy, 1796 ; conquered Austria and the Pope, 
1797 ; made an expedition to Egypt, 1798 ; made 
First Consul, 1799 ; conquered at Marengo, 1800; 
made peace with England, 1802, and about this 
time produced his Civil Code. Became Em¬ 
peror, 1804; engaged in war with England, 
Russia, Sweden, Prussia ; married Marie Louise, 




504 


FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


1810; made a disastrous campaign in Russia, 
1812; was beaten at Leipzig, 1813 ; retired to 
Elba, 1814; returned to France, and was con¬ 
quered at Waterloo, and sent to St. Helena, 1815. 
Born, 1769 ; died, 1821. 

Bonheur, Rosa. Celebrated French painter of 
animals. Born at Bordeaux. Brought up in 
poverty. Taught by her father. Best known 
works “The Horse Fair” and “Hay Harvest 
in Auvergne.” “ Ploughing with Oxen ” is her 
masterpiece. Born, 1822 ; died, 1900. 

Boniface VIII. Pope ; 1294-1303. Excommuni¬ 
cated Philip the Fair of France. Born, 1228 ; 
died, 1303. 

Boone, Daniel. American explorer and hunter. 
Father of the present State of Kentucky. Born, 
1735 ; died, 1820. 

Booth, Edwin. American actor. Among his best 
parts are Richelieu , Iago , Hamlet , and Ber- 
buccio in the Fool's Revenge. Born, 1833 ; died, 
1893 - 

Booth, Junius Brutus. English tragedian. Great 
in Shakespearean parts, especially Richard III.; 
came to America. Father of Edwin and John 
Wilkes. Born, 1796 ; died, 1852. 

Booth, William. Great English evangelist. 
Founder and general of the Salvation Army. 
Born, 1839. 

Borgia, Caesar. Italian soldier and statesman. 
Just as a ruler in his own domain, but crafty and 
cruel personally. A patron of art and literature. 
Son of Pope AlexanderVI. Born, 1476; died, 1507. 

Boswell, James. Scotch biographer of Dr. John¬ 
son. Boswell's Life of Johnson. Born, 1740 ; 
died, 1795. 

Bowdoin, James. American statesman. Governor 
of Massachusetts. Founder of Bowdoin College. 
Born, 1727 ; died, 1790. 

Braddock, Edward. British general in America. 
Defeated by Indians. Born, 1715 ; died, 1755. 

Breckenridge, John C. American politician. 
Vice-President (1857-1861). Confederate general. 
A Democratic candidate for President, i860. 
Born, 1821 ; died, 1875. 

Bright, John. English Radical, statesman, and 
orator. Opponent of Corn Daws; member of 
Gladstone’s cabinet. Born, 1811 ; died, 1889. 

Bronte, Charlotte. “ Currer Bell.” English 
novelist; 1848, Jane Eyre; 1849, Shirley; 1852, 
Villette; 1854, married Rev. Arthur B. Nichols. 
Born, 1816; died, 1855. 

Brown, John. American abolitionist leader. 
Captured by Robert Lee, at Harper’s Ferry, tried 
and hanged as a conspirator. Born, 1800 ; died, 
1859. 

Browne, Charles F. “ Artemus Ward.” American 
humorous writer. Born, 1835 ; died, 1867. 

Browning, Mrs. Elizabeth Barrett. English 
poetess; wrote verses at ten ; The Drama of 
Exile; 1844, Poems; 1856, Aurora Leigh; 
married Robert Browning in 1846. Born, 1809; 
died, 1861. 

Browning, Robert. English poet. Among his 
works are Pippa Passes; The Blood on the 
' Scutcheon ; The Red-Cotton Night-Cap Country , 
and Idyls. Born, 1812 ; died, 1889. 


Brownlow, William G. American journalist and 
politician ; Governor of Tennessee ; U. S. Sena¬ 
tor. Born, 1805 ; died, 1877. 

Bruce, Robert. King of Scotland. Defeated Ed¬ 
ward II. at Bannockburn, 1314. Born, 1274; 
died, 1329. 

Brummell, George B. “ Beau Brummell.” Eng¬ 
lish man of fashion. Born, 1778 ; died, 1840. 

Brutus, Lucius Junius. Roman patriot; over¬ 
threw Tarquin and established Republican gov¬ 
ernment at Rome. Flourished 6th century, b. C. 

Brutus, Marcus Junius. One of Caesar’s assassins. 
Defeated at Philippi. Committed suicide. Born, 
b. c. 85 ; died, 42. 

Bryan, William Jennings. American statesman, 
born in Salem, Illinois; entered Congress in 
1890 as an extreme Free Silver man ; was twice 
nominated for the Presidency in opposition to 
Mr. McKinley, but defeated in 1896 and again in 
1900. Born, i860. 

Bryant, William Cullen. American poet. Tha- 
natopsis. Born in Massachusetts; at 13 wrote 
The Embargo and The Spanish Revolution; 
published The Ages , 1821; became an editor of 
the New York Evening Post in 1826; Transla¬ 
tion of Homer , 1867. Born, 1794 ; died, 1878. 

Buchanan, James. American president; born in 
Pennsylvania; admitted to bar, 1812; M. C., 
1821-31; minister to Russia, 1832-4 ; U. S. Sena¬ 
tor, 1834-45 ; Secretary of State, 1845-9; minister 
to England, 1852-6; signed Ostend Manifesto, 
1854; President, 1857-61. Born, 1791 ; died, 1868. 

Bunyan,Jokn. English author. Pilgrim's Prog¬ 
ress ; The Holy City; The Holy IVar. For 
several years led a dissipated, wandering life ; 
joined Anabaptists in 1654; became Baptist 
minister, 1655 ; in prison, 1660-72 ; there wrote 
part of Pilgrim's Progress (1678) ; after his 
release, was minister at Bedford. Born, 1628; 
died, 1688. 

Burr, Aaron. American lawyer and statesman; 
Vice President. Tried for (and acquitted) of 
treason. Killed Alexander Hamilton in a duel. 
Born, 1756; died, 1836. 

Butler, Benjamin F. American lawyer, politician 
and general; member of Congress ; military gov¬ 
ernor of New Orleans. Born, 1818; died, 1892. 

Byron, George Gordon, Lord. English poet. 
Childe Harold , Don Juan; Cain; Manfred; 
Marino Faliero; The Two Foscari; Beppo; 
The Vision of Judgment; The Prisoner of 
Chillon; The Siege of Corinth; Mazeppa; Eng¬ 
lish Bards , aud Scotch Reviewers ; Parisina ; 
The Deformed Transformed. Born, 1788 ; died, 
1824.' 

C aesar, Caius Julius. Roman general and states¬ 
man. Dictator. Quaestor, 58 b.c.; sedile, 65 ; 
pontifex maximus, 64; consul, 59 (alliance with 
Pompey and Crassus called first triumvirate); 
was granted both the Gauls for 5 years; con¬ 
quered many tribes, and invaded England; 
crossed Rubicon and entered Rome ; conquered 
Pompey at Pharsalia (48); subdued Spain and 
Africa ; made imperator ; assassinated by Brutus, 
Cassius, and others. Born, b. c. 99 ; died, 44. 



FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


505 


Cable, George W. American novelist. Old 
Creole Days, The Grandissimes, John March, 
Southerner. Born, 1844. 

Caine, Thomas Henry Hall. English novelist. The 
Deemster, The Manxman, The Christian. Born, 

1853- 

Calhoun, John Caldwell. American statesman. 
Vice-President. Native, South Carolina ; elected 
to Congress, 1810 ; Secretary of War, 1817 ; Vice- 
President, 1829-32 ; resigned in latter year and 
entered Senate ; Secretary of State, 1844 ; re¬ 
entered Senate, 1845; “State’s Rights” leader; 
left, among other writings, a Treatise on the 
Nature of Government. Born, 1783 ; died, 1850. 

Caligula. Emperor of Rome (37-41). Insanely 
cruel, sensual, impious. Built temple to him¬ 
self. Born, 12 ; died, 41. 

Calvert, Cecilius. Second Lord Baltimore; was 
first proprietor of Maryland. Especially distin¬ 
guished as one of the pioneers of civil and re¬ 
ligious liberty. Born,—; died, 1676. 

Calvin, John. French theologian. The funda¬ 
mental doctrines of his theology were uncondi¬ 
tional reprobation and election. He published 
Commentaries on the Harmony oj the Gospel. 
Born, 1509; died, 1564. 

Campbell, Alexander D. P. Born in Ireland. 
Founder of the religious sect known as Camp- 
bellites, but calling themselves ‘‘The Christian 
Church.” Founded Bethany College, Va. Born, 
1788; died, 1866. 

Camoens, Luis or Luiz. The greatest of Portu¬ 
guese poets. The Lusiad and other poems of rare 
merit. So neglected and died in such poverty 
that he has been called the glory and shame of 
Portugal. Born, 1517 ; died, 1579. 

Campbell, Thomas. Scotch poet. Son of a 
Glasgow merchant. Pleasures of Hope, Exile 
of Erin, Ye Mariners of England, LochieVs 
Warning. Born, 1777; died, 1844. 

Canning, George. English statesman and orator. 
Prime Minister; 1807, Secretary for foreign 
affairs; fought duel with Castlereagh ; premier, 
1827. Born, 1770 ; died, 1827. 

Canova, Antonio. Italian sculptor. Among his 
works are Venus and Adonis, The Graces, and 
a statue of Washington. Born, 1757; died, 
1822. 

Canute II. King of Denmark and conqueror of 
England in 1016. Governed his three kingdoms 
of Denmark, Norway and England with great 
firmness and prudence. Born, about 985 ; died, 
1036. 

Caprivi, George Leo Graf von. German states¬ 
man. In Prussian army 184.9-1890. Succeeded 
Bismarck as chancellor az.u prime minister in 
1890. Born, 1831 ; died, 1899. 

Carleton, Will. American poet. Farm Ballads. 
Born 1845. 

Carlyle, Thomas. Scotch historian and essayist. 
Published Sartor Resartus, 1834; French Revo¬ 
lution, 1837 ; Chartism , 1839; Heroes and 
Hero Worship, 1840; Past and Present, 1843 5 
Latter Day Pamphlets; Oliver Cromwell's 
Letters and Speeches, 1845 ; Life of John Ster¬ 


ling, 1851; Life oj Frederick the Great, 1858-64. 
Born, 1795 ; died, 1881.- 

Carnegie, Andrew. American manufacturer and 
capitalist, of Scotch birth. Grew immensely 
wealthy in the iron and steel business. With¬ 
drew in 1901 w r ith fortune of $250,000,000. Gave 
many million dollars to found libraries and 
schools. Triumphant Democracy. Born, 1835. 

Carnot, Marie Francois Sadi. President of 
France. Grandson of Lazare Carnot, prominent 
in the Revolution and Empire. In National 
Assembly, 1871 ; finance minister, 1881 and 1887 ; 
elected President in 1887 ; assassinated by an 
anarchist. Born, 1837; died, 1894. 

Castelar, Emilio. Spanish statesman and author. 
Active in the Cortes ; dictator in 1873 ; withdrew 
from political life 1893. Wrote historical and 
political works. Born, 1832. 

Carroll, Charles (of Carrollton). American Revo¬ 
lutionary statesman. Signer of the Declaration 
of Independence. Very wealthy. Born, 1737 ; 
died, 1832. 

Cartwright, Edmund. English inventor. Parlia¬ 
ment voted him 10,000 pounds for inventing the 
power loom. Born, 1743 ; died, 1823. 

Cass, Lewis. American statesman and diplomatist. 
U. S. Senator from Michigan. Democratic can¬ 
didate for President, 1840; Secretary of State. 
Born, 1782 ; died, 1866. 

Catherine of Aragon. Queen of Henry VIII. of 
England. Divorced. Born, i486 ; died, 1536. 

Catherine de Medici. Queen of Henry II. of 
France. Strenuous opponent of Protestantism 
and the Huguenots. Instigated the ‘-Massacre 
of St. Bartholemew.” Born, 1519; died, 1589. 

Catherine I. Wife of Peter the Great. Empress 
of Russia ; succeeded to government on his 
death. Born, 1682 ; died, 1727. 

Catherine 11 . Empress of Russia ; often called 
“ The Great.” Born, 1729 ; died, 1796. 

Cato, Marcus Portius. Opponent of Caesar ; famed 
for probity. Committed suicide. Born, b. c. 
95 ; died, 46. 

Cavour, Camillo B. Count. Famous Italian states¬ 
man. First Prime Minister to the Kingdom of 
Italy. Born, 1810 ; died, 1861. 

Caxton, William. English scholar and merchant. 
Distinguished for introducing printing into Eng¬ 
land. Born, 1412 ; died, 1492. 

Cecil, William, Lord Burleigh. Lord Treasurer of 
England, under Elizabeth. Born, 1520; died, 
1598. 

Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel. Spanish novelist 
and satirist. Don Quixote. Born, 1547 ; died, 
1616. 

Chalmers, Thomas. Scotch preacher and theolo¬ 
gian. Founder of the “ Free Church ” in Scot¬ 
land. Astronomy in its Connection with Reli¬ 
gion. Born, 1780 ; died 1847. 

Chamberlain, Joseph. English Radical statesman ; 
President of the Board of Trade ; Colonial Secre¬ 
tary during the Boer War. Born, 1836. 

Chambers, Robert. Scottish editor, author, and 
publisher. With his brother, William, editor of 
Chambers' Journal, Chambers' Encyclopedia, 
Chambers' Book of Days. Born, 1802 ; died, 1872, 




506 


FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


Chambers, William. Brother, partner, and col¬ 
laborator with above. Born, 1800 ; died, 1885. 

Channing, William Ellery. American Unitarian 
theologian and reformer ; opponent of slavery. 
Self-Culture; The Elevation of the Laboring 
Classes; Evidences of Christianity . Born, 
1780; died, 1841. 

Charlemagne. King of France. Emperor of the 
West. Son of Pepin the Short; became master 
of the whole territory of the Franks in 771 ; 
crowned Emperor of the West, with the title of 
Caesar Augustus, by Pope Leo III., 800. His 
empire extended from the Elbe to the Ebro, and 
from Calabria to Hungary. He was the founder 
of the Carlovingian line of kings. Born, 742 ; 
died, 814. 

Charles V. (I. of Spain). Emperor of Germany 
and King of Spain; summoned the Diet of 
Worms to put down Luther in 1521 ; opposed the 
Protestants, but made concession to them by the 
treaty of Passau 1552 ; abdicated 1552, and with¬ 
drew to the monastery of St. Yuste, Spain. 
Born, 1500; died, 1558. 

Charles XII. King of Sweden, 1697-1718. Soldier 
and conqueror. Peter the Great of Russia, 
Frederick- IV. of Denmark, and Augustus of 
Poland made a league against him in 1700. He 
besieged Copenhagen, and forced Denmark to 
make peace ; beat the Russians, and in the next 
campaign invaded Poland, where he compelled 
Augustus to resign ; invaded Russia, and was de¬ 
feated (1709) at Pultowa ; found refuge in Turkey, 
from which he soon returned ; invading Norway, 
he was killed at the siege of Frederickshalle. 
Born, 1682 ; died, 1718. 

Charles the Bold. Duke of Burgundy. Warred 
with Louis XI. of France and Rene of Lorraine; 
killed fighting the Swiss allies of the latter. 
Born, 1433; died, 1477. 

Chase, Salmon P. American statesman and jurist. 
Secretary of the Treasury. Chief Justice of the 
U. S. Born, 1808 ; died, 1873. 

Chateaubriand, Francis A., Viscount of. French 
poet and prose writer. Genie du Christianisme. 
Atala. Born, 1768 ; died, 1848. 

Chatham, William Pitt, First Earl of. English 
statesman and orator. “ The Great Commoner ; ” 
entered Parliament, 1735 ; opposed Walpole’s 
ministry ; Premier, 1757 ; opposed taxation of the 
American Colonies. Born, 1708 ; died, 1778. 

Chaucer, Geoffrey. English poet. The Canter¬ 
bury Tales; The Court of Love; Legend oj 
Good Women; Troilus and Cresseide. Born, 
1328; died, 14O0. 

Cherubini, Maria L. C. Z. S. Italian musical 
composer. Among his works are Medee , Elisa , 
AH Baba , and, in sacred music, the Requiem. 
Born, 1760 ; died, 1842. 

Chesterfield, Philip D. Stanhope. English orator 
and wit. Noted for his exquisite manners, on 
which subject he was the oracle of his day. Born, 
1694; died, 1773. 

Child, Lydia Maria. American author and phil¬ 
anthropist. Editor “ National Anti-slavery Stand¬ 
ard.” Born, 1802 ; died, 1880. 


Childs, George W. American publisher and phil¬ 
anthropist. Noted for his honesty and benefac¬ 
tions. Born, 1829 ; died, 1896. 

Choate, Rufus. American lawyer, orator, and 
statesman. Most eloquent advocate of his time ; 
U. S. Senator from Massachusetts. Born, 1799; 
died, 1859. 

Chopin, Frederick. Polish composer and pianist. 
His works are perhaps the best of piano music. 
Born, 1810; died, 1849. 

Cicero, Marcus Tullius. Roman orator, states¬ 
man, and author. In his consulship suppressed 
the conspiracy of Catiline ; went in exile in 58 
b. c. but was recalled; was a Pompeian, but en¬ 
joyed the favor of Caesar ; was slain by soldiers 
under orders from Antony. His work On Old 
Age is perhaps the best knowm of his writings. 
Born, b. C. 103 ; died, 46. 

Clay, Henry. American orator and statesman. 
Born in Virginia; Speaker of U. S. Congress, 
1811 ; signed treaty of Ghent, 1815; elected 
Speaker, 1815, and thrice re-elected ; Secretary of 
State, 1825 ; U. S. Senator, 1832-42 ; Whig candi¬ 
date for President, 1844 1 re-elected to Senate, 
1848. Born, 1777 ; died, 1852. 

Clemens, Samuel L. American humorist, w r lio 
under the pen name of ‘‘Mark Twain” con¬ 
tributed the richest humor of the century ; The 
hmocents Abroad; Following the Equator. 
Born, 1835. 

Cleopatra. Queen of Egypt. Joint sovereign of 
Egypt with her brother Ptolemy ; was beautiful 
and accomplished, but voluptuous ;- lived with 
Caesar at Rome (46-44) ; in 41, became the 
favorite of Mark Antony ; at the battle of Actium 
she fled; escaped Augustus by killing herself 
with an asp. Born, b. c. 69 ; died, 30. 

Cleveland, Grover. Twenty-second President of 
the United States. Born at Caldwell, New Jersey; 
went to Buffalo, and was admitted to the bar in 
1859. In 1881 he was elected Mayor of Buffalo, 
and in 1882 became Governor of New York. He 
served two terms as President of the United 
States, 1885-1889 and 1893-1897, being defeated 
for the intervening term by Benjamin Harrison, 
the Republican candidate. Born, 1837. 

Clinton, DeWitt. American statesman. Governor 
of New York; U. S. Senator ; Federal candidate 
for President; promoter of the Erie Canal. Born, 
1769; died 1828. 

Cobden, Richard. English statesman and econo¬ 
mist. Leader of the Anti-Corn Law League. 
Born, 1804; died, 1865. 

Coleridge, Samuel Taylor. English poet and 
philosopher. The Ancient Mariner; with Wads¬ 
worth wrote Lyrical Ballads ; published Christa- 
bel; Biographia Liter aria ; Aids to Reflection ; 
was a slave to opium. Born, 1772 ; died, 1834. 

Coligny, Gaspard de. French admiral. Huguenot 
leader ; killed in the massacre of St. Bartholo¬ 
mew. Born, 1517; died, 1572. 

Colt, Samuel. American inventor ; Colt’s revolver. 
Born, 1814 ; died, 1862. 

Columbus, Christopher. Discoverer of America. 
Born in Genoa ; expected by sailing westward to 
find India; left Palos (Aug. 3, 1492) with 3 




FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


507 


vessels ; discovered San Salvador Oct. 12 ; visited 
Cuba and Hayti’; 1493 discovered Porto Rico and 
Jamaica; 1498 continent at mouth of Orinoco ; 
1502 Honduras; died in poverty and neglect. 
Born, 1436; died, 1506. 

Comte, Auguste. French philosopher. Founder 
of Positivism. Course of Positive Philosophy . 
Born, 1798; died, 1857. 

Confucius, (Kung-futse). Chinese philosopher 
and theologian. Came forward as a religious 
teacher at 22. His philosophy related to the 
present life only ; had nothing to do with physics 
or metaphysics. His influence in the East has 
been enormous. Born, b. c. 551 ; died, 479. 

Conger, Edwin H. American diplomatist. Con¬ 
gress, 1885-1891; Minister to Brazil, 1891-1895 ; 
to China, 1898. Rescued from “Boxer” siege 
in 1900 by allied forces. Born, 1843. 

Conkling, Roscoe. American Republican, lawyer, 
and statesman. U. S. Senator from New York. 
Born, 1828 ; died, 1888. 

Constantine I. (“The Great”). Roman Em¬ 
peror (306-337). Removed the Capital of the 
Empire to Byzantium. Born, 272 ; died, 337. 

Cook, Captain James. English circumnavigator 
of'the globe, and discoverer. Killed by Hawaiians. 
Born, 1728; died, 1779. 

Cooper, Peter. American philanthrophist. 
Founder of Cooper Union. Born, 1791 ; died, 
1883. 

Cooper, James Fenimore. American novelist. 
Among his works are The Spy, The Pioneers, 
The Pilot, The Red Rover , The Last of the 
Mohicans, The Pathfinder, The Deerslayer. 
Born, 1789; died, 1851. 

Cope, Edward Drinker. American naturalist and 
comparative anatomist. One of the foremost 
palaeontologists of the world. Editor American 
Naturalist. Born, 1840; died, 1897. 

Copernicus, Nicholas. German astronomer. De¬ 
molished the Ptolemaic theory of the universe 
and demonstrated that the sun is the center of 
the universe in his great work The Revolution of 
the Celestial Orbs. Born, 1473; died, 1543. 

Corday, Charlotte de. Slayer of Marat. Born, 
1768; died, 1793. 

Corelli, Marie. English novelist. A step-daughter 
of Charles Mackay, the poet. Romance of Two 
Worlds, Bar abbas. The Sorrows of Satan. 
Born, 1864. 

Cornell, Ezra. American philanthrophist. Founder 
of Cornell University. Born, 1807 ; died 1874. 

Cortez, Hernando. Spanish conqueror of Mexico. 
Born, 1485 *, died, 1547. 

Cornwallis, Charles. Noted British general. Sur¬ 
rendered to George Washington at Yorktown, 
1781, thus practically closing the War for Inde¬ 
pendence. Born, 1738 ; died, 1805. 

Cowper, William. English poet. Published his 
great work, The Task, in 1785. His letters are 
among the best in the language. Born, 1731 ; 
died, 1800. 

Crane, Stephen. American author. The Red 
Badge of Courage, and other stories. Also noted 
war correspondent in 1898. Born, 1871 I died, 

1900. 


Crawford, F. Marion. American novelist. Nephew 
of Julia Ward Howe. Mr. Isaacs, Paul Patoff\ 
etc. Born, 1854. 

Cranmer, Thomas. Archbishop of Canterbury. 
Reformer. Burnt as a Christian martyr. Born, 
1489; died, 1556. 

Crispi, Francesco. Italian statesman. A revolu¬ 
tionist with Garibaldi; Prime Minister of Italy 
1887-90 and 1894. Born, 1819 ; deid ,1901. 

Crockett, David. American pioneer and hunter, 
famous for his bravery and eccentricities. Served 
several years in Congress; joined the Texan 
patriots in 1836 and was massacred by Mexicans 
at the Alamo. Born 1786 ; died, 1836. 

Croesus. King of Lydia. Famous for his wealth. 
Born, b. c. 590 ; died, 546. 

Cromwell, Oliver. Lord Protector of England. 
Entered army as captain of cavalry, 1642 ; signed 
death warrant of Charles I., 1649; routed the 
Scotch at Dunbar, beat Charles at Worcester, 
1651; dissolved Parliament, 1653; was created 
Protector, 1654. Born, 1599 ; died, 1658. 

Cruikshank, George. English caricaturist. Comic 
Almanack. Born, 1792 ; died, 1878. 

Curtis, George William. American orator, author 
and journalist. Nile Notes; Potiphar Papers. 
Born 1824 ; died, 1892. 

Cushing, Caleb. American lawyer, diplomatist 
and statesman. Attorney-General of the United 
States; Minister to China. The Treaty of Ge¬ 
neva. Born, 1800; died, 1879. 

Cushman, Charlotte S. American actress. Great 
as Meg Merrilies. Born, 1816 ; died, 1876. 

Cuvier, George C. L. D., Baron de. French natu¬ 
ralist. Animal Kingdom, Natural History of 
Fishes; was founder of the science of compara¬ 
tive anatomy. Born, 1769; died, 1832. 

Cyrus, The Great. Founder of the Persian Em¬ 
pire and greatest of Persian kings. Killed in 
battle 529 b. C. 

D allas, George M. American Democratic poli¬ 
tician. Vice-President, 1845-49. Born, 1792 ; 
died, 1864. 

Dalton, John. English natural philosopher. Pro¬ 
pounder of the atomic theory. New System of 
Chemical Philosophy. Born, 1766 ; died, 1844. 
Dana, Charles A. American journalist. Editor of 
the New York Sun. Born, 1819 ; died, 1898. 
Dana, Richard Henry. American poet and man 
of letters. The Buccaneer, The Dying Rover, 
The Idle Man. Born, 1787 ; died, 1879. 

Dana, Richard Henry. Son of the above. Ameri¬ 
can lawyer and author. Two Years Before the 
Mast. Editor of Wheaton's International Law. 
Born, 1815 ; died, 1882. 

Daniel. One of the four greater Hebrew prophets. 
Taken prisoner by Nebuchadnezzar. Highly 
honored by Kings Darius and Cyrus. 

Dante degli Alighieri. Greatest Italian poet. The 
Divine Comedy. Passed much of his time in 
exile from Florence for political causes. Wrote 
The New Life (Vita Nuova ), the Convito, trea¬ 
tise on the Italian language, De Vulgari Elo - 
quio, and De Monarchia. Born, 1265 ; lied, 
1321. 



5°8 


FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


Danton, George J. French Revolutionist. Head 
of the “ Dantonists.” Minister of Justice. Guillo¬ 
tined. Born, 1759; died, 1794. 

Darius I. (Hystaspes). King of Persia, b. g., 521- 
485. Began the wars with the Greeks. His Satraps 
Datis aud Artaphernes were defeated at Mara¬ 
thon. Born, b. c.-; died, 485. 

Darius III. (Codoinannus). King of Persia, b. C. 
336-330. Defeated and dethroned by Alexander 
the Great. Born, b. c. 380 ; died, 330. 

Darwin, Charles R. English naturalist. Originator 
of the theory of evolution by natural selection. 
Origin of Species ; The Descent of Man ; The 
Fertilization of Orchids. Born, 1809; died, 
1882. 

David. King of Israel. Distinguished as general, 
statesman, poet and prophet. Dived 1090 to 1015 
b. c. 

Da Vinci, Eeonardo. Italian painter, sculptor, 
engineer and universal genius. The Lord's Sup¬ 
per. Among his w T orks are Madonna, Lisa del 
Giocondo and The Virgin on the Knees of St. 
Anne. Born, 1452; died, 1519. 

Davis, Jefferson. American statesman ; colonel in 
Mexican war, elected to U. S. Senate, 1847 ; 
Secretary of War, 1853-57 ; re-elected to Senate, 
1857 1 President Southern Confederacy, 1861- 
65. Born, 1808; died, 1889. 

Davis, Rebecca Harding, and her son, Richard 
Harding. American novelists. The latter also 
a spirited war correspondent in Cuba, 1898, and 
South Africa, 1900. Born, first, 1831; second, 1864. 

Dawson, Sir J. William. Canadian geologist. An 
original investigator, writer, and teacher. Born, 
1820 ; died, 1899. 

Davy, Sir Humphrey. An English chemist of 
great eminence. President of the Royal Society ; 
author many valuable scientific works. Born, 
1778; died, 1829. 

Decatur, Stephen. American naval officer. Dis¬ 
tinguished himself in Tripoli, 1804, and in War 
of 1812 with England. Killed in duel. Born, 
1779; died, 1820. 

DeFoe, Daniel. English novelist. Produced his 
great work, Robinson Crusoe, in 1719; Moll 
Flanders, 1721 ; Colonelfack, 1721. Born, 1661; 
died, 1731. 

Demosthenes. Greatest Greek orator. Was an 
opponent of Philip of Macedon, against whom, 
between 352 aud 340 B. c., he delivered his 11 
Phillipics. It being proposed to give him a 
crown, ^Eschines opposed ; this was the cause of 
the noblest speech of Demosthenes, that On the 
Crown. Born, b. 0 ., 385 ; died, 322. 

Depew, Chauucey M. American railway director, 
politician, aud humorous orator ; elected U. S. 
Senator in 1899. Born, 1834. 

DeQuincey, Thomas. English author. Contracted 
opium habit. Confessions of an Opium Eater. 
Born, 1785 ; died, 1859. 

Descartes, Ren£. French philosopher and meta¬ 
physician. Principles of Philosophy ; made many 
discoveries in algebra and geometry. Born, 1596 ; 
died, 1650. 

Dewey, George. Admiral American Navy; hero 


of battle of Manila (1898); triumphant return to 
America in 1899. Born, 1837. 

Dickens, Charles. English novelist. Published 
Sketches by Boz, 1836 ; Pickwick Papers, Oliver 
Twist, Nicholas Nickelby, The Old Curiosity 
Shop, etc. Born, 1812 ; died, 1870. 

Diogenes. Greek cynic philosopher. Surly and 
independent inhabitant of a tub. Born, b. C., 
-;died, 323. 

Disraeli, Benjamin, Earl of Beaconsfield. English 
statesman and novelist. Premier (1874-1880). 
Coningsby, Vivian Grey, Henrietta Temple, En- 
dynnon, Lothair. Born, 1805 ; died, 1881. 

Donnelly, Ignatius. American author and politi¬ 
cian. Nominated for Vice-President People’s 
Party ticket, 1900. The Great Crytogram, 
Ccesars Column, etc. Born, 1831 ; died, 1901. 

Dore, Gustave. French painter and illustrator. 
Illustrated Dante’s Inferno, Don Quixote, Para¬ 
dise Lost, Idylls of the King, etc. Painted 
Francesca de Rimini, Christ Leaving Prato- 
rium , etc. Born, 1832 ; died, 1883. 

Douglas, Stephen A. American Democratic poli¬ 
tician. Senator from Illinois. The Kansas-Ne- 
braska Bill. Born, 1813; died, 1861. 

Draco. Athenian legislator. Noted for the severity 
of his laws. Born, B. c. 7th century. 

Drake, Sir Francis. English navigator and admi¬ 
ral. Preyed upon Spanish commerce ; burned 100 
Spanish vessels in Cadiz. Born, 1545 ; died, 1596. 

Dreyfus, Albert. A French army officer. Perse¬ 
cuted because of his Jewish blood, as the scape¬ 
goat for criminal officers. Sentenced to perpetual 
imprisonment, 1894, but secured new hearing 
and was pardoned, 1899. 

Drummond, Henry. British author and teacher. 
Natural Law in the Spiritual World, The As¬ 
cent of Man, The Greatest Thing in the World, 
etc. Born, 1851 ; died, 1897. 

Dryden, John. English poet and dramatist. Ap¬ 
pointed poet-laureate, 1670 ; produced Absalom 
and Achitophel, Ode on Alexander's Feast, 
Fables. Of his dramatic works, All for Love is 
the best. Born, 1631 ; died, 1700. 

Dumas, Alexandre. French novelist. The Three 
Musketeers. Born, 1803 ; died, 1870. 

Dumas, Alexandre (Jr.). French novelist and 
dramatist. La Dame aux Camelias. Born, 1824. 

Du Maurier, George L,. P. B. Born in Paris; sa¬ 
tirical illustrator for Punch; novelist. Peter 
Ibbetson, Trilby. Born, 1834; died, 1896. 

E ads, James Buchanan. American engineer. Built 
the St. Eouis bridge ; deepened the channel 
of the Mississippi. Born, 1820 ; died, 1887. 
Ebers, George Moritz. German Egyptologist and 
writer. An Egyptian Princess, Homo Sum, 
Cleopatra. Born, 1837; died, 1898. 

Eddy, Mary Baker Glover. American theologian. 
Founder of Christian Science. Author of Science 
and Health, etc. 

Edison, Thomas Alva. A celebrated American 
inventor. Born at Milan, Ohio ; started life as a 
newsboy ; made important inventions in teleg¬ 
raphy, electric lighting, etc. Also invented the 
phonograph. Born, 1847, 





GREAT AMERICAN WRITERS AT CLOSE OF NINETEENTH CENTURY 









DISTINGUISHED AUTHORS OF THE GREATEST BOOKS OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 












FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


509 


Edward VII. King of England. Succeeded Queen 
Victoria in 1901. Born, 1841. 

Edwards, Jonathan. American metaphysician. 
Ablest defender of Calvinism. On the Freedom 
of the Will. Born, 1703; died, 1758. 

Eggleston, Edward. American novelist and his¬ 
torian ; Minister of Methodist Church. The 
Hoosier Schoolmaster , and several historical 
works. Born, 1837. 

Eliot, John. The Apostle of the Indians. Ameri¬ 
can preacher and missionary to the Indians. 
Translated the Bible into Indian language. Born, 
1604; died,1690. 

Elizabeth. Queen of England. Daughter of Henry 
VIII. Among the great events of her reign were 
the repulse of the Spanish Armada, and the exe¬ 
cution of Mary Queen of Scots. Born, 1523 ; 
died, 1603. 

Emin Pasha. An African explorer, of German 
birth; original name Edward Schnitzler. En¬ 
tered the Egyptian service ; governor of the 
equatorial province, 1878 ; cutoff from world by 
the Mahdi outbreak ; rescued by Henry M. Stan¬ 
ley in 1889; killed by Arabs in later travels. 
Born, 1840; died, 1892. 

Emerson, Ralph Waldo. American transcendental 
philosopher and poet. Was for a time a Unitarian 
minister in Boston; English Traits , The Con¬ 
duct of Life, Poems , Society and Solitude , Es¬ 
says. Born, 1803 ; died, 1882. 

Emmett, Robert. Irish patriot; Executed for 
treason. Born, 1780; died, 1803. 

Epictetus, Greek Stoic philosopher and moralist. 
Enchiridion. Flourished in 2d century. 

Epicurus. Greek philosopher. Founder of the 
Epicureans. Born, b. c. 342 ; died, 270. 

Erasmus, Desiderius. Noted Dutch scholar. One 
of the most profoundly learned men of modern 
times. In 1570 became professor of Divinity and 
Greek at Cambridge. Works published in ten 
folio volumes. Born, 1465 ; died, 1536. 

Eric the Red. Scandinavian navigator. Supposed 
to have discovered Greenland about 982, and his 
son, Lief Eric, is supposed to have visited New 
England about 1000. 

Ericsson, John. Swedish engineer and inventor. 
In 1836 patented the first successful screw pro¬ 
peller. Immigrated to America. In 1861 built 
the iron-clad Monitor , revolutionizing the con¬ 
struction of warships. Born, 1803 ; died, 1889. 

Euclid. Alexandrian mathematician. Elements 
of Geometry. Born b. c., 4th century. 

Eugene, Francis, Prince of Savoy. One of the 
greatest generals of his time ; co-operated with 
Marlborough at Blenheim, Oudenarde, and Mal- 
plaquet. Born, 1663 ; died, 1736. 

Euripides. Third in merit of the great Greek 
tragedy writers. Alcestis. Born, b. c. 480 ; died, 
406. 

Evans, Marian (George Eliot). English novelist. 
Scenes of Clerical Life , Adam Bede , The Mill 
on the Floss , Romola , Middleman ch, etc. Born, 
1820 ; died, 1880. 

Evarts, William M. American lawyer and states¬ 
man. Attorney-General of the United States; 
Secretary of State. Born, 1816 ; died, 1901. 


Everett, Edward. American orator, statesman 
and diplomatist. U. S. Senator; Minister to 
Great Britain. Orations and Speeches. Born, 
1794; died,1865. 

Ezekiel. One of the four greater Hebrew prophets. 
Contemporary and fellow-prisoner in Babylon 
with Daniel. Lived about 600 b. c. 
araday, Michael. English man of science. 
Founder of the science of magneto-electricity. 
Experimental Researches in Electricity. 
Born, 1791; died, 1867. 

Farragut, David Glascoe. American Admiral. En¬ 
tered navy 1812 ; commander, 1841 ; passed New 
Orleans forts and took New Orleans, 1862 ; made 
Rear Admiral same year ; attacked defenses at 
Mobile, 1864 ; Admiral, 1866. Born, 1801; died, 
1870. 

Farenheit, Gabriel D. German natural philoso¬ 
pher. Fahrenheit’s thermometer. Born, 1686 ; 
died, 1736. 

Fawkes, Guy. An English conspirator. Principal 
in the Gunpower Plot to blow up the House of 
Parliament. Executed 1606. 

Fenelon, Francois de Salignac. Noted French 
archbishop, author and orator. Among his works ' 
are Telemachus, Maxims of the Saints, Dia¬ 
logues on the Eloque 7 ice of the Pulpit, etc. Born, 
1651 ; died, 1715. 

Fessenden, William Pitt. American Republican 
Senator, and Secretary of the Treasury. Born, 
1806; died, 1869. 

Field, Cyrus W. American capitalist. Laid the 
first Atlantic cable. Born, 1819 ; died, 1892. 

Fielding, Henry. English novelist. Tom fones, 
Joseph Andrews, Jonathan Wild, Amelia. 
Born, 1707 ; died, 1754. 

Fillmore, Millard. American President, 1850-53. 
Born in New York ; learned fuller’s trade; 
studied law; member of Congress, 1832-42; 
elected Vice-President, 1848; became President 
on death of Taylor. Born, 1800 ; died, 1874. 

Fish, Hamilton. American statesman. U. S. Con¬ 
gressman and Senator. Governor New York, 
1847 ; Secretary of State under U. S. Grant, 1869 
to 1877. Born, 1808; died, 1895. 

Foote, Andrew Hull. American Rear-Admiral. 
Distinguished in Civil War. Born, 1806; died, 1863. 

Ford, Paul Leicester. American author. The 
Hon. Peter Sterling, Janice Meredith, and Biog¬ 
raphies of Washington and Franklin. Born, 
1865. Died, 1902. 

Forrest, Edwin. American tragedian. Eminent as 
Metamora, the Gladiator , Virginius. Born,' 
1806; died, 1872. 

Fox, Charles James. English orator and states¬ 
man. Entered Parliament, 1768, as a Tory; 
opposed policy of Pitt. Born, 1749; died, 1806. 

Fox, George. English religionist. Founder of 
the Society of Friends. Born, 1624; died, 1690. 

Franklin, Benjamin. American statesman and 
philosopher. Born in Boston ; learned printer’s 
trade ; removed to Pennsylvania ; published Poor 
Richard's Almanac; discovered identity of 
lightning and electric fluid, 1752; deputy post¬ 
master-general of the colony ; agent of the Penns 
in England; delegate to Continental Congress; 




FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


5io 

Minister to France, 1776-85 ; President of Penn¬ 
sylvania, 1785-87 ; member Constitutional Con¬ 
vention of 1787. Born, 1706 ; died, 1790. 

Franklin, Sir John. English Arctic explorer. Lost 
in Arctic regions. Born, 1786 ; died, 1847. 

Frederick II. (“The Great”). King of Prussia. 
Came to the throne in 1740, and invaded Silesia, 
which Maria Theresa ceded to him in 1742. 
Russia, France, and Austria began Seven Years’ 
War against him and England (1756). He won a 
great victory at Prague (1757), but was defeated 
by Daun soon afterward ; the same year defeated 
the French at Rossbach, and the Austrians at 
Leuthen. Peace was made in 1763. At the par¬ 
tition of Poland (1772) he got Prussian Poland. 
Born, 1712 ; died, 1786. 

Freeman, Edward Augustus. English historian. 
Professor of Modern History at Oxford. The 
Norman Conquest , etc. Born, 1823 ; died, 1892. 

Fremont, John Charles. American explorer, poli¬ 
tician, and general. Republican candidate for 
President in 1856. Born, 1813 ; died, 1890. 

Froebel, Frederick. German educator. Introducer 
of the “Kindergarten” system. Born, 1782; 

* died, 1852. 

Froissart, Jean. French chronicler. Les Chroni- 
ques. Born, 1337 ; died, 1410. 

Froude, James A. English historian. History 
of Henry III., Short Studies on Great Subjects. 
Born, 1818 ; died, 1894. 

Fry, Elizabeth. English philanthropist. Devoted 
to prison reform. Born, 1780; died, 1845. 

Fulton, Robert. American inventor of the steam¬ 
boat. Built (1807) the steamer Clermont , which 
made regular trips between New York and Al¬ 
bany. Born, 1765 ; died, 1815. 

Funston, Frederick. American soldier. Served in 
the Cuban rebellion and in the Philippines. 
Famous for his daring; captured Aguiualdo in 
1901 ; rewarded with rank of brigadier-general. 
Born, 1865. 

G age, Lyman W. American financier. Secretary 
of Treasury under President McKinley. Born, 
1836. 

Galilei, Galileo. Italian astronomer. Professor of 
mathematics at Padua and Pisa. Discovered law 
by which the velocity of falling bodies is accele¬ 
rated. Constructed a telescope in 1619. Pub¬ 
lished Dialogues on the Ptolemaic and Coperni- 
can Systerns. Born, 1564; died, 1642. 

Gall, Franz Joseph. German physician. Founder 
of the system of phrenology, and with Dr. Spurz- 
heim, his pupil, lectured on the subject through¬ 
out Europe. Born, 1758; died, 1828. 

Galvani, Louis. Italian physicist. Discoverer of 
galvanism. Born, 1737; died, 1798. 

Gambetta, Leon. French radical orator and states¬ 
man. President of the Chamber of Deputies. 
Born, 1838 ; died, 1882. 

Garfield, Janies A. American President. Born in 
Ohio ; brigadier-general, 1862 ; major-general for 
services at Chickamauga; M. C., 1862-1881; 
elected to Senate, 1880; elected President, 1881 ; 
shot by Charles J. Guiteau, July 2, 1881; died 
September 19. Born, 1831; died, 1881. 


Garland, Augustus H. American statesman. 
Member Confederate Congress, 1861-65 ; United 
States senator ; Governor of Arkansas, 1874 ; At¬ 
torney-General of the U. S. under Cleveland, 
1885. Born, 1832. 

Garibaldi, Giuseppe. Italian patriot and general. 
Liberator of Italy. Born, 1807; died, 1882. 

Garrick, David. English actor. Made his debut 
as Richard III. in 1741. Among his great parts 
were Lear , Macbeth , Romeo , Hamlet , Abel 
Drugger; buried in Westminster Abbey. Born, 
1716; died, 1779- 

Garrison, William Lloyd. American journalist 
and Abolitionist. Born at Newburyport, Mass.; 
at Boston, in 1831, he founded his celebrated 
Liberator. Born, 1804 ; died, 1879. 

Gounod, Charles Francois. French composer. 
Of his operas Faust is the best known. Born, 
1818 ; died, 1893. 

Genghis, Khan. Great Mongolian warrior and 
conqueror. Subjugated China and Persia. Born, 
1163 ; died, 1227. 

George III. King of England. Lost American 
colonies; insane latter part of his life. Born, 
1738 ; died, 1820. 

George, Henry. American economist. Published 
Progress and Poverty in 1879. Advocated single 
tax on land. Twice candidate for Mayor of New 
York; died in 1897 before the election. Born, 
1839; died, 1897. 

Gibbon, Edward. English historian. Decline and 
Fall of the Roman Empire. Born, 1737 ; died, 
1794. 

Gladstone, William Ewart. Statesman, orator, 
and scholar. Born at Liverpool, sou of a Liver¬ 
pool merchant; educated at Eton and Oxford; 
entered Parliament in 1832 ; in 1859, under Lord 
Palmerston, became Chancellor of the Exchequer; 
in 1865, he became leader of the Commons under 
Lord John Russell; became Premier for the first 
time in 1869, holding office till 1875 ; in 1880, 
became Premier for the second time ; a third 
time in 1886, and a fourth time in 1892 ; failed 
from desertion in the Liberal ranks to carry his 
measure of Home Rule for Ireland; retired from 
office into private life in 1895 ; author of several 
works. Born, 1809 ; died, 1898. 

Godfrey of Bouillon. King of Jerusalem. Hero 
of the first Crusade. Born, 1058 ; died, uco. 

Goethe, John Wolfgang von. German poet, 
dramatist, critic, novelist, man of science, states¬ 
man. Faust, Iphigenia in Tauris, Wilhelm 
Meister, Egmont, Sorrows of Werther, and 
many noble lyrical poems. In almost every de¬ 
partment of literature, first among the Germans. 
Born, 1749 ; died, 1832. 

Goldsmith, Oliver. Irish poet, novelist, and his¬ 
torian. Vicar of Wakefield , The Traveller, 
The Deserted Village. Born, 1728; died, 1774. 

Goodrich, Samuel G., “ Peter Parley.” American 
writer. Peter Parley's Own Story. Born, 1793 ; 
died, i860. 

Gordon, Charles George. English soldier and 
administrator. Overthrew the Taiping rebellion 
in China; entered the service of Egypt and 
became Governor of the Soudan; slain by the 



FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


troops of the Mahdi in Khartoum. Born, 1833 : 
died, 1885. 

Gough, John B. American temperance orator. 
Born, 1817 ; died, 1886. 

Gracchus, Tiberius. Roman tribune and dema¬ 
gogue. Passed agrarian law ; murdered. Born, 
b. c. 163 ; died, 133. 

Grant, Ulysses S. American general and Presi¬ 
dent. Born in Ohio ; graduated at West Point, 
1839 > served in Mexican War; brigadier-general 
1861; took Fort Donelson, 1862; Vicksburg, 
1863; lieutenant-general, 1864 ; President, 
1869-77. Born, 1822 ; died, 1885. 

Gray, Thomas. English poet. Professor of modern 
history at Cambridge. Pindaric Odes; Elegy 
Written in a Country Churchyard. Born, 1716; 
died, 1771. 

Greeley, Horace. American journalist and politi¬ 
cian. Founded the New York Tribune in 1841. 
Till his death he advocated temperance, anti¬ 
slavery, socialistic, and protectionist principles ; 
in 1872 he unsuccessfully opposed Grant for the 
Presidency. His works include The American 
Conflict, Recollections, Essays, etc. Born, 1811 ; 
died, 1872. 

Gregory I., “The Great.” Pope. Converter of 
Britain. Born, 545 ; died, 604. 

Gregory VII. (Hildebrand). Greatest of the Popes. 
Elected Pope in 1073 ; the Emperor, Henry IV., 
of Germany, deposed him, and was excommuni¬ 
cated. After a humiliating penance at Canossa, 
Henry was pardoned, but the reconciliation was 
only temporary. Born, 1015 ; died, 1085. 

Grey, Lady Jane. English lady. Distinguished 
for rare talents. Edward VI. made her his suc- 
sessor as sovereign, and because of her acceptance 
she was imprisoned in the Tower and afterwards 
executed. Born, 1537 ; died, 1554. 

Grote, George. English historian. History of 
Greece. Born, 1794 ; died, 1871. 

Guizot, Francois P. G. French statesman and his¬ 
torian. Minister of Foreign Affairs. History of 
France. . Born, 1787; died, 1874. 

Guillotine. Joseph Ignace. A French physician 
after whom the Guillotine was named ; he having 
recommended it as a more humane method of 
capital punishment. Born, 1738; died, 1814. 

Gustavus II. (Adolphus), King of Sweden. Gen¬ 
eral. Began to reign in his seventeenth year; 
soon afterward defeated the Czar and the King of 
Poland ; invited to become the head of the Prot¬ 
estant party in Germany, he entered Pomerania 
with 8,000 men, and took town after town ; de¬ 
feated (1631) Marshal Tilly at Leipzig, and the 
next year on the banks of the Lech, where Tilly 
was slain. Th,e Emperor now called in the great 
Wallenstein to oppose Gustavus ; the two gen¬ 
erals met at Lutzen; Gustavus was mortally 
wounded, but the imperial army under Wallen¬ 
stein was repulsed. Born, 1594 > died, 1632. 

Gutenburg, Johannes or Henne, also called Gens- 
fleisch. Claimed by the Germans to have been the 
inventor of the art of printing with movable 
types ; he set up his first printing-press at Mainz 
about 1450. Born, 1400 ; died, 1468. # 


5 ir 

H aeckel, Ernst Heinrich. German naturalist and 
evolutionist. Made valuable researches on 
the lower animals ; wrote popular works on 
science. Born, 1834. 

Hahnemann, Samuel C. F. German founder of 
homoeopathy. Proposed homoeopathy, 1796; 
published Organum of Rational Medicine , 1810. 
Born, 1755 ; died, 1843. 

Hale, Edward Everett. American author and Uni¬ 
tarian minister. The Mail Without a Country, 
etc. Born, 1822. 

Halleck, Fitz-Greene. American poet. Marco Boz- 
zaris. Born, 1790; died, 1867. 

Hamilton, Alexander. American statesman and 
financier. Born in Island of Nevis, West Indies. 
Aide de-camp and secretary to Washington in 
Revolutionary War; leading member of the Con¬ 
vention of 1787 ; principal author of the Feder¬ 
alist; Secretary of the Treasury, 1789-95 ; killed 
in a duel by Aaron Burr. Born, 1757 ; died, 1804. 
Hamilton, Sir William. Scotch metaphysician. 
Born, 1788; died, 1856. 

Hampton, Wade. American general and Senator. 
Governor South Carolina in 1876 ; U. S. Senator, 
1878. Born, 1818. 

Hancock, John. American Revolutionary states¬ 
man ; President of the Continental Congress. 
Born, 1737 ; died, 1793. 

Hancock, Winfield S. American general. Com¬ 
manded at Gettysburg; Democratic candidate 
for President in 1880. Born, 1824 ; died, 1886. 
Handel, George F. German composer. Composed 
sonatas at ten. His oratorio of Saul was pro¬ 
duced, 1740 ; his masterpiece, the Messiah, 1741, 
Among his other works are Moses in Egypt. 
Samson, and fepthah. Born, 1684 ; died, 1739. 
Hannibal. Carthaginian general against Rome. 
Son of Hamilcar, who swore him to eternal 
enmity with the Romans ; captured Saguntum, 
219 b. C. ; crossed the Alps, 218 ; destroyed Roman 
army at Cannae ; defeated by Scipio at Zama, 202; 
finally poisoned himself to escape falling into the 
hands of the Romans. Born b. c. 247 ; died, 183. 
Harris, Joel Chandler. An American writer ; born 
in Georgia. Author of Uncle Remus, and 
other folklore stories. Bora, 1848. 

Harrison, Benjamin. Twenty-third President of 
the United States. Was born at North Bend, 
Ohio ; graduated from Miami University in 1852 ; 
began the practice of law in Indianapolis. 
Served in the Union army during the Civil 
War; entered United States Senate in 1881; 
served one term as President of the United 
States, 1889-1893 ; defeated for second term. He 
was the grandson of William Henry Harrison, 
ninth President of the United States. Born, 1833; 
died, 1901. 

Harrison, William Henry. American President. 
General; Governor of Indiana, 1801-13 , defeated 
Indians at Tippecanoe ; elected to Congress, 1817; 
to the Senate, 1824 ; Minister to Columbia, 1828 ; 
Whig candidate for President, 1836 ; elected Pre¬ 
sident, 1840. Born, 1773; died, 1841. 

Harte, Francis Bret. American novelist and poet. 
The Heathen Chinee; Gabriel Conroy ; Luck of 
Roaring Camp. Born, 1839. Died 1902. 




512 


FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


Harvard, John. Colonial divine. Benefactor of 
Harvard College, which was given his name. 
Born, 1608 ; died, 1688. 

Harvey, William. English physician. Discoverer 
of the circulation of the blood. Born, 1578 ; 
died, 1657. 

Hastings, Warren. British statesman and general; 
President of the Council of Bengal; conqueror 
of Hyder Aly ; impeached for cruelty, but ac¬ 
quitted. Born, 1733 ; died, 1818. 

Hawthorne, Nathaniel. American romance writ¬ 
er. Marble Fawn; The Scarlet Letter; The 
H«use of Seven Gables; The Blithdale Ro¬ 
mance; Mosses from an Old Manse. Born, 1804 ; 
died, 1864. 

Haydn, Francis Joseph. German composer. Be¬ 
tween the ages of nineteen and twenty-six, com¬ 
posed many sonatas, concertos, and symphonies ; 
produced 1798, his masterpiece, The Creatio 7 i. 
Born,1732; died,1809. 

Hayes, Rutherford B. American President. Born 
in Ohio; admitted to bar, 1845 ; brigadier-gene¬ 
ral in Civil War ; entered Congress at its close ; 
re-elected, 1866; Governor of Ohio, 1868-76; 
President United States, 1877-81. Born, 1822 ; 
died, 1893. 

Hayne, Robert T. American lawyer and Senator. 
Governor of South Carolina ; opponent of Web¬ 
ster in discussing the Constitution and State 
rights. Born, 1791 ; died, 1839. 

Hegel, George W. F. German philosopher. Pro¬ 
fessor of philosophy at Heidelberg and Berlin. 
He developed his system of philosophy in the 
Enclyclopcedia of Philosophical Science. Born, 
1770; died,1831. 

Heine, Heinrich. German lyric poet and satirist. 
Reisebilde ; Lieder. Born, 1799; died, 1856. 

Helmholtz, Hermann von. German physicist. 
Famous for his researches in physiology, surgery, 
light, sound, etc. Born, 1821 ; died, 1894. 

Henry IV. “The Great.” (Henry of Navarre.) 
King of France. Won battle of Ivry ; issued 
Edict of Nantes. Born, 1553; died, 1610. 

Henry V. King of England. Conqueror at Agin- 
court. Born, 1388 ; died, 1422. 

Henry VIII. King of England. “ Defender of the 
Faith.” Suppressed the monasteries; founded 
the Church of England. Born, 1491 ; died, 1547. 

Henry, Patrick. American orator and revolution¬ 
ary patriot. “Give me Liberty, or give me 
Death.” Bern, 1736 ; died, 1799. 

Herodotus. Greek historian. History. Born, b. c. 
484 ; died, 40S. 

Herschel, Sir William. English astronomer. 
Discoverer of Uranus. Born, 1738; died, 1822. 

Herschel, Sir John F. W. English astronomer. 
Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural 
Philosophy. Born 1792 ; died, 1871. 

Higginson, Thomas Wentworth. An American 
author and abolitionist. During the Civil War 
he commanded the first regiment of freed slaves; 
subsequently he resumed literary work. History 
of the United States; Army Life in a Black 
Regiment, etc. Born, 1823. 

Hirsch, Baron Maurice de. Jewish financier and 
philanthropist. Born, 1830 ; died, 1896. 


Hobart, Garrett A. Vice President U. S. with 
McKinley, 1896. Born, 1844 ; died, 1899. 

Hogarth, William. English painter. The Rake's 
Progress. Born, 1697 ; died, 1764. 

Holmes, Oliver Wendell. American poet, physi¬ 
cian, and novelist. Elsie Venner; The Auto¬ 
crat of the Breakfast Table; The Guardian 
Angel; Poems . Born, 1809; died, 1897. 

Homer. Greek epic poet. Lliad and Odyssey. 
The times of his birth and death are uncertain, 
and his existence is doubted by some, who main¬ 
tain that the Iliad and Odyssey are collections of 
songs by different authors. Born, b. C. 10th 
century. 

Hood, Thomas. English poet and humorist. Song 
of the Shirt, Whims and Oddities, Eugene 
Aram's Dream. Born, 1789 ; died, 1845. 

Hooker, Joseph. American general. Commander 
of the Army of the Potomac, 1863 ; defeated at 
Chancellorsville. Born, 1815 ; died, 1879. 

Horace (Q. Horatius Flaccus). Latin poet and 
satirist. Odes, Epistles , Satires. Born, b. c. 
65 ; died, 8. 

Houston, Samuel. American general and states¬ 
man. Commander-in-chief of the Texan army; 
captured Santa Anna ; Governor of Texas. Born, 
1793 ; died, 1863. 

Howard, John. English philanthropist and 
prison reformer. The State of the Prisons in 
England. Born, 1726 ; died, 1790. 

Howe, Elias. American inventor. Invented the 
sewing machine. Born, 1819; died, 1867. 

Howe, Julia Ward. American author and editor. 
Advocate of Woman’s Suffrage. Made famous 
by her Battle Hymn of the Republic. Born, 
1819. 

Howells, William Dean. American novelist. 
A Chance Acquaintance, A Foregone Conclu¬ 
sion, A Modern Instance , An Indian Summer , 
are among his more popular works. Born, 1837. 

Hugo, Victor. French poet, dramatist, and novelist. 
Les Miserables ; Notre Dame. Born, 1802; 
died, 1885. 

Humboldt, F. H. Alexander von. German natural¬ 
ist. Cosmos, an Essay of a Physical Description 
of the Universe, etc. Born, 1769 ; died, 1859. 

Humbert I. King of Italy. Succeeded to the 
throne in 1878 ; assassinated by an anarchist in 
1900. Born, 1844 ; died, 1900. 

Hume, David. Scottish philosopher and historian. 
History of England, Enquiry into the Prin¬ 
ciples of Human Nature. Born, 1711 ; died, 
1776. 

Huss, John. Bohemian reformer. On the Church. 
Was burned at the stake. Born, 1376 ; died, 
I 4 I 5 - 

I bsen, Henrik. Norwegian dramatist. Famous 
for his plays on sociological subjects. A Doll's 
House, The Master Builder, etc. Born, 1828. 
Ingelow, Jean. English poet and novelist. Tales 
of Orris, A Story of Doom and other Poems. 
Born, 1830; died, 1897. 

Innocent III. One of the greatest of the Popes. 
Elected Pope in 1198 ; put France under the ban, 
1199, because Philip Augustus repudiated his 
queen ; Innocent compelled him to take her 



FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


5i3 


back. He organized the fourth Crusade, which 
resulted in the capture of Constantinople; in 
1214 he crushed the Albigensians. Born, 1161 ; 
died, 1216. 

Irving, Sir Henry (John Henry Brodribb). Eng¬ 
lish actor in Shakesperean and modern roles; 
knighted in 1895. Born, 1838. 

Irving, Washington. American author. Minister 
to Spain, 1842. History of New York , The Con¬ 
quest of Granada, Life of Washington, Colum¬ 
bus , The Sketch Book. Born, 1783 ; died, 1859. 

Isabella. “The Catholic” Queen of Castile. 
Patroness of Christopher Columbus. Born, 1451 ; 
died, 1504. 

Ito, Hirobumi, Marquis. Japanese statesman. 
Premier of Japan ; Admiral of Japanese fleet and 
gained great victory over China, Sept, 1895, off 
the Yalu River; Prime Minister again, 1900; 
resigned, 1901. Born, 1840. 

ackson, Andrew. American President and gen¬ 
eral. Born in North Carolina ; began to practice 
law at Nashville, Tenn., 1788 ; M. C., 1796; Sena¬ 
tor, 1797; Judge Tennessee Supreme Court, 
1798-1804; defeated Creek Indians, 1814; won 
battle of New Orleans, 1815 ; in Seminole War, 
1817-18 ; Senator, 1823 ;. President, 1829-37. 
Born, 1767; died, 1845. 

Jackson, Thomas J. (“Stonewall.”) American 
Confederate general. Captured Harper’s Ferry 
taking 11,000 prisoners; defeated Banks; acci¬ 
dentally killed by his own soldiers. Born, 1826 ; 
died, 1863. 

James, Henry. American novelist. The Ameri¬ 
can, Daisy Miller , Portrait of a Lady , etc. 
Born, 1843. 

James I. of England and VI. of Scotland. Son of 
Mary Queen of Scots. Succeeded Elizabeth to 
the throne of England 1603. Translation of Bible 
made under his direction, and known as King 
James’ Version. Born, 1566; died, 1625. 

Jay, John. American jurist, diplomatist, and 
statesman. Negotiated treaty with England. 
Born, 1754 ; died, 1829. 

Jefferson, Joseph. American actor. Great as 
Rip Van Winkle. Born, 1829. 

Jefferson, Thomas. American statesman and Presi¬ 
dent. Born in Virginia, studied law; member 
Virginia House of Burgesses ; in Continental Con¬ 
gress, 1775 ; drew up Declaration of Independ¬ 
ence, 1776; Governor of Virginia, 1779-81; Resi¬ 
dent Ministerat Paris, 1785-89 ; Secretary ofState, 
1789-93 ; Vice-President, 1797-1801 ; President, 
1801-9. Born, 1743 ; died, 1826. 

Jeffrey, Francis, Lord. Scotch judge and critic. 
Editor of the Edinburgh Review. Born, 1773 ; 
died, 1850. 

Jeanne D’Arc (The Maid of Orleans). A peasant 
girl in Lorraine ; believing herself inspired by 
Heaven to raise the siege of Orleans and crown 
Charles at Rheims, she set out to the king in 
1429, was given a command, raised the siege of 
Orleans in one week, won the battles of Jargeau 
and Patay, and Charles was crowned at Rheims. 
Taken in a skirmish by the Burgundians, she was 
delivered to the English and burned as a sorce¬ 
ress. Born, 1411; died, I 43 1 * 

33 C 


John. King of England. Granter of Magna 
Charta. Born, 1166; died, 1216. 

John III. (John Sobieski.) King of Poland. Ex¬ 
pelled the Turks from Austria and Poland. Born, 
1629; died, 1696. 

Johnson, Andrew. American President. In Con¬ 
gress, 1843-53; Governor of Tennessee, 1853-7 ; 
U. S. Senator, 1857 ; Military Governor of Ten¬ 
nessee, 1862 ; elected Vice-President, 1864 ; Presi¬ 
dent on death of Lincoln, April 15, 1865 ; im¬ 
peached, but acquitted, 1868; subsequently re¬ 
elected to the Senate. Born, 1808 ; died, 1875. 

Johnson, Samuel. English poet, critic, and 
scholar. Born in Lichfield ; educated at Oxford ; 
published London, Life oj Richard Savage, 
Vanity of Human Wishes, Dictionary, Rasselas, 
Lives of the Poets. Born, 1709 ; died, 1784. 

Johnston, Albert Sydney. American Confederate 
general. Attacked Grant at Shiloh, and was 
killed. Born, 1803 ; died, 1862. 

Johnston, Joseph E. American general. Served 
with distinction in Mexico. In 1861, joined Con¬ 
federate army, in which he distinguished him¬ 
self. Born, 1807 ; died, 1891. 

Jones, John Paul. American Revolutionary naval 
officer. Naval victories over British. Born, 1747; 
died, 1792. 

Jonson, Ben. English poet and dramatist, brick¬ 
layer and soldier. Every Man in his Humor, 
Volpone, The Alchemist, The Silent Woman, 
Sejanus ; Masques. Born, 1574 ; died, 1637. 

Josephine. Widow of Alexander de Beauharnais. 
Wife of Napoleon I.; Empress of France; di¬ 
vorced. Born, 1763 ; died, 1814. 

Josephus, Flavius. Jewish historian. History 
of the fews. Born, 35 ; died, 100. 

Joubert, Petrus Jacobus. A Boer soldier. Defeated 
the English in 1881 and Dr. Jameson in 1896; 
prominent in Boer-English war. Born, 1831 ; 
died, 1900. 

Julian. “ The Apostate. ” Roman emperor. Re¬ 
stored Pagan worship. Born, 331 ; died, 363. 

Juvenal (Decimus Junius Juvenalis). Latin satirist. 
Satires. Born, 40 ; died, 125. 

K ane, Elisha K. American Arctic explorer. 
Arctic Explorations. Born, 1820; died, 
i 857 - 

Kant, Immanuel. German philosopher. Critique 
of Pure Reason. In his Universal Natural 
History and Theory of the Universe he antici¬ 
pated the discovery of Uranus. Another of his 
important works is the Critique of Practical 
Reason. It was his aim to determine the laws 
and limits of human reason and of the human in¬ 
tellect in relation to the objects of human 
knowledge. Born, 1724 ; died, 1804. 

Kean, Edward. English actor. Among his greatest 
parts were Shylock, Richard III., Othello, Iago , 
King Lear. Born, 1787 ; died, 1833. 

Keats, John. English poet. Born in London ; 
apprenticed to a surgeon ; died at Rome. Endy- 
mion, Hyperion, The Eve of St. Agnes. Born, 
1795 ; died, 1821. 

Kelvin, William Thomson, Lord. Scotch physicist. 
Famous for his discoveries in electric and dynamic 




514 


FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


science, and researches on wave-motion and the 
ether. Created Lord Kelvin in 1892. Born, 1824. 

Kempis, Thomas a. German ascetic writer. Imi- 
tatio Christi. Born, 1380 ; died, 1471. 

Kepler, John. German astronomer. Discovered 
the mathematical laws of the solar system. Born, 
1571 ; died, 1630. 

Key, Francis Scott. American song-writer. Star- 
Spangled Banner . Born, 1799 ; died, 1843. 

Kingsley, Charles. English divine and novelist. 
Hypatia , Westward Ho , Hereward. Born, 1819; 
died, 1875. 

Kingsley, Henry. English novelist. Ravenshoe. 
Born, 1830; died, 1876. 

Kipling, Rudyard. Story-teller and poet. Born 
in Bombay, and educated in England. His Sol¬ 
diers Three , and other stories, gained for him an 
immediate and wide reputation. As a poet, his 
most successful effort is his Barrack-Room Bal¬ 
lads . Born, 1865. 

Kitchener, Lord Horatio Herbert. English soldier. 
Hero of Soudan Campaign in 1898. Boer War 
1899 and 1900. Born, 1850. 

Knox, John. Scotch Reformer. Fierce anti-Catho- 
lic. Ihe First Blast of the Trumpet. Born, 
1505 ; died, 1572. 

Koch, Robert. German bacteriologist. Born at 
Klausthal, in Hanover ; famous for his researches 
in bacteriology ; discovered sundry bacilli, among 
others the cholera bacillus and the phthisis bacil¬ 
lus, and a specific against it. Born, 1843. 

Kosciusko, Thaddeus. Polish patriot and general. 
Commander of the Polish insurgent army ; de¬ 
feated at Warsaw, which he bravely defended. 
Born, 1745 ; died, 1817. 

Kossuth, Louis. Hungarian orator and patriot. 
Leading spirit in the insurrection of 1848-49; 
effected many important reforms. Born, 1802; 
died, 1894. 

Kropotkine, Prince Peter. Russian Nihilist. 
Arrested in Russia and escaped ; imprisoned in 
France. Wrote Paroles d'un Revolte , In Rus¬ 
sian and French Prisons. Born, 1842. 

Kruger, Stephanus Johannes Paul. President of 
the South African Republic after 1883. Declared 
war against England in 1899. Went for aid to 
Europe in 1900. Born, 1825. 
a Fayette, Marie J. P. R. P. Gilbert Motier, Mar¬ 
quis de. Joined American army as major- 
general, 1777 ; commanded advance guard of 
Washington at Yorktown ; commander of French 
national guard, 1789; revisited America, 1824; 
took part in revolution of 1830. Born, 1757 ; 
died, 1834. 

Lamarck, Jean Baptiste de. French naturalist. 
Famous for his theory of animal evolution. Philo¬ 
sophic Zoologique. Born, 1744; died, 1829. 

Lamb, Charles. English author and humorist. 
Essays of Elia ; Essays on Tragedies of Shakes¬ 
peare , etc. Born, 1775 ; died, 1834. 

Landseer, Sir Edwin. English painter. The Old 
Shepherd's Chief Mourner. Born, 1802 ; died, 

1873- 

Laplace, Pierre Simon, Marquis of. Great French 
mathematician and astronomer. Discovered the 
theory of Jupiter’s satellites and the causes of the 


acceleration of the moon’s mean motion, and of 
the inequality of Jupiter and Saturn. His Ex¬ 
position of the System of the universe is a popu¬ 
lar form of his great work La Mecanique Celeste. 
He was one of the greatest mathematicians and 
astronomers. Born, 1749 ; died, 1827. 

Latimer, Hugh, Bishop of Worcester. English 
reformer. Burned. Born, 1480 ; died, 1555. 

Laurier, Sir Wilfred. Canadian Premier after 1896. 
The First French Canadian to attain the honor. 
Elected in 1871 as a Liberal to the Quebec Pro¬ 
vincial Assembly ; in 1874to the Federal Assem¬ 
bly. He stood first among the Colonial represen¬ 
tatives at Queen Victoria’s Diamond Jubilee in 
1897. Born, 1841. 

Law, John. Scotch financier in France. Promo¬ 
ter of the “ South Sea Bubble. ” Born, 1671 ; died, 
I 7 2 9 - 

Lawrence, James. American naval commander. 
Commander of the Chesapeake; killed fighting 
the British Shannofi. * ‘ Don’t give up the ship. ’ ’ 
Born, 1781 ; died, 1813. 

Layard, Sir Henry Austin. Assyrian excavator. 
He made wonderful discoveries at the site of 
Nineveh, and wrote Nineveh and its Remains, 
etc. Born, 1817 ; died, 1894. 

Lecky, William Edward Hartpole. English his¬ 
torian. Rationalism in Europe , European 
Morals , England in the 18th Century. Born, 
1838. 

Lebrun, Charles. French painter. The Family 
of Darius. Born, 1619 ; died, 1690. 

Lebrun, Charles Francois, Duke of Placentia. 
F'rench politician. Third consul; Governor- 
General of Holland. Born, 1739; died, 1824. 

Lee, Arthur. American statesman and diplomatist. 
Member of Congress; Minister to France. Born, 
1740; died, 1792. 

Lee, Fitzhugh. American general, Confederate 
soldier, Consul-General to Cuba. Commanded a 
division in Cuba during reconstruction. Born, 
i8 35 - 

Lee, Francis Lightfoot. American Revolutionary 
patriot. Member Congress; signed Declaration 
of Independence. Born, 1734; died, 1797. 

Lee, Henry. American Revolutionary soldier. 
“Light Horse Harry.” Served under Greene; 
Governor of Virginia. Born, 1756; died, 1818. 

Lee, Richard Henry. American Revolutionary 
statesman. Signed Declaration of Independence ; 
President of Congress; U. S. Senator. Born, 
1732 ; died, 1794. 

Lee, Robert Edward. American Confederate gen¬ 
eral. Commander-in-chief of Confederate army. 
Born, 1807 ; died, 1876. 

Leibnitz, Godfrey William, Baron. German 
mathematician and philosopher. In 1676 he dis¬ 
covered the infinitesimal calculus, about which 
he had a bitter dispute with Newton. In his 
treatise Protogcza (1693) he anticipated many of 
the discoveries of modern geology. In his New 
Essay on the Human Understanding he op¬ 
poses Locke. Born, 1646; died, 1716. 

Leicester, Robert Dudley, Earl of. Favorite of 
Queen Elizabeth ; commander of the English con¬ 
tingent in the Netherlands. Born, 1532; died, 1588. 





FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


5i5 


Lely, Sir Peter. German portrait painter in Eng¬ 
land. Painter to Charles II. Born, 1617 ; died, 
1680. 

Leonidas. King of Sparta. Leader of the Three 
Hundred at Thermopylae. Born, b. c. —; died, 
480. 

Leopold, I. Surnamed The Great. Emperor of 
Germany ; waged fierce wars with the Turks for a 
long period of years, beginning in 1664. His last 
great battles were in Italy, and his troops played 
an important part in the decisive battle of Blen¬ 
heim, 1704. Born, 1640; died, 1705. 

Le Sage, Alain Rene. French novelist. Gil Bias. 
Born, 1668; died, 1747. 

Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim. German critic and 
poet. Laocoon ; Nathan the Wise. Born, 1729 ; 

died, 1781. 

Lever, Charles. Irish novelist. Charles O'Malley, 
Harry Lorrequer. Born, 1806 ; died, 1872. 

Li Hung=Chang. Chinese statesman. He aided 
Gordon in suppressing the Taiping rebellion ; 
made governor-general of Chang, 1864 ; of Clii-li, 
1872 ; founded the Chinese navy; commander- 
in-chief in the war with Japan, 1894 ; made treaty 
of peace ; visited Europe and America 1896 ; 
selected to deal with the western powers after the 
Boxer outbreak of 1900. Born, 1828. 

Lincoln, Abraham. President of the United States, 
1861-1865. Born in Kentucky; afterwards removed 
to Illinois; captain in Black Hawk War ; admitted 
to Illinois bar, 1836 ; Whig M. C., 1846 ; unsuccess¬ 
ful candidate for Senator against Douglas, 1856 ; 
elected President, i860 ; re-elected, 1864 ; assassi¬ 
nated by J. Wilkes Booth, April 14, 1865 ; died 
April 15. Born, 1809; died, 1865. 

Lind, Jenny. Celebrated Swedish singer. At 16 
years the favorite opera singer of her native land ; 
toured the world with marvelous success. Born, 
1821; died, 1887. 

Linnaeus, Charles von. German botanist. Studied 
medicine and natural history. System of Na¬ 
ture, Genera of Plants ; Philosophia Botanica, 
Species Plantarum. Designated each species of 
plants by adding single epithet to name of genus. 
Born, 1707; died, 1778. 

Liszt, Franz Celebrated Hungarian pianist. Born, 
1811 ; died, 1886. 

Livingstone, David. African explorer. Narra¬ 
tive of an Expedition to the Zambesi. Born, 
1817; died, 1873. 

Livy. (Titus Livius.) Roman historian. Famous 
for the rare style of his History of Rome. Born, 
B. c. 59; died, A. D. 17. 

Locke, John. English philosopher. Human 
Understanding. Born, 1632 ; died, 1704. 

Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth. American poet. 
Hyperion, Ballads and other Poems, The Span¬ 
ish Student, The Belfry of Bruges, Evangeline, 
The Golden Legion, Hiawatha, Miles Standish, 
Tales of a Wayside Inn. Born, 1807; died, 1882. 

Louis XIV. King of France. Son of Louis XIII. 
and Anne of Austria. Fought England, Austria, 
Spain, and Belgium, and engaged in the war of 
the Spanish Succession ; was a patron of literature 
and the arts. Born, 1638 ; died, 1715. 

Louis XVI. King of France, Married Marie 


Antoinette, 1770; succeeded Louis XV., 1774; 
imprisoned by the revolutionists; guillotined. 
Born, 1754 ; died, 1793. 

Louis Philippe. King of France. “The citizen 
king.” Abdicated in 1848. Born, 1773; died, 
1850. 

Lowell, James Russell. American poet, critic and 
diplomatist. The Bigelow Papers, The Vision 
of Sir Launfal , The Commemoration Ode, 
Fable for Critics, The Cathedral, Among my 
Books, My Study Windows. Minister to Spain 
and England. Born, 1819; died, 1891. 

Loubet, Emile. President of France. He studied 
the law ; was elected deputy in 1876 ; Senator in 
1885 ; became Premier in 1892 ; President of the 
Senate in 1896, and succeeded M. Faure as Presi¬ 
dent of the Republic of France in 1899. Born, 
1839. 

Loyola, Ignatius. He founded the Society of 
Jesus, with the object of renovating the Church 
and converting the infidels; left a devotional 
work called Spiritual Exercise. Born, 1491 ; 
died, 1536. 

Lubbock, Sir John. English banker and natural¬ 
ist ; member Parliament. The Origin of Civili¬ 
zation. Born, 1834. 

Lucian. Greek essayist and satirist. Famous for 
his delightful style and fine humor. Dialogues 
of the Dead ; True Histories. Born, 125 ; died, 
180. 

Luther, Martin. German reformer. Became a 
priest in 1507 ; published (1517) ninety-five propo¬ 
sitions against indulgences; burnt the Pope’s 
Bull at Wittenburg. Justification by faith was 
the central point of his theology. Born, 1483 ; 
died, 1546. 

Lycurgus. Spartan legislator. Instituted com¬ 
munity of property and double executive at 
Sparta in the 9th century. Born, b. c. 850; 
died, —. 

Lyell, Sir Charles. English geologist. Founded 
the uniformcan theory of geology. Principles 
of Geology. Born, 1797 ; died, 1875. 

Lyttelton, Sir Thomas. English lawyer and 
judge. Tenures. Born, 1420 ; died, 1481. 

Lytton, Sir Edward G. E. Lytton Bulwer, Baron. 
English novelist and dramatist. The Caxtons ; 
Richelieu. Born, 1805 ; died, 1873. 

Lytton, Lord Edward Robert Bulwer. (“Owen 
Meredith.”) English statesman and novelist. 
Lucille. Born, 1831. 

TUfacaulay, Thomas Babington, Lord. English 

1 Y 1 historian and essayist. History of England, 
Essays, Lays of Ancient Rome. Born, 1809 ; 
died, 1859. 

riaclaren, Ian {nom de plume of Rev. John Wat¬ 
son). Was minister of the Free Church in Lo- 
giealmond, and in Glasgow and Liverpool. 
Beside the Bonnie Briar Bush, etc. Born, 1850. 

Macdonald, Sir John Alexander. Regarded as 
Canada’s greatest statesman ; organizer of the 
first government of the Dominion and its first 
Prime Minister. Born, 1815 ; died, 1891. 

flacriaster, John Bach. American historian. Pro¬ 
fessor American history, University of Pennsyl- 



FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


5*6 


vania. History of the People of the United 
States, etc. Born, 1852. 

HcCarthy , Justin. An Irish author and statesman. 
Leader of his party in House in Parliament, 1890 
to 1896. A History of Our Own Times , History 
of the Four Georges, and a number of popular 
novels. Born, 1830. 

McClellan, George B. American general. Won 
battle of Antietam in the Civil War. Born, 1826 ; 
died, 1885. 

McKinley, William. American statesman ; served 
in the Civil War; entered Congress in 1877 ; 
passed in 1890 a tariff measure named after him ; 
was elected to the U. S. Presidency as the cham¬ 
pion of a sound currency in opposition to Mr. 
Bryan in November, 1896, and again in Novem¬ 
ber, 1900. Born, 1844 ; assassinated, 1901* 

Madison, James. American President. Member 
of the Virginia Legislature, of the convention of 
1787, and a strenuous advocate of the Constitu¬ 
tion ; joint author with Hamilton and Jay of the 
Federalist; M. C., 1789-97; Secretary of State, 
1801-9; President, 1809-17. Born, 1751; died, 
1836. 

Magellan, Ferdinand de. Portuguese navigator. 
Magellan’s Straits is named after him. Born, 
1470 ; died, 1521. 

Mahan, Alfred Thayer. An American naval officer 
and writer. Influence of Sea Power upon His¬ 
tory. Born, 1840. 

Mahomet. Arabian prophet. Founder of Mo¬ 
hammedanism. When 40 years of age, receiving 
a pretended revelation from Allah, he devoted 
himself to the propagation of a new religion. 
His faith was rejected at Mecca, but taken up at 
Medina. He fled from Mecca 622 (The Hegira); 
was originally a monogamist, and at first as¬ 
serted liberty of conscience. Born, 570 ; died, 632. 

Mandeville, Sir John. English traveler in the 
East. Often called the first English prose writer. 
Born, 1300 ; died, 1372. 

Mann, Horace. American educationist. Mem¬ 
ber of Congress; President of Antioch College. 
Anti-slavery advocate. Born, 1796; died, 1859. 

Marat, Jean P. French Revolutionist. Assassi¬ 
nated. Born, 1744; died, 1793. 

Marconi, Guglielmo. Italian electrician. Dis¬ 
covered a practical system of telegraphing with¬ 
out wires. Born, 1875. 

Maria Theresa. Empress of Austria and Queen 
of Hungary. Her husband, Francis, Duke of 
Lorraine, was chosen Emperor in 1745, but she 
was the real power ; took part in the Seven Years’ 
War ; abolished feudal service. Born, 1717 ; died, 
1780. 

Marion, Francis. American general and patriot. 
Noted for his guerilla warfare against the British 
during the Revolutionary war. Born, 1732 ; died, 
1795 - 

Marlborough, John Churchill, Duke of. English 
commander. Made Earl of Marlborough, 1689 *» 
commanded English forces in Low Countries, 1689; 
deposed for his Jacobite intrigue, 1692 ; restored, 
1696; commander of allied armies in Holland, 
1702 ; won battle of Blenheim, 1704 ; Ramillies, 
1706 ; Malplaquet, 1709. His wife was the confi¬ 


dante of Queen Anne. In disgrace from 1711 till 
accession of George I. Born, 1650 ; died, 1722. 

Marlowe, Christopher. English poet and drama¬ 
tist. Born, 1564; died, 1593. 

Marshal, John. Chief Justice of the United States* 
Captain in the Revolutionary War, at the close 
of which he began to practice law in Virginia; a 
member of the Virginia Convention (1788) ; in 
1797, "with Pinckney and Gerry, he went on a 
diplomatic mission to France ; elected to Con¬ 
gress in 1799 ; appointed Secretary of State 1800, 
and resigned that office to become Chief Justice. 
Was the greatest judge that ever held the latter 
office. Born, 1755 ; died, 1835. 

Haartens, Maarten. Dutch novelist. Wrote in Eng¬ 
lish God's Fool, My Lady Nobody , etc. Born, 
1858. 

Mary. Queen of England. Married Philip II. of 
Spain. Persecutor of the Protestants. Born, 1516; 
died, 1558. 

Mary Stuart. Queen of Scots. Daughter of 
Janies V. Was invited to the throne of Scotland 
(1560.) Compelled to take refuge in England, 
she was finally beheaded by Elizabeth on a charge 
of conspiracy. Born, 1542; died, 1587. 

Mathew, Theobald. “Father Mathew.” Irish 
temperance reformer. Born, 1790 ; died, 1856. 

Mazzini, Guiseppe. Italian patriot. Co-operated 
with Garibaldi; founder of Young Italy. Born, 
1808 ; died, 1872. 

Meade, George G. American general. Won battle 
of Gettysburg. Born, 1815 ; died, 1872. 

Medici, Catherine de’. Queen of Henry II. of 
France. Instigated massacre of St. Bartholomew. 
Born, 1519; died, 1589. 

Medici, Lorenzo de’. Grand Duke of Florence. 
“The Magnificent.” Patron of art and litera¬ 
ture ; adorned Florence. Born, 1448 ; died, 1492. 

Meissonier, Jean Louis Earnest. French painter. 
Distinguished for his highly finished small works. 
The Chess Players ; Freedland or 1807. Born, 
1813; died,1891. 

Mendelssohn=Bartholdy, Felix. German com¬ 
poser. Among his most famous works are his 
Songs Without Words. Born, 1809; died, 1847. 

Mesmer, Frederick B. Suabian physician. 
Founder of Mesmerism. Born, 1731 ; died, 1815. 

Meyerbeer, James. German composer. Romilda 
e Costanza , 1818; Semiramide Riconosciula , 
1819; Crociato in Egypto , 1824; Robert le 
Diable , 1831; Huguenots , 1836; L'Etoile du 
Nord, 1S54. Born, 1791 ; died,' 1864. 

Mezzofanti, Guiseppe G., Cardinal. Italian lin¬ 
guist. Born, 1774 ; died, 1849. 

Michael Angelo (Buonarotti). Italian painter, 
sculptor, and architect. Painted the fresco of 
the Last Judgment, and prophets, sibyls, etc.,at 
the Sistine Chapel. Among his great sculptures 
are the gigantic marble David and Moses ; was 
appointed architect of St. Peter’s, and formed a 
model for the dome ; wrote sonnets and poems. 
Born, 1474; died, 1564. 

Miles, Nelson A. American General-in-chief of 
the United States army in Spanish War. Re¬ 
ceived surrender of Porto Rico. Won fame in 
Civil War. Captured Jefferson Davis. Born, 1839. 



FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


5i7 


Hi!I, John Stuart. English political economist and 
philosopher. Logic, Political Economy, Exam¬ 
ination of Sir W. Hamilton's Philosophy. Born, 
1806 ; died, 1873. 

Millais, Sir John E. English painter. Return of 
the Dove to the Ark. Born, 1829; died, 1896. 

Miller, Hugh. Scotch geologist. Old Red Sand¬ 
stone. Born, 1802 ; died, 1856. 

Miltiades. Athenian general. Commander at Ma¬ 
rathon. Flourished 500 b. c. 

flilton, John. English poet. Paradise Lost. Wrote 
many prose, political and controversial works. 
His sonnets are among the best in the language. 
His other works are Comus , L' Allegro, II Pen- 
seroso, Samson Agonistes, Paradise Regained , 
Lycidas. Born, 1608; died, 1674. 

Mirabeau, Gabriel H. de Riquetti, Count of. 
French orator and revolutionist. Entered army, 
1767 ; imprisoned by his father at various times 
for intrigues and debts ; president of National 
Convention, 1791. Born, 1749; died, 1791. 

nitchell, Donald G. (“ Ik. Marvel.”) American 
author. My Farm at Edgewood; Reveries of a 
Bachelor. Born, 1S22. 

Mithridates. “The Great.” King of Pontus. 
With Tigranes of Armenia he fought the Romans 
for many years. Born, b. c. 130 ; died, 63. 

Moltke, Hillmuth, Count von. German general. 
Conqueror in the Franco-Prussian war. Born, 
1800; died, 1891. 

Monroe, James. American President. Captain in 
Revolutionary War; studied law with Jefferson ; 
delegate to Congress, 1783 ; opponent of Consti¬ 
tution; Senator, 1790; Minister to France, 1794-6; 
Governor of Virginia, 1799-1802; Envoy-Extraor¬ 
dinary to France, 1802; Minister to England, 
1803 ; Governor of Virginia, 1811 ; Secretary of 
State, 1811-17 ; President, 1817-25. Born, 1758 ; 
died, 1831. 

riontcalm, Louis J. de St. Vdran, Marquis of. 
French commander in Canada. Killed on Abra¬ 
ham’s Heights, in the battle with Wolfe. Born, 
1712; died, 1759. 

flontesquieu, Charles de Secondat, Baron de. 
French author. Spirit of the Laws. Born, 1689 ; 

died, 1755- 

Montezuma II.* Last Emperor of Mexico. Mor¬ 
tally wounded while attempting to quell insur¬ 
rection of his subjects against Cortez. Born, 1470 ; 
died, 1520. 

Moody, Dwight Lyman. Evangelist. Associated 
with Mr. Sankey; visited Great Britain in 1873 
and 1883. Born, 1837 ; died, 1900. 

Moore, Thomas. Irish poet. Lalla Rookh, Irish 
Melodies, The Epicurean , Life of Sheridan , 
Life of Lord Byron. Born 1779; died, 1852. 

More, Sir Thomas. English statesman and author. 
Lord Chancellor; became favorite of Henry VIII.; 
published Utopia , 1516; speaker of House of 
Commons, 1523; Lord Chancellor, 1532 ; refused 
to acknowledge the validity of Henry’s marriage 
to Anne Boleyn. Born, 1480; died, 1535. 

Morris, Gouverneur. American Revolutionary 
statesman and orator. Minister to France ; United 
States Senator ; promoter of Erie Canal. Born, 
1754 ; died, 1816, 


riorris, Robert. American financier and states¬ 
man. Aided the Government with funds in the 
Revolution ; Superintendent of Finances, 1781-4; 
imprisoned for debt. Born, 1734 ; died, 1800. 

Morris, William. English poet and artistic de¬ 
signer of household decorations. The Earthly 
Paradise, News from Nowhere , etc. Born, 
1834; died, 1896. 

Morse, Samuel Finley Breese. American inventor 
of telegraph. Constructed small recording elec¬ 
tric telegraph in 1835 ; constructed telegraph 
line from Washington to Baltimore, and brought 
telegraph into successful operation in 1846. Born, 
1794 ; died, 1872. 

Motley, John Lothrop. American historian and 
diplomatist. Minister to England and Austria. 
The Rise of the Dutch Republic. Born, 1814; 
Died, 1877. 

Mozart, Johann. German composer. The Mar¬ 
riage of Figaro , Don Giovanni , The Magic 
Flute. His latest work, the Requiem , is his most 
sublime. Born, 1756; died, 1791. 

Muller, F. Max. German philologist in England. 
Chips from a German Workshop. Born, 1833; 
died, 1900. 

Murat, Joachim. French Marshal and King of 
Naples. Dashing cavalry leader. Born, 1770; 
died, 1815. 

JTurillo, Bartholomew Stephen. Spanish painter. 
His virgin saints and his beggar boys are famous. 
Among his great works are St. Elizabeth of Hun¬ 
gary, The Prodigal Son, The Young Beggar , 
Moses Striking the Rock, St. Anthony of Padua, 
and the Marriage of St. Catherine . Born, 1618 ; 
died, 1682. 

N ansen, Fridtiof. Norwegian Arctic discoverer. 
Made his -first journey across Greenland in 
1888 ; set out in 1893 in the Fram, to drift to 
the pole; reached in 1895 86° 14' north latitude, 
the highest then attained. Wintered in Franz 
Joseph Land ; rescued in 1896. The First Cross¬ 
ing op Greenland, Farthest North. Born, 1861. 
Nelson, Horatio, Viscount. English naval com¬ 
mander. Went to sea at thirteen ; post captain, 
1779; rear admiral, 1797 ; won battle of the Nile, 
1798; second in command at Copenhagen, 1801, 
(but really won the fight); in 1805, with twenty- 
seven sail of the line and four frigates, defeated 
combined French and Spanish fleets at Trafalgar, 
where he was mortally wounded. Born, 1758 ; 
died, 1805. 

Nero. Roman Emperor (54-68). Put his mother 
to death ; persecuted Christians ; said to have 
burned Rome. Born, 37; died, 68. 

Newcomb, Simon. American astronomer. Con¬ 
ducted the American Nautical Almanac. Wrote 
much on astronomy. Born, 1835. 

Newman, John Henry, Cardinal. English Catho¬ 
lic theologian. Born, 1801 ; died, 1840. 

Newton, Sir Isaac. English mathematician and 
philosopher. His great work, the Principia, 
appeared in 1687. In this he shows that every 
particle of matter is attracted by every other par¬ 
ticle with a force inversely proportional to the 
squares of the distances, Born, 1642 ; died, 1727, 




5iS 


FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


Ney, Michael. “ The Bravest of the Brave.” One 
of Napoleon’s marshals. Ted Guard at Waterloo ; 
shot by order of Louis XVII. Born, 1769 ; died, 
1815. 

Nicholas I. Czar of Russia. Warred with Turkey 
and Persia ; put down Polish insurrection ; en¬ 
gaged in Crimean War. Born, 1796 ; died, 1855. 

Nicholas II. Czar of Russia. Son of Alexander 
III., and his successor in November, 1894. Mar¬ 
ried Princess Alice, granddaughter of Queen 
Victoria. Born, 1868. 

Nightingale, Florence. English philanthropist. 
Notes on Nursing. Born, 1820. 

Nobel, Alfred. Danish manufacturer. Discovered 
how to make dynamite. Deft $10,000,000, most 
of it to go for annual prizes for important scienti¬ 
fic discoveries, best literature, and best work in 
the cause of humanity. Born, 1833 ; died, 1896. 

Nordenskiold, Baron Nils Adolf Erik. Swedish 
explorer. In 1878-79 he made the first voyage 
from the Atlantic to the Pacific, north of Asia. 
Voyage of the Vega. Born, 1832. 

O ates, Titus. English informer; inventor of 
the “ Popish Plot.” Born, 1620; died, 1705. 
O’Connell, Daniel. Irish orator and agitator ; ad¬ 
vocate of Catholic Emancipation, and the repeal 
of the union. Born, 1775 ; died, 1847. 

Oersted, Hans C. Danish scientist; founder of 
the science of electro-magnetism. Born, 1775 ; 
died, 1851. 

Oglethorpe, James. British general; colonizer of 
Georgia. Born, 1688; died, 1785. 

Ohm, George Simon. German physicist. Dis¬ 
covered the mathematical theory of the electric 
current, known as Ohm’s Law. Born, 1787; 
died, 1854. 

Oliphant, Margaret. Authoress. She wrote on 
history, biography, and criticism ; The Makers 
of Florence , of Ven ice, of Modern Rome ; Lives 
of Dante, Cervantes, and Edward Irving. 
Born, 1828 ; died, 1897. 

Origen. Greek Father of the Church. Hexapla. 
Held universal restoration of the dead. Born, 
185 ; died, 253. 

Otis, Harrison Gray. American statesman and 
orator. A Federalist leader in Congress. Born, 
1765 ; died, 1848. 

Otis, James. American Revolutionary statesman 
and orator. Argued against writs of assistance ; 
led popular party. Born, 1726 ; died, 1783. 
Outram, Sir James. English general in India. Ted 
expedition against Persia, 1836. Born, 1802 ; 
died, 1863. 

Ovid, (Publius Ovidius Naso). Roman poet. Meta¬ 
morphoses. Born, b.c. 43 ; died, a. d. 18. 

P aderewski, Ignace Jan. Celebrated pianist. 
Born at Podolia, in Russian Poland ; master of 
his art by incessant practice from early child¬ 
hood ; twice visited the United States ; a brilliant 
composer as well as performer. Born, i860. 
Paganini, Niccolo. Italian violinist; celebrated 
for his performances on a single string. Born, 
1784; died, 1840. 

Paine, Robert Treat. American lawyer and states¬ 


man. Signed Declaration of Independence. Born 
1731 ; died, 1814. 

Paine, Thomas. American (English born) deist 
and political writer. The Age of Reason , Com¬ 
mon Sense. Bom, 1737 ; died, 1809. 

Paley, William. English divine and theologian. 
Evidences. Born, 1743; died, 1805. 

Palissy, Bernard. French potter. Discovered the 
art of enamelling stoneware. Treatise on the 
Origin of Fountains. Born, 1510; died, 1596. 

Palmerston, Henry John Temple, 3d Viscount. 
English statesman ; Minister of Foreign Affairs; 
long Prime Minister. Born, 1784; died, 1865. 

Park, Mungo. Scotch traveler in Africa. Travels 
in the Interior of Africa. Born, 1771; died, 
1805. 

Parker, Theodore. American theologian and re¬ 
former. Transient and Permanent in Chris¬ 
tianity. Born, 1810 ; died, i860. 

Parkman, Francis. American historian. Con¬ 
spiracy of Pontiac, A Half Century of Conflict , 
etc. Born, 1823 ; died, 1893. 

Parnell, Charles Stewart. Irish politician and 
agitator; M. P. ; head of the Rand League move¬ 
ment. Born, 1847 ; died, 1891. 

Parr, Catherine. Last Queen of Henry VIII. of 
England, whom she succeeded in surviving. 
Born, 1509 ; died, 1548. 

Parton, James. Noted American biographer. Mar¬ 
ried sister of N. P. Willis, who, as “Fannie 
Fern,” wrote many children’s books. Born, 
1822 ; died, 1891. 

Pascal, Blaise. Illustrious French thinker and 
writer. Was distinguished at once as a mathema¬ 
tician, a physicist, and a philosopher. Born, 
1623 ; died, 1662. 

Pasteur, Louis. French bacteriologist. He dis¬ 
covered the origin of fermentation, the silk-worm 
disease, splenic fever, etc., to be due to micro¬ 
organisms, and founded the germ theory of dis¬ 
ease. Born, 1822 ; died, 1895. 

Patrick, Saint. Apostle of Ireland. Born in Scot¬ 
land. One of the first to preach Christianity in 
Ireland. Born, 372 ; died, 463. 

Paul, Saint, of Tarsus. Apostle of the Gentiles. 
Born, —; died, 65. 

Payne, John Howard. American dramatist and 
poet. Home , Sweet Home. Born, 1792 ; died, 
1852. 

Peabody, George. American banker in London ; 
philanthropist. Founder of homes for work¬ 
ingmen in London, of museums, etc. Patron of 
education. Born, 1795 ; died, 1869. 

Peary, Robert. American Arctic discoverer. He 
made three journeys to the far North ; crossed 
northern Greenland in 1891 and 1894, and was in 
the polar regions in 1901. Born, 1856. 

Peel, Sir Robert. English statesman and Prime 
Minister. Repealed the Corn Laws. Born, 1788 ; 
died, 1850. 

Penn, William. Founder of Pennsylvania. Theson 
of Admiral Penn, born in London ; was converted 
to Quakerism while a student at Oxford. His 
father’s death brought him a fortune and a claim 
upon the Crown, which he commuted for a grant 
of land in North America, where he founded 



FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


5i9 


(1682) Pennsylvania. Here he established a 
refuge for all persecuted religionists, and, laying 
out Philadelphia as the capital, governed his 
colony wisely and generously for two years. He 
returned to England, where his friendship with 
James II. brought many advantages to the 
Quakers, but laid him under harassing and unde¬ 
served prosecutions for treason in the succeeding 
reign. The closing years of his life were clouded 
by mental decay. Born, 1644; died, 1718. 

Pericles. Athenian orator and statesman. Came 
forward as a leader of the democracy 470 b. c. 
He secured the ostracism of Cimon, and after 
that event, and the ostracism of Thucydides, was 
the first man in Athens. He greatly increased 
the influence of Athens, which he adorned with 
noble public works. Born, b. c. — ; died, 429. 

Perry, Matthew C. American commodore. Chief 
of expedition to Japan. Born, 1795 ; died, 1858. 

Perry, Oliver H. American naval commander. 
Won battle of Take Erie. Born, 1785 ; died, 
1820. 

Pestalozzi, Giovanni H. Swiss educator. Lein- 
hard und Gertrude. Born, 1746 ; died, 1827. 

Peter the Hermit. Preacher of the First Crusade. 
Born, 1050 ; died, 1115. 

Peter I. (“ The Great.”) Czar of Russia. Visited 
Western Europe in 1697 ; was for a time a ship- 
carpenter in Holland, and spent eight months in 
England ; on his return to Russia, he reorganized 
the army and navy, founded schools, and took 
measures to increase Russian commerce; he 
made an alliance with Poland and Denmark, 
(1701) against Charles XII., whom he defeated at 
Pultowa (1709) ; founded St. Petersburg (1703). 
Born, 1672 ; died, 1725. 

Petrarch, Francis. (Francesco Petrarca.) Italian 
poet and scholar. Sonnets. Born, 1304; died, 
1374. 

Phidias. Greatest of Greek sculptors. His master¬ 
pieces were the colossal ivory-and-gold statues 
(forty feet high) of Minerva at the Parthenon, 
and of Zeus at Olympia in Elis ; the latter being 
counted one of the wonders of the world. Born, 
b. C. 490 ; died, 432. 

Philip II. King of Macedonia. Father of Alex¬ 
ander the Great. Assassinated. Born, b. c. 382 ; 

died, 335- . - . 

Philip II. (“Augustus.”) King of France. An¬ 
nexed Normandy, Anjou, Lorraine ; won battle 
of Bouvines. Born, 1165 ; died, 1223. 

Philip IV. (“The Fair.”) King of France. Sup¬ 
pressed the Templars ; imprisoned Pope Boniface 
III. Born, 1268; died, 1314. ^ ^ , tt 

Philip II. King of Spain. Son of Charles V. 
Caused revolt in Netherlands; despatched Ar¬ 
mada against England. Born, 1527 ; died, 1598. 

Phillips, Wendell. American orator, Abolitionist. 
Speech in Faneuil Hall , 1836. Born, 1811, died, 

1884. . . , _ 

Pierce, Franklin. American President. Born in 
New Hampshire ; studied law ; Democratic mem¬ 
ber Congress, 1832-37 ; U. S. Senator, 1837-42 , 
brigadier-general in Mexican War, President, 
jgcc!-^ • opposed coercion of seceding States. 
Born, 1804; died, 1869. 


Pindar. Lyric poet of Thebes. Odes. Born, b. c. 
518 ; died, 442. 

Pisistratus. Tyrant of Athens. Patron of learn¬ 
ing. Said to have had Iliad and Odyssey reduced 
to writing for the first time. Born, b. c. 612 ; 
died, 527. 

Pitt, William. English statesman and orator ; the 
second son of Lord Chatham. Entered Parlia¬ 
ment in 1781 ; Chancellor of the Exchequer, 
1782 ; First Lord of the Treasury, and Prime 
Minister, 1783 ; resigned in 1801, but took office 
again in 1804; was the head and front of the 
great coalition against Bonaparte. Born, 1759; 
died, 1806. 

Pius IX. (Giovanni Maria Mastai Ferretti). Pope. 
Dogmas of Immaculate Conception and Papal 
Infallibility promulgated during his incumbency; 
temporal power lost 1870. Born, 1792 ; died, 1878. 

Pizarro, Francis. Spanish conqueror of Peru. 
Born, 1475 ; died, 1541. 

Plato. Greek philosopher and writer. Among 
his works are The Republic , Phcedo , Gorgias , 
Crito, and Apology for Socrates. Born, b. c. 
428; died, 347. 

Pliny, The Elder. Roman savant and writer. Nat¬ 
ural History. Born, 23 ; died, 79. 

Pliny, The Younger. Roman writer and states¬ 
man. Panegyric on Trajan. Born, 61; died, 106. 

Plutarch, Greek biographer. Lives. Born, 45 ; 
died, 120. 

Poe, Edgar Allen. American poet. The Raven. 
Born, 1811; died, 1849. 

Polk, James K. American President. Born in North 
Carolina; removed to Tennessee, 1806; studied 
law ; member of Congress, 1825 ; elected speaker, 
1835 and 1837 ; governor of Tennessee, 1839-41 ; 
Democratic President, 1845-49 ; prosecuted Mexi¬ 
can War. Born, 1795 ; died, 1849. 

Polk, Leonidas, Bishop. American Confederate 
general and Episcopal prelate. Conspicuous at 
Shiloh and Stone River. Born, 1806 ; died, 1864. 

Polo, Marco. Venetian traveler in the East. The 
Book of Marco Polo. Born, 1256 ; died, 1333. 

Pompey (Cnaeus Pompeius). Roman general and 
statesman. Conqueror of Spain and victor over 
Mithridates; leader of aristocracy ; rival of Caesar ; 
defeated at Pharsalia. Born, b. C. 106 ; died, 48. 

Ponce de Leon, Juan. Spanish discoverer of 
Florida. Born, 1460; died, 1521. 

Pope, Alexander. English poet. Pastorals , Essay 
on Criticism , Essay on Man , etc. Born, 1688; 
died, 1744. 

Porter, David. American naval officer. Com¬ 
mander of the Essex. Born, 1780; died, 1843. 

Porter, David D. American naval officer. Ad¬ 
miral ; bombarded Fort Fisher. History of the 
Navy in the Rebellion. Born, 1813; died, 1887. 

Porter, Noah. American philosophical writer. 
President of Yale. Human Intellect. Born, 1811. 

Prescott, William Hickling. American historian. 
Ferdinand and Isabella , etc. Born, 1796; died, 
1859. 

Ptolemy I. (“Soter.”) KingofEgypt. Founder 
of the dynasty of Greek sovereigns in Egypt; 
patron of literature. Born, b. c. 367 ; died, 282. 

Ptolemy II. (‘ ‘ Philadelphus m King of Egypt. 




5 2 ° 


FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


Founder of Alexandrian Library ; Theocritus, 
Euclid, Aratus lived at his court. Born, b. c. 
309; died, 247. 

Ptolemy, Claudius. Greek mathematician and 
geographer. Almagest . Lived from about 100 
to 160. 

Pulaski, Count. Polish general in the American 
Revolution. Leader of “Pulaski’s Legion;’’ 
killedat siege of Savannah. Born, 1747; died, 1779. 
Putnam, Israel. General in the American Revolu¬ 
tion. Conspicuous at Bunker Hill. Born, 1718 ; 
died, 1790. 

Pyrrhus. King of Epirus. Defeated the Romans ; 
conquered Macedonia; one of the greatest gen¬ 
erals of antiquity. Born, b. c. 318; died, 272. 
Pythagoras. Greek philosopher and writer. 
Taught doctrine of transmigration of souls. Born, 
B. c. 570; died, 510. 

Q uincy, Josiah. American statesman and au¬ 
thor. Federalist member of Congress. His¬ 
tory of Harvard University. Born, 1772 ; 
died, 1864. 

Quincy, Josiah, Jr. American Revolutionary pa¬ 
triot and orator. Observations on the Boston 
Port Bill. Born, 1744; died, 1775. 

R abelais, Francois. French satirist and scholar. 
Joined Franciscans, but left the order. His 
great work is The Pleasant Story of the Giant 
Gargantua and his Son Pantagruel. Born, 
1495 ; died, 1553. 

Racine, Louis. French dramatist. Among his 
best works are the comedy Les Pladeurs (The 
Litigants), and the tragedies Britannicus , Iphi- 
genie , Phidre , and Athalie. Born, 1639; died, 
1699. 

Raleigh, Sir Walter. English courtier, statesman, 
and author. History of the World. A favorite 
of Queen Elizabeth ; executed by James I. Born, 
1552; died, 1618. 

Randolph, John, of Roanoke. American politi¬ 
cian. Member of Congress; Minister to Russia ; 
opposed Missouri Compromise ; caustic wit. Born, 
1773 ; died, 1833. 

Raphael, (Raffaele Sanzio) of Urbino. Italian 
painter. Sistine Madonna. Among his other 
works are the frescoes called The School of 
Athens , The Transfiguration , The Marriage of 
the Virgin , Galatea , and the cartoons (designs 
for tapestry of the Pope’s Chapel). Born, 1483 ; 
died, 1520. 

Read, Thomas Buchanan. American poet and ar¬ 
tist. The Wagoner of the Alleghanies. Born, 
1822; died, 1872. 

Reed, Thomas B. Distinguised American Congress¬ 
man and Speaker of the House. A public speaker 
of note. Born, 1839. 

Renan, J. Ernest. French Orientalist and author. 

Life of fesus. Born, 1823 ; died, 1892. 

Revere, Paul. American Revolutionary patriot. 
Carried to Concord news of impending attack of 
Gage. Born, 1735 ; died, 1818. 

Reynolds, Sir Joshua. English painter. Mrs. 
Siddons as the Tragic Muse . Born, 1723 ; died, 
1792. 


Rhodes, Cecil John. English adventurer. He be¬ 
came chief owner of the South African diamond 
mines ; Prime Minister of Cape Colony in 1890 ; 
and chief settler of ‘ ‘ Rhodesia. ’ ’ Was accused of 
fomenting the war with the Transvaal; projected 
a railroad from Cape Town to Cairo. Born, 1853. 

Richard I. (Cceur de Lion.) King of England. 
Conquered Acre ; defeated Saladin. Born, 1157 ; 
died, 1199. 

Richard III. King of England. Put Edward V. 
to death and usurped his crown ; killed at Bos- 
worth. Born, 1452 ; died, 1485. 

Richardson, Samuel. English novelist. Clarissa 
Harlowe , Sir Charles Grandison , Pamela. 
Born, 1689; died, 1761. 

Richelieu, Armand Jean Duplessis, Cardinal. 
French statesman. Made Cardinal, 1622 ; Prime 
Minister, 1624 ; secured exile of his foe, Marie de 
Medicis, 1630 ; reduced the Huguenots and cap¬ 
tured Rochelle ; supported German Protestants 
against Austria ; founded French Academy (1635); 
added Alsace, Lorraine, and Roussillon to France. 
Born, 1585 ; died, 1642. 

Richter, John Paul Frederich (Jean Paul). Ger¬ 
man novelist. Ihorn, Fruit , and Flower Pieces. 
Born, 1763; died, 1825. 

Rienzi, Nicolo Gabrini. Italian patriot and enthu¬ 
siast. Tribune; for a short time ruler of Rome : 
“ the friend of Petrarch, hope of Italy.” Born, 
1313 ; died, 1354. 

Roberts, Lord Frederick. The hero of Kandahar 
(1880). Commander-in-chief of British forces in 
Boer War, South Africa, 1899-1900. Succeeded 
Lord Wolseley as commander-in-chief, and was 
made an earl. Born, 1832. 

Robert I. (Bruce.) King of Scotland. Conquered 
Scotland from the English. Born, 1276 ; died, 
1329. 

Robespierre, Francois J. M. French Revolution¬ 
ist. Leader of the extreme radicals ; ruler dur¬ 
ing the Reign of Terror ; guillotined. Born, 1759 ; 
died, 1794. 

Rosebery, Archibald Philip Primrose, Earl of. 
English statesman; Prime Minister, 1894-1895. 
Born, 1847. 

Roentgen, William Konrad von. German phys¬ 
icist. He discovered in 1895 the X-rays or Roent¬ 
gen-rays. Born, 1845. 

Rockefeller, John D. American capitalist; Presi¬ 
dent Standard Oil Company. A man of immense 
wealth; gave largely to Chicago University. Born, 
1840. 

Roland, Madame Manon J. P. French Republican 
and writer. Memoirs. Guillotined. Born, 1754; 
died, 1793. 

Roosevelt, Theodore. Vice-President of the 
United States with McKinley. Graduated Har¬ 
vard, 1880; entered New York Legislature, 1882 ; 
appointed head of Civil Service Commission by 
President Harrison, 1889, and again by Cleveland, 
1893 ; Commissioner Police in New York, 1895 ; 
Assistant Secretary of Navy, 1897 ; Hero “ Rough 
Riders” Spanish War, 1898; Governor of New 
York, 1899; elected Vice-President, 1900. Born, 
1858. Succeeded to the Presidency, Sept. 14,1901. 
Rothschild, Meyer Amschel. Famous banker. 




FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


521 


The founder of the Rothschild house, born at 
Frankfort-on-th e-Main, a Jew by birth; began 
his career as a money lender and made a large 
fortune. Born, 1743 ; died, 1812. 

Rubens, Peter Paul. Dutch painter. Descent 
from the Cross , Last Judgment, Battle of the 
Amazons, Judgment of Paris, Rape of the 
Sabines. Born, 1577 ; died, 1646. 

Ruskin, John. English art critic. Modern Paint¬ 
ers. Born, 1819 ; died, 1900. 

Salisbury, Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoigne Cecil, 

O Marquis of. English statesman. Entered the 
House of Lords as Lord Salisbury in 1867; 
became Secretary for Foreign Affairs in 1881, 
and, on the death of Beaconsfield, leader of the 
Conservative party ; he was three times raised 
to the Premiership, the last time on Lord Rose¬ 
bery’s retirement in 1896. Born, 1830. 

Sampson, William T. American Rear Admiral. 
Commanded United States fleets Atlantic squad¬ 
ron, during Spanish War. Born 1840. D. 1902. 

Savonarola, Girolamo. Italian reformer. A Do¬ 
minican monk and preacher; denounced the 
corruptions of the Church ; deserted by his fol¬ 
lowers ; put to death. Born, 1452 ; died, 1498. 

Schiller, John C. F. von. German dramatist and 
poet. Studied law and medicine, but finally fol¬ 
lowed his own inclination to literature. The Rob¬ 
bers, Thirty Years' War, Wallenstein, Alary 
Stuart , William Tell , etc. 

Schley, Winfield Scott. Rear Admiral American 
Navy. Rescued Greeley Expedition, 1884. Com¬ 
manded in naval victory over Spanish fleet at 
Santiago, 1898. Born, 1839. 

Schubert, Francis. German composer. His Songs 
( Lieder) and Ballads are his best work ; musical, 
tender, and expressive in the rarest degree. Born, 
1797 ; died, 1828. 

Schurz, Carl. American journalist and politician. 
Secretary of the Interior, 1877-1881. Born, 1829. 

Scott, Sir Walter. Scotch novelist, poet and his¬ 
torian. Waver ley novels ; Marmion, Lay of the 
Last Minstrel, The Lady of the Lake , Rokeby, 
The Vision of Don Roderick. Son of an Edin¬ 
burgh writer to the signet; lived at Abbotsford ; 
ruined by commercial speculation. Born, 1771; 
died, 1852. 

Scott, Winfield. Eminent American general. 
Prominent service in the War of 1812 against the 
British ; received gold medal from Congress, and 
was promoted to major-general; 1841, made com¬ 
mander-in-chief of the United States army ; 
1847, assumed command in Mexico; received 
surrender of the City of Mexico ; defeated for 
presidency by Franklin Pierce ; made lieutenant- 
general. Born, 1786 ; died, 1866. 

Selkirk. Alexander. Scotch sailor. His adven¬ 
tures suggested Robinson Crusoe. Lived alone 
on Juan Fernandez, 1694-1709. Born, 1675 ; died, 
I 7 2 3 - 

Seward, William H. American Republican states¬ 
man. Secretary of State, 1861-69. Born, 1801 ; 
died, 1872. 

Shatter, William Rufus. American General. De¬ 
feated Spanish General Torrel, and received sur¬ 


render of Spanish army at Santiago, Cuba, 1898. 
Born, 1835. 

Shakespeare, William. Greatest English poet and 
dramatist. Lear, Hamlet, Macbeth, Othello , The 
Tempest, Midsummer Night's Dream ; born at 
Stratford-on-Avon ; married Anne Hathaway, 
1582 ; produced the poems Venus and Adonis, and 
the Rape of Lucrece , 1593-94, the only works pub¬ 
lished under his own hand ; first collected edi¬ 
tion of works appeared in 1623. Born, 1364: 
died, 1616. 

Shelley, Percy Bysshe. English poet. Cenci, 
Adonais, Prometheus , Revolt of Islam, Alastor, 
The Witch of Atlas ; was drowned off coast of 
Italy. Born, 1792 ; died, 1822. 

Sheridan, Philip H. American general. Won 
battles of Winchester, Cedar Creek, Five Forks. 
Born, 1831 ; died, 1888. 

Sherman, John. American politician and finan¬ 
cier. Secretary of the Treasury, 1877-81 ; Secre¬ 
tary of State, 1897-98. Born, 1823 ; died, 1900. 

Sherman, William Tecumseh. American general. 
Made the “March to the Sea,” through Georgia. 
Born, 1820; died, 1891. 

Sickles, Daniel Edgar. American general. Elected 
to Congress 1856 ; brigadier-general in Civil War, 
losing a leg at Gettysburg; Minister to Spain, 
1869-73. In Congress, 1892-94. Born, 1822; 
died, 1901. 

Simon, Jules. French statesman and author of 
numerous works. Born, 1841; died, 1896. 

Smiles, Samuel, LL. D. Scotch editor and author. 
Among his books are Self-Help, Character, 
Thrift, Life and Labor, and the Biographies of 
Inventors. Born, 1816. 

Smith, Adam. Scotch political economist. Wealth 
of Nations. Born, 1723 ; died, 1790. 

Smith, Joseph. Founder of the Mormon Chiirch. 
Claimed to dictate the Book of Mormon from 
gold plates found in New York State; arrested 
and imprisoned in the jail at Carthage, Mo.. where 
he was killed by a mob. Born, 1805 ; died, 1844. 

Smith, John, Captain. English adventurer. Fa- 

. mous Governor of Colony of Virginia. History 
of Virginia. Born, 1579; died, 1631. 

Smith, Sydney, Rev. English divine and wit. 
Projector of the Edinburgh Reviezv,Peter Plym- 
ley's Letters. Born, 1771; died, 1845. 

Socrates. Athenian philosopher. Teacher of 
Plato. Put to death for his radical opinions. 
Born, B. C. 468; died, 399. 

Southey , Robert, English poet laureate. Curse 
of Keliama, Madoc, Thalaba, Don Roderick. 
Born, 1774 ; died, 1843. 

Spencer,, Herbert. English philosopher. System 
of Evolutionary Philosophy. Born, 1820. 

Spinoza, Benedict. Dutch philosopher. Ethics 
Demonstrated by a Geometric Method. Born, 
1632 ; died,16 77. 

Stael, Anna M. L. G., Baroness de. French 
authoress. Opposed Napoleon and was banished. 
Corinne. Born, 1766; died, 1817. 

Standish, Miles, Captain. Plymouth colonist and 
soldier. Born, 1584 ; died, 1656. 

Stanley, Henry Morton. African explorer. Born 
in Wales ; went as a boy to America ; became a 




FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


522 

newspaper correspondent; in 1869 was sent by 
the New York / Jerald to Africa to “ find Living¬ 
stone ; ” succeeded in 1871. Wrote The Congo, 
In Darkest Africa, etc. Born, 1841. 

Stanton, Edwin McMasters. American states¬ 
man. Attorney-General of the United States 
under Buchanan ; Secretary of War under Presi¬ 
dents Lincoln and Johnson. Became a Justice 
of the Supreme Court of the United States, 1869. 
Born, 1815; died, 1869. 

Stanton, Elizabeth Cady. One of the first agitat¬ 
ors of woman’s rights in the United States, and 
a leading advocate, lecturer, and writer on this 
subject and other reforms. Born, 1816. 

Stedman, Edmund Clarence. American poet, and 
banker. Aside from his original compositions, 
edited Victorian Poets, American Poets, Li¬ 
brary of American Literature. Born, 1833. 

Stephens, Alexander H. American statesman. 
Vice-President of the Southern Confederacy. 
Born, 1812; died, 1883. 

Stephenson, George. English inventor of the 
locomotive. In 1814 constructed a locomotive 
which drew eight cars; invented the steam 
blast pipe, and greatly improved the construction 
of the railroad ; finally built an engine running 
thirty-five miles an hour. Born, 1781; died, 1848. 

Stephenson, Robert. English inventor of the 
tubular bridge. Born, 1803 ; died, 1859. 

Sterne, Laurence. English writer. Tristram 
Shandy, Sentimental Journey . Born, 1713 ; 

died, 1768. 

Stevenson, Robert Louis Balfour. English novel¬ 
ist. Treasure Island (1883) won him fame; 
died in the Samoan Islands, where he made his 
home. Born, 1850; died, 1894. 

Stevenson, Adlai Ewing. American statesman. 
Vice-President of the United States, 1893-97, 
with Grover Cleveland. Nominated again in 
1900, with William Jennings Bryan, but failed of 
election. Born, 1835. 

Stewart, Alexander T. American millionaire 
merchant. Born, 1803; died, 1876. 

Stockton, Francis Richard. American novelist, 
and writer of humorous and fantastic tales. 
Rudder Grange and The Lady or the Tiger? 
Born, 1834. 

Story, Joseph. American jurist. Justice of the 
Supreme Court. Commentaries on the Consti¬ 
tution. Born, 1779; died, 1845. 

Stowe, Harriet E. Beecher. Uncle Tom's Cabin. 
Born, 1812 ; died, 1896. 

Strauss, David Friedrich. German rationalist. 
Originator of the mythical theory of the Scrip¬ 
tures ; Professor of Divinity at Zurich. Author 
of The Life of fesus , which caused a great sensa¬ 
tion by its skepticism. Born, 1808; died, 1874. 

Stuart, Gilbert C. American portrait painter. 
Portrait of George Washington. Born, 1756; 
died, 1828. 

Sullivan, Sir Arthur. Noted English musical 
composer. Author of Pinafore Pirates of Pen 
zance, and Patience. Born, 1844; died, 1900. 

Sumner, Charles. American Republican states¬ 
man, orator, and Senator. The Grandeur of 
Nations. Born, 1811; died, 1874. 


Swedenborg, Emanuel. Swedish religionist and 
naturalist. The central point of his theosophy 
is the correspondence of the natural and the 
supernatural. Born, 1689 ; died, 1772. 

Swift, Jonathan. Irish divine and satirist. Entered 
Church; became Dean of St. Patrick’s; Tale of a 
Tub, Gulliver's Travels. Born, 1667 ; died, 1745. 
alley rand Perigord, Charles Maurice, Prince 
of. French diplomatist and wit. Minister of 
Foreign Affairs. Born, 1754 ; died, 1836. 

Taney, Roger B. American jurist and Democratic 
statesman. Chief Justice of the United States. 
Born, 1777; died, 1864. 

Taylor, Bayard. American traveler, novelist, 
poet. Translator of Goethe’s Faust; Prince 
Deucalion ; Masque of the Gods ; John Godfrey's 
Fortunes. Born, 1825 ; died, 1878. 

Taylor, Zachary. American President. Entered 
army in 1808; major-general in Mexican War; 
won battle of Buena Vista ; elected President by 
the Whigs in 1848. Born, 1784; died, 1850. 

Temple, Sir William. English statesman and 
author. Negotiated the Triple Alliance of 1668. 
Born, 1628; died, 1699. 

Tennyson, Alfred. English poet. Educated at 
Cambridge ; made poet-laureate in 1850. In Me- 
moriam, Enoch Arden, The Princess , Maud, 
The Idylls of the King, Queen Mary, Harold. 
Born, 1809 ; died, 1893. 

Tesla, Nikola. American electrician of Servian 
birth. He made remarkable experiments with 
currents of high frequency, and invented useful 
electrical devices. Born, 1857. 

Thackeray, William Makepeace. English novelist; 
born in Calcutta. Henry Esmond, Vanity Fair, 
The Newcomes, Pendennis, The Four Georges, 
English Humorists. Born, 1811; died, 1863. 

Thiers, Louis Adolphe. First President of the 
French Republic (1871-73.) History of the Con¬ 
sulate and Empire. Born, 1797 ; died, 1877. 

Thomas, George H. American Federal general. 
Saved army at Chickamauga; won battle of 
Nashville. Born, 1816 ; died, 1870. 

Thompson, Sir John S. O. Canadian jurist. At¬ 
torney-General and Minister of Justice (1885); 
Premier of Canada (1893). Born, 1844; died, 1894. 

Thomson, James. Scotch poet. The Seasons, 
The Castle of Indolence, Tancred and Sigis- 
munda. Born, 1700; died, 1748. 

Thoreau, Henry D. American author. The Con¬ 
cord and Merrimac Rivers, The Maine Woods. 
Born, 1817; died, 1862. 

Thorwaldsen, Albert D. Danish sculptor. Trium¬ 
phal March of Alexander, Statues of Christ and 
His Apostles. Born, 1770; died, 1844. 

Tindale, William. English reformer and martyr. 
Translated the New Testament into English. 
Was strangled and burned at the stake for heresy. 
Born, 1480 ; died, 1536. 

Tilden, Samuel J. American Democratic states 
man. Candidate for President in 1876. Born 
1814; died, 1885. 

Titian. (Tiziano Vecelli.) Italian painter. Among 
his masterpieces are the Assumption of the 
Virgin, Presentation of the Virgin, The Last 
Supper. Born, 1477 ; died, 1566. 





FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


523 


Tocqueville, Alexis C. H. C. de. French author. 

American Democracy. Born, 1805 ; died, 1859. 

Tolstoi, Count Leo. Russian writer and social re¬ 
former. Famous as a poet and novelist; devoted 
himself to remedy the ills of poverty ; living and 
toiling like a peasant. In 1901 he was banished 
from Russia on account of his radical teachings. 
War and Peace, Anna Karenina , The Kreutzer 
Sonata, etc. Born, 1828. 

Toombs, Robert. American ;t'dhsman. United 
States Senate, 1853-59 ; leader of Georgia seces- 
sionists.. Born, 1810; died, 1885. 

Torricelli, Evangelista. Italian physicist. In¬ 
ventor of the barometer. Born, 1608 ; died, 1647. 

Toussaint I’Ouverture, Francois. Negro chief of 
the Haytien Rebellion. Born, 1743 ; died, 1803. 

Trollope, Anthony. English novelist. Barchester 
Tnuers. Born, 1815 ; died, 1882. 

Trrwbridge, John Townsend. American author, 
port, and juvenile writer. Coupon Bonds and 
'The 'Vagabonds are his best known productions. 
Born, 1827. 

Tupper, Sir Charles. A Canadian statesman. 
Served in several ministerial offices, and as Lord 
High Commissioner in London ; Premier (1896). 
Born, 1821. 

Turner, Joseph M. W. English painter. The 
Slave Ship. Born, 1775; died, 1851. 

Tweed, William Marcy. Famous Tammany 
“boss” in New York City. Convicted of fraud 
and imprisoned ; escaped to Spain, but was sent 
back, and died in prison. Born, 1823 ; died, 1878. 

Tyler, John. American President. Born in Vir¬ 
ginia ; practiced law ; M. C. 1816-21; Governor 
of Virginia 1825 ; elected U. S. Senator 1827 ; re¬ 
signed 1836 ; elected Vice-President on Whig 
ticket 1840 ; succeeded Harrison on his death in 
1841. Born, 1790; died, 1862. 

Tyndall, John. English physicist. Heat Considered 
as a Mode of Motion. Born, 1820; died, 1893. 
Attorney-General of New York 1815 ; leading 
man of the “ Albany Regency ; ” 

V an Buren, Martin. American President. En¬ 
tered bar 1803 ; elected U. S. Senator by the 
Democrats 1821; Governor of New York 1828; 
Secretary of State 1829-31; Vice-President 1833- 
37; President 1837-41. Born, 1782; died, 1862. 
Vandyke, Sir Anthony. Flemish painter in Eng¬ 
land. Pupil of Rubens ; settled in England in 
1632, among his best works are The Erection of 
the Cross, Portrait of the Earl of Strafford, 
and a Crucifixion. Born, 1599 ; died, 1641. 

Van Rensselaer, Stephen. American statesman 
and landholder. The Patroon. Founder of the 
Rensselaer Institute. Born, 1764 ; died, 1839. 
Vancouver, George. English navigator. Dis¬ 
coverer of Vancouver’s Island. Born. 1758 ; died, 
died 1798. 

Vanderbilt, Cornelius. American capitalist. 
Founder of the Vanderbilt family and fortune. 
Born, 1794; died, 1877. 

Vane, Sir Henry English painter. Statesman ; 
leader of independents ; head of navy ; beheaded. 
Born, 1612 ; died, 1662. 

Verdi, Guiseppe. Italian musical composer and 


Senator. Among his productions are Ernani, 
La Traviata, II Trovatore, Montezuma, and 
Aida.. Born, 1814 ; died, 1901. 

Vespucius, Americus. Italian navigator. America 
.was named after him. Born, 1451 ; died, 1512. 
Victor, Emmanuel II. King of Sardinia; first 
King of Italy ; restorer of Italian unity. Born, 
1820 ; died, 1878. 

Victor, Emmanuel III. King of Italy. Succeeded 
to the throne in 1900, on the assassination of his 
father, Humbert I. Born, 1869. 

Voltaire, Francois M. Arouetde. French philoso¬ 
pher, poet, historian, w T it, skeptic. Passed the 
years 1750-53 with Frederick the Great; took up 
his residence (1755) atFerney ; The Age of Louis 
XIV., Essay on the Manners of Nations, and 
Candide. Born, 1694 ; died, 1778. 

W ade, Benjamin F. American politician. Re¬ 
publican Senator from Ohio ; Abolitionist. 
Born, 1800; died, 1878. 

Wagner, Richard. German composer. Lohen¬ 
grin, Gotterdammerung, Tannhauser, Rhein- 
gold, Nibelungenlied ; produced Parsifal at Bay¬ 
reuth, 1882. Born, 1813 ; died, 1883. 
Wainwright, Richard. U. S. naval officer. Execu¬ 
tive officer of the battleship Maine, blown up in 
Havana harbor; commander of the Gloucester, 
battle of Santiago, 1898. Born, 1849. 

Wales, Albert Edward. Eldest son of Queen Vic¬ 
toria. Became King of England on the death of 
his mother, January, 1901, under the title of Ed¬ 
ward VTI. Born, 1841. 

Wallace, Lewis. An American soldier and novel¬ 
ist. General in the Civil War ; wrote Ben Hur, 
The Prince of India, etc. Born, 1827. 

Wallace, Sir William. Scotch patriot and general. 
Fought Edward I. of England ; executed. Born, 
1270; died, 1305. 

Wallenstein, Albert, Count of, German general. 
Opponent of Gustavus Adolphus, by whom he 
was defeated, 1632 ; in 1634 he was deprived of 
his command and assassinated. Born, 1583; 
died, 1634. 

Walton, Izaak. English writer. The Complete 
Angler. Born, 1593 ; died, 1683. 

Wanamaker, John. An American merchant. 
Originator of the department store idea; Post¬ 
master-General 1889-93. Born, 1838. 

Ward, Mrs. Humphrey. English novelist. Grand¬ 
daughter of Dr. Arnold, of Rugby. Robert 
Elsmere, Marcella . etc. Born,1851. 

Warner, Charles Dudley. American humorist and 
essayist. Summer in a Garden, Back-log 
Studies, Washington Irving (1881), Captain 
John Smith, In the Levant. Born, 1828 ; died, 
1900. 

Washington, George. Commander-in-chief in the 
American Revolution. First President of the 
United States; aide-de-camp to Braddock in the 
Indian campaign of 1755 ; married Martha Custis, 
1759 ; chosen to Congress, 1774 ; appointed Com¬ 
mander-in-chief, 1775 ; President, 1789-97. Born, 
1732; died, 1799. 

Watt, James. Scotch inventor. Principal inventor 
of the steam engine ; used the expansive force of 




5 2 4 


FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN 


steam to depress a piston ; improved engines for 
pumping water. Born, 1736 ; died, 1819. 

Webster, Daniel. American lawyer, orator, and 
statesman. Greatest legal effort was the Dart¬ 
mouth College case; greatest Congressional 
speech was his reply to Hayne. Born, 1782 ; 
died, 1852. 

Webster, Noah. American lexicographer. Dic¬ 
tionary of the English Language . Born, 1758; 
died, 1843. 

Wedgewood, Josiah. English potter. Originator 
and maker of the famous “Wedgewood” ware. 
Born, 1730; died, 1795. 

Wellington, Arthur Wellesley. Duke of. British 
general and statesman. General in India ; was 
made commander-in-chief in Spain and Portugal; 
fought the battles of Talavera, Sabagal, and Al- 
buera ; captured Badajos, 1812 ; won at Waterloo, 
1815 ; was afterward Prime Minister and Minis¬ 
ter of Foreign Affairs. Born, 1769; died, 1852. 

Wesley, Charles, Rev. English poet and divine. 
Hymns . Born, 1708; died, 1788. 

Wesley, John. Founder of the Methodist Wes- 
leyans. Born, 1703 ; died, 1791. 

West, Benjamin. American painter in England. 
The Death of Wolfe, Death on the Pale Horse. 
Born, 1738 ; died, 1820. 

Westinghouse, George. American inventor. 
Famous for inventing the Westinghouse air¬ 
brake. Born, 1846. 

Wheeler, Joseph. American soldier. Graduated 
at West Point in 1859; entered Confederate 
service in Civil War; entered Congress, 1881 ; 
took part in the Santiago campaign in Cuba in 
1898 ; served in the Philippines in 1899 ; appointed 
brigadier general in U. S. army. Born, 1836. 

Whitefield, George, Rev. English Methodist 
preacher and revivalist. Born, 1714 ; died, 1770. 

Whitney, Eli. American inventor. The cotton- 
gin. Born, 1765 ; died, 1825. 

Whittier, John Greenleaf. American poet, farmer, 
shoemaker, journalist, anti-slavery agitator. 
Snow-Bound, Voices of Freedom , Home Bal¬ 
lads, In War Time, The Tent on the Beach. 
Born, 1808 ; died, 1893. 

Whitman, Walt. American poet. Editor, car¬ 
penter, nurse, government clerk. Leaves of 
Grass, The Two Rivulets, Drum Taps, Demo¬ 
cratic Vistas. Born, 1819 ; died, 1892. 

Wilberforce, William. English philanthropist, 
statesman, and reformer. Secured abolition of 
slave trade. Born, 1759; died, 1833. 

Willard, Frances Elizabeth. American temper¬ 
ance reformer and lecturer. Founder of the 
World’s W. T. C. U., and its first president; 
author of several reformatory works. Born, 
1839 ’> died, 1898. 

William 1 . Seventh King of Prussia, and first 
German Emperor. He succeeded to the throne 
in 1861, and was crowned Emporer in 1871, on 
the formation of the German Empire after the 
Franco-Prussian War. Born, 1797 ; died, 1888. 

William II. Emperor of Germany. Son of 
Frederick, the second Emperor, whom he suc¬ 
ceeded in 1888. Born, 1859. 


Williams, Roger. Founder of Rhode Island 
Colony. Born, 1606 ; died, 1683. 

Winthrop, John. Governor and founder of the 
Massachusetts Bay Colony. Born, 1588; died, 1649. 

Wolsey, Thomas, Cardinal. English statesman. 
Chancellor of Henry VIII.; secured Henry's 
divorce from Catherine. Born, 1471; died, 1530. 

Worcester, J. E. American lexicographer. Dic¬ 
tionary. Born, 1734 ; died, 1866. 

Wordsworth, William. English poet. Educated 
at Cambridge ; with Coleridge produced Lyrical 
Ballads , 1798 ; settled at Rydal Mount, 1803 ; 
published Poems , 1807 ; The Excursion , 1814. 
Among his other works are Ecclesiastical Son¬ 
nets, The Wagoner, Yarrow Revisited , The 
Prelude. Born, 1770; died, 1850. 

Wren, Sir Christopher. English architect. St. 
Paul’s Cathedral. Born, 1632 ; died, 1723. 

Wycliffe, John. English reformer. Translator 
of the Scriptures. Born, 1324 ; died, 1384. 
avier, Francis, Saint. ‘ ‘ Apostle of the Indies. ’ ’ 
Jesuit missionary to India and Japan. Born, 
1506; died, 1552. 

Xerxes I. King of Persia. Invader of Greece ; 
beaten at Salamis. Born, b. c. —; died, 465. 
ale, Elihu. Founder of Yale College. Born, 
1648 ; died, 1721. 

Yonge, Charlotte. A well-known author, writer of 
novels, and children’s books and histories. The 
Heir of Redclyffe, Cameos of History of Eng¬ 
land. Born, 1823 5 died, 1901. 

Young, Brigham. American religionist. Head of 
the Mormons. Born, 1801 ; died, 1877. 

Young, Edward. English poet. Rector of Welwyn, 
in Hertfordshire. Night Thoughts, The Revenge, 
The Love of Fame. Born, 1684 ; died, 1756. 
enobia, Septimia. Queen of Palmyra (266-73.) 
Her dominions extended from the Mediter¬ 
ranean to the Euphrates, and included a large 
part of Asia Minor. She refused allegiance to 
Aurelian, who defeated her and captured Palmyra; 
passed the rest of her life at Tibur, in Italy. 
Born, — ; died, 275. 

Zeuxis. Greek painter. The Infant Hercules 
Strangling a Serpent. Flourished b. c. 5th 
century. 

Zinzendorf, Nicholas Louis, Count of. Founder 
of the Moravians. The Journey of Atticus 
Through the World. Born, 1700 ; died, 1760. 

Ziska, John. Hussite chief. Beat Imperial armies 
thirteen times. Born, 1360 ; died, 1424. 

Zola, Emile. French novelist. Wrote Contes a 
Ninon and other collections of short stories, and 
a large number of realistic novels. Among the 
latest are Lourdes, Rome, and Paris Born, 1840. 

Zoroaster. A Persian philosopher. Distinguished 
as the founder of the Magian religion. 1500 to 
200 b. c. 

Zwingli, Ulric. Swiss reformer. Exposition of 
the Christian Faith. Killed in battle. Born 
1484; died, 1531. 

Zwirner, Ernst Friedrich. German architect. 
Completed Cathedral of Cologne ; built many 
castles on the Rhine, famed for their beauty. 
Born, 1802 ; died, 1861. 








THE ARCH OF TRI U M PH-PA RIS 

The largest Triumphal Arch in the world, being ninety feet high and forty feet wide. 














































































































































































































































































































































































































































































BOOK VIII 


HISTORY and GEOGRAPHY 

THE IMPORTANT FACTS AND STATISTICS ACCORDING TO LATEST 
REPORTS OF THE AREAS, POPULATIONS, AND GOVERNMENTS OF ALL 
COUNTRIES, WITH THE IMPORTANT AND INTERESTING FACTS ABOUT 
EACH—BEAUTIFUL AND ACCURATE COLOR CHARTS PREPARED ESPE¬ 
CIALLY FOR THIS WORK, GIVING THE LATEST AND MOST AUTHENTIC 
STATISTICS ON INTERESTING INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL ENTER¬ 
PRISES, WITH VALUABLE STATISTICAL INFORMATION ON MANY 
OTHER SUBJECTS; ALSO INTERESTING HISTORICAL CHARTS IN COLOR 
GIVING THE HISTORY OF THE WORLD BY CENTURIES FROM 2000 B.C. 
TO THE PRESENT TIME. 

A CONVENIENT BOOK OF REFERENCE FOR HISTORY 
AND GEOGRAPHY 


527 





COMPARATIVE POPULATION OF ALL AMERICAN CITIES OF OVER 100,000 INHABITANTS 

CENSUS OF 1900 

Also statement of the area in acres covered by each, and average density of population. 


Comparative Chart 
According to Population 


38 Scranton, Pa. 

37 Memphis, Tenn. 

36 Los Angeles, Cal. 

35 Omaha, Neb. 

34 St. Joseph, Mo... 

33 Fall River, Mass. 

32 Paterson, N.J. 

31 New Haven, Conn. 

30 Syracuse, N. Y. 

29 Worcester, Mass. 

28 Columbus, O. 

27 Allegheny, Pa. 

26 Toledo, O...,. 

25 Denver, Col. 

24 Rochester, N. Y. 

23 St. Paul, Minn. 

22 Kansas City, Mo. 

21 Indianapolis, Ind. 

20 Providence, R. I. 

19 Minneapolis, Minn. 

18 Louisville, Ky. 

17 Jersey City, N. J. 

26 Newark, N. J. 

15 Washington, D. C. 

14 Milwaukee, Wis. 

13 Detroit, Mich,. 

12 New Orleans, La. 

J1 Pittsburg, Pa. 

L0 Cincinnati, O. 

9 San Francisco, Cal. 

8 Buffalo, N. Y. 

T Cleveland, O. 

6 Baltimore, Md. 

•5 Boston, Mass. 

4 St. Louis, Mo. 

3 Philadelphia, Pa. 

2 Chicago, Ill. 

1 Greater New York N Y 



108,027 


108,074 


118,^21 


125,860 


129,896 


131,832 


133,8 59 


762,485 


162,632 


163,712 


164,164 


175,597 


202 ; 718 

204,731 


206,433 


246,070 


278,718 


285,315 


285,704 


287,104 


321,616 


325,902 


342,782 


352,219 


381, 768 


Area 
in Acres 


12,198 

10,210 

17,774 

15,680 

6,400 

26,240 

5,357 

14,340 

10,041 

21,772 

10,100 

5,010 

18,281 

31,485 

11,635 

35,483 

16,610 

17,792 

11,705 

34,105 

12,800 

8,320 

11,840 

44,320 

13,624 

18,560 

25,600 

19,418 

20,860 

27,000 

25,344 

21,190 


Inhabitants 
Per Acre 


10 — 
6 — 

16 + 

4 — 

19 + 
8 — 
9 + 

5 + 
12 + 
26 — 

> + 

4 + 

14 — 

5 — 

10-L- 

9 + 

15 + 

6 — 

16 — 
25 — 

20 + 
6 + 

21 — 

lO- 

ll + 
16 + 
16 + 

13 — 

14 — 
18 + 


•J. V 

£ ~ 


O jj 
l~ ~ 

.c rt 


a v 

<u .tJ 

e a 
•c 

rt <u 

o -5 

W! . 

'.j 3 

15 C 

U o 

s- .- 
O fc 
C t> 
c " 

ju 

„ c 

3 43 
§■ * 
<D •£ 

<L> <L> 


Cj 


O 

E _ 

5 1 

£ ^ 
V « 

£ ^ 
4-t U 

•£ rt 

c 2 

v, o 


— > 


^ 43 

■ a to 
— v 
c a 

■ O < 


Q. f 

O > 

a - 


V 


a t> 


a a i 
-o £ o 

S 5 “ 


V 


V 


X. (/-. 

V — 
W) rt 

a — 
x ! 


<U •— 

SI 

C/I 43 
•35 

— 
'5 S 


c« g 
> °- 
o 

2 


T 3 
C 

cS „ 

CtJ 4, 


C £ 
.2 o 

3 V- 

43 O 
O «, 
> u 


o rt 

c a 


a o 
o . 

a 

I 1 

C _ 

D *- 

V tn 
4 = cl 


& -n 


2 o 
bi <N 

ft ^ 


508,957 

24,772. 

21 jr 

■£ * 'o > “ Z S 

sg g-i s 

560,892 

60,661 

9 + 

ft G £>■ rH *'"* ^ 

575,238 

39,277 

15 — 

^ c ^ 

rt be rt o • 

43 V 43 

7,293,697 

84,933 

154 

w 43 - > O, 

7,698,275 

122,240 

12- 


■3,437,202 

797,792 

174 

J 


/ 





















































































































COMPARATIVE RAILROAD MILEAGE OF THE WORLD 


X 





MV/7ZZ? STATES 








or 










AA/fA'/CA 












RAI L.ROAD 

SPEED 

Notable Fast Runs of 

Passenger Trains for Long 

Distances, Including Stops, 

May, 1848, Great Western 
(England), London-Didcol, 
distance,53.25 miles; average 
miles per hour, 68. 

Mar., 1892, New York Central & 

H. R., Onedia-De Witt, dis¬ 
tance, 21.37 miles; average miles 
per hour, 72.69. 

Nov., 1892, New York Central & H. 

R., Syracuse-Utica, distance, 51 67 
miles ; average miles per hour, 67.38. 

May, 1893, New York Central & H. R., 

Syracuse Rochester, distance 80.38 miles; 
average miles per hour, 68.45. 

April, 1895. Pennsylvania, Camden-Atlantic 
City, distance, 58-3 miles; average miles per 
hour, 76.50. 

Sept., 1895, New York Central “World Flyer,” 

Albany-Syracuse, distance, 148 miles; average 
miles per hour, 68.3. 

Oct., 1895, Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, 

Chicago-Buffalo, distance, 510 miles; average 
miles per hour, 65.7. 

April, 1897, Lehigh Valley, Black Diamond Exp., 

Alpine, N Y.-Geneva Junction. N. Y , distance, 

43.96 miles; average miles per hour, 80. 

Oct., 1899. Burlington Route, Mendota-Clyde, distance 
74.3 miles ; average miles per hour, 68.58. 

May. 1900, Burlington Route, Burlington-Chicago, dis¬ 
tance, 205.8 miles ; average miles per hour; 65.5. 

Fastest Recorded Runs for Short Distances, 

Without Stops. 

July, 1890, Phila. & Reading, Skillmans-Belle Meade, distance, 
4.1 miles; average miles per hour, 98.4. 

May, 1893, N. Y. Central & H. R.% Grimesville, distance, 1 mile; 
average miles per hour, 102.8. 

May. 1893, N . Y. Central & H. R„ Crittenden- 
“Empire State Express,” distance, 1 mile; 
average miles per hour. 112.5. 

May, 1893, N.Y. Central & H. R., Looney- 
ville-Grimesville, distance, 5 miles; 
average miles per hour, 100. 

Aug., 1895, Pennsylvania, Landover- 
Anacosta, distance, 5.1 miles; 
average miles per hour, 102. 

Jan., 1S99, Burlington Route, 

Siding-Arion. distance, 

2.4 miles; average 
miles per hour, 130. 




up 













































































































COMPARATIVE PROGRESS OF COTTON MANUFACTURING, 
NORTH AND SOUTH, 1890-1900 


Year Ending August 31st. Number of Bales Manufactured. 


-1890- 


-1891- 


North 


South 


North 


South 


1,799,258 


546,894 


2,027,362 


604,661 


From this chart it will be observed that in eleven 
years the advance in the cotton manufacture in South¬ 


ern mills was from 546,894 bales to 1,597,112 Dales, or 
about 200 per cent., while that of the Northern mills 


-1892- 


-1893— 


-1894- 


-1895- 


-1896- 


•1897- 


North 


South 


North 


South 


North 


South 


North 


South 


North 


South 


North 


South 


2,190,766 


686,080 


1,687 286 


743,348 


1,601,173 


718,513 


2,083,838 


862,838 


1,609,271 


904,701 


1,804,680 


1,042,671 


was from 1,799,258 bales to 2,068,300 bales, or about 
15 per cent. gain. 


A striking feature of the advance in the Soutn 
the fact that every year has shown an increase ex¬ 


cept 1894, when there was a decline of about 25,000 
bales. But the next year advanced above 140,000 


bales. The more rapid advance in recent years is 
also a marked feature of Southern manufacture. 


The indications strongly suggest that within 
another decade the bulk of cotton manufacture will 


be transferred to the territory where the staple is 
grown. 


-1898- 


North 


South 


2,211,740 


1.231,841 


-1899- 


North 


South 


2,190,095 


1,399,399 



North 


South 


2,068,300 


1,599,112 
































































COM 


PARATIVE YIELD OF THE WORLD’S GREAT FARM PRODUCTS 

















IMPORTS, EXPORTS, WEALTH AND DEBTS OF NATIONS 



IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF FOREIGN COUNTRIES 

Compiled frum the Latest Reports of U. S. Bureau of Foreign Commerce 


Countries. 


Great Britain. . 

France (special commerce).... 

Germany. 

Italy. 

Russia. 

Sweden. 

Denmark. 

Norway. 

Spain. 

Switzerland. 

Belgium (special commerce). 

Greece. 

A ustria-II u ngary. 

Netherlands. 

Portugal. 

Turkey in Europe. 

Canada... 

Mexico. 

Costa Rica. 


Imports. 


$2,360,619,900 

813.909.900 
1,376,503,500 

290,766,300 

306.154.600 
122,006,700 
121,940,000 

83,210,100 

165,559,000 

232,000,000 

436.218.600 
29,352,200 

337.307.900 
770,427,000 

54.673.900 
11,890,600 

182,951,400 

61.304.900 
4,136,700 


Exports. 


$1,604,388,700 

752,534,400 

1,039,681,300 

276.263.300 
309,835,800 

92,435,700 

86,564,000 

42,719,200 

137,234,100 

159,000,000 

376,214,500 

17,270,500 

347.431.300 
636,223,000 

31,142,900 

6,691,500 

175,656,900 

71,396,600 

4,929,900 


Countries. 


Guatemala. 

Nicaragua. 

Argentine Republic. 

Brazil. 

Chile. 

Ecuador. 

Paraguay. 

Peru. 

Uruguay. 

Venezuela. 

British India. 

China. 

Japan... 

Cape Colony. 

Natal. 

New South Wales.... 

New Zealand. 

Victoria. 

Queensland. 


Imports. 


$2,694,100 

1,963,700 

116.850.700 
105,393,000 

38,785,000 

5,475,300 

2,482,800 

8,205,900 

25.551.800 
13,241,000 

293.345.200 
188,103,800 

109.760.200 

74.802.800 
25,094,900 

124.554.700 
42,532,900 

87.370.800 
32,917,000 


Exports. 

$8,370,500 

3,253,200 

184,917,500 

124.770.900 
59,533,700 

8,151,700 

2,299,400 

13,457,900 

62,126,000 

21,510,000 

374.163.900 
139,105,100 
107,035,100 

113.132.800 

14.729.600 

138.429.800 
58,099,900 
90,363,200 

58.120.600 


COMPARATIVE WEALTH AND INDEBTEDNESS OF GREAT NATIONS 








































































World's Annual Production of Four Great Staples 




COAL 

Area of the World’s Coal Fields in Square Miles: China and Japan, 200 , 000 ; United States, 194 , 000 ; India, 
35 , 000 ; Russia, 27 , 000 ; Great Britain, 9 , 000 ; Germany, 3 , 600 ; France, 1 , 800 ; all other European countries, 1 ; 400 ; total, 471 , 800 . 
It is estimated that- the supply is sufficient at the rate of present demand to last the world 1000 years. 

WOOL 

In 1860 the world’s supply of wool was 955 , 000,000 pounds. 

In 1900 the world’s supply of wool was 2 , 685 , 105,013 pounds, nearly three hundred per cent, increase. 

COTTON 

The United States produces nearly three-fourths of all cotton grown in the world. 

TOBACCO 

More than one-third of the tobacco crop of the world is grown by the United States. 





























THE MONEY OF THE WORLD 

Showing the Gold, Silver and Paper Currency of the Nations of the World, also the Amount per Capita. In Million Dollars. 


Country 

Cuba 

a 

a 

0 

O 

2 

* 

w 

> 

a 

c n 

2 

PAPER 

Total 

All Central 4 
American > 
Republics j 

1 

12 

7 

20 

Switzerland 

24 

10 

20 

54 

Canada 

20 

5 

41 

66 

Norway and) 
Sweden j 

22 

9 

36 

67 

Turkey and ) 
Greece j 

50 

42 

20 

112 

The ) 

Netherlands J 

27 

53 

42 

122 

Australasia 

129 

6 


135 

Belgium 

21 

40 

93 

154 

Japan 

61 

26 

70 

157 

Mexico 

9 

106 

54 

169 

Siam 

20 

193 

2 

215 

Italy 

98 

43 

174 

315 

Austria- 1 

Hungary J 

244 

96 

93 

433 

Spain and ) 
Portugal j 

77 

243 

157 

477 

Great Britain 

486 

112 

112 

710 

China 


750 


750 

Russia 

791 

105 


896 

Germany 

698 

208 

173 

1,079 

All South 1 
American L 
Republics J 

73 

24 

1,180 

1,277 

France 

810 

421 

194 

1,425 

United States 

1,020 

643 

336 

1,999 


24 


129 

6 

21 

10 

93 

61 

26 

70 


41 


9 36 


50 42 


27 53 42 


106 54 



193 


98 

43 

174 


244 

96 

93 

77 

243 

157 


EXPLANATION 

This interesting chart shows 
that an abundance of money has 
little to do with national wealthor 
prosperity. For instance France 
has Itwice as much money, per 
inhabitant, as Great Britain and 
nearly twice as much gold, yet 
Great Britain exports more than 
double that of France, and her 
imports approximate three times 
as much. The kingdom of Siam 
has $43per inhabitant, thelargest 
amount of any country in the 
world, and it is nearly all in gold 
and silver, but her commerce is 
below that of other nations which 
nave not one-third her per capita 
circulation. 

Experience shows that all 
gold coin is reminted or at least 
melted down every forty years. 


GOLD 

SILVER 

PAPER 


Total Pe> 
Capita 


2.20 


5.91 

17.80 


12.00 


8.50 

4.58 

24.00 

29.9? 


22.9L 


9.93 

13.41 


43.00 

5.61 

9.36 


27.02 


486 


112 


112 


7.50 


7.46 


1.96 


791 


698 


73 


105 


208 


173 


1,180 


810 


421 


194 


6.89 

2065 

33.00 

32.03 

26.21 


1,020 


643 


336 


















































































Comparative Areas of Land and Water on the Globe and 
also comparative Areas and Population of the Nations 
of the World divided into Monarchies and Republics. 



STATISTICS OF THE SMALLER COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD 




Population 

Square Miles 

C/3 1 

f Belgium. 

A O'TO 049 


.1 


U,U9U.U4*> 

9 no A 04 Q 

11.373 

JZ 


,U4»> 

9 QOO 

18,757 

o 

t_ 

Roumania. 

a 37 non 

24 , 9 / / 

AR A 

c« 

e 

Denmark. 

Ud)l U ,Uw 

9 933 103 

40,014 

1 oi A no 

o 


in p; i q AOo 

1U1,4Uo 
or non 

2 


K 700 OAO 

oO,l)UO 

. | 

f San Salvador. 

300 ^ro 

280,550 

OOQ 


Switzerland. 

9 Q99 QQj 

1 PC Oil 

e/3 

Costa Hica. 

ZtyUOO ,004 

30Q 039 


U 

San Domingo. 

OU«7 , DOO 

000 000 

19,985 

20,596 



UUU.OUU 
1911 09A 

3 


J Z 1 1 ,1)40 

1 ooo ooo 

29,830 

41,655 

Cl. 

Ho mu liras. 

1 ,uuu uuu 

490 000 

QC 

Guatemala. 

n^U.UUU 

42,658 


Nicaragua... 

4,000,0o4 

490 000 

46,774 


Uruguay. 

44U.UUU 

840,725 

51,660 

72,112 





















































THE HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

BY CENTURIES 

Ancient History to the Christian Era. 


2229 TO 1000 B. C. 

2229 Assyria founded by Ashur. 

2200 The Hia dynasty in China founded. 

2188 Misriam settled Egypt. 

2100 Nimrod builds Babylon. 

2000 Ninus builds Nineveh. 

2000 Cuneiform writing used. 

1950 Abraham flourished. 

1896 to 1800 Isaac, Jacob and Joseph 
succeeded each other in Jewish 
History. 

1582 Beginning of the Arundelian marble 
Chronology. 

1500 Sesostris, King. 

1500 Moses flourished. 

1450 Joshua flourished. 

1450 Israelites enter Canaan. 

1352 Rule of the Judges begins in Israel 

1273 Rise of the Assyrian Empire. 

1184 Trojan War. 

1125 Samuel flourished. 

1100 Chow dynasty in China founded. 

1090 Saul flourished. 

1050 David flourished. 

1050 Codrus King of Athens 

1048 David takes Jerusalem. 

1048 Hiram, King of Tyre. 

1000 Solomon flourished. 


1000 TO 600 B. C. 

975 Rehoboam, King after Solomon. 

971 Revolt of the Ten Tribes under 
Jeroboam. 

971 Egyptians capture Jerusalem. 

884 Lycurgus reforms Spartan Consti¬ 
tution. 

878 Carthage founded by Dido. 

776 The Olympiads. First authentic date 
in Greek History. 

758 Syracuse founded. 

753 Rome founded. 

747 Babylon independent under Neb- 
onassar. 

743-723 First Messinian War. 

730 Shalmenezer subdued Phoenicia. 

722 Samaria taken by Sargon, King of 
Assyria. End of the Kingdom of 
Israel. Judah remains 130 years 
longer. 

720 Sennacherib besieges Jerusalem—his 
army destroyed. 

700 Numa Pompilius, King of Rome. 

687 Second Messinian War. 

624 Draco’s Laws at Athens. 

602 King Jehoiakim revolts from 
Babylon. 


600 TO 500 B. C. 

598 Capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchad¬ 
nezzar. 

594 Legislation of Solon at Athens. 

588 Pythian games begin celebration 
every 5 years. 

586 Jerusalem destroyed by Nebuchad¬ 
nezzar. End of the Kingdom of 
Judah. 

579 Nebuchadnezzar takes Ty’re. 

569 Same Monarch conquers Egypt. 

559 Persian Empire founded by Cy'rus. 

554 Cyrus conquers Lydia and captures 
Croesus. 

540-10 Era of Pythagoras. 

539 Marseilles founded by the Phoenic¬ 
ians. 

538 Cyprus captures Babylon. 

536 Cyrus releases Jews from captivity. 

535 Temple at Jerusalem rebuilt. 

529 Death of Cyrus. Cambyses suc¬ 
ceeds him. 

525 Conquest of Egypt by Cambyses. 

521 Darius 1 King of Persia. 

518 Birth of Pindar. 

515 2nd Temple dedicated. 

510 Tarquins Expelled. 

510 Rome and Athens become Republics 

508 1st Treaty, Rome and Carthage. 

507-06 Darius makes conquest of Thrace 
Pseonia and Macedonia. 


















FROM 500 B. C. TO BIRTH OF JESUS 


500 TO 400 B. C. 


490 Coriolanus banished from Rome. 

490 Battle of Marathon. (Victory 
gained by the Greeks over the 
Persians.) 

480 Battle at the Pass of Thermopylae. 
(Victory gained by the Greeks 
over the Persians.) 

480 Battle of Salamis. (Victory gained 
by the Greeks over the Persians.) 

479 Battle of Platasa. (Victory gained 
by the Greeks over the Persians.) 

471 Banishment of Themistocles for ten 
years. 

460 Ezra and Nehemiah rebuild Jeru¬ 
salem. 

458 Cincinnatus taken from the plough 
to be dictator. 

430 Thucydides born. 

429-348 Plato lived and flourished. 

429 Death of Pericles. 

425 Athenians capture Pylos. 

421 The peace of Nicias with Sparta. 

415 The Athenian expedition against 
Syracuse. 

405 Destruction of the Athenian fleet at 
zEgos Potamos. 

404 Athens compelled to surrender to 
the Spartans. 


400 TO 300 B. C. 


400 Xenophon born. 

399 Socrates dies by poison. 

385-332 Demosthenes flourished. 

387 Peace of Antalcidas (Corinthian 
War.) 

371 Battle of Leuctra. 

362 Battle of Mantinea. 

350 Destruction of Sidon. 

342 War between the Romans and Latins. 
338 Battle of Chaeronea, liberty of Greece 
ended. 

334 Battle of Granicus (Persians de¬ 
feated) . 


332 Destruction of Tyre by Alexander. 

« 

331 Battles of Arbela and Gaugamela. 

324 Diogenes flourished. 

323 Alexander the Great dies. 

322 Demosthenes commits suicide. 

317 Syracuse besieged by the Cartha¬ 
ginians. 

316 Antigonus is acknowledged regent of 
Alexander’s empire. 

314 OEschines flourished. 

312 The Stoics flourished. 

301 Battle of Ipsus. (Defeat of Antig¬ 
onus.) 


300 TO 200 B. C. 


295 Samnites defeated by the Romans. 

284 The translation of the Bible from 
Hebrew to Greek. 

281 Pyrrhus wars with Rome 

2S0 Theocritus flourished. 

280 Euclid flourished. 

275 Pyrrhus defeated by the Romans at 
Beneventum. 

261 The Romans win their first naval 
battle at Mylae. 

260 The Epicureans flourish. 

242 The Carthaginians defeated by the 
Romans. 

222 The Cisalpine Gauls are defeated by 
the Romans. 

217 Hannibal crosses the Apennines. 

216 Defeats the Romans at Cannae. 

212 Archimedes flourished. 

212 Syracuse destroyed. 

211 The Capuans, deserted by Hannibal, 
surrender to Rome. 

204 Scipio passes over into Africa. 

202 Battle of Zama. Defeat of the Car¬ 
thaginians. 


200 TO 100 B. C. 


197 Greece freed from Rome. 

148 Macedonia made a Roman province, 

146 Corinth destroyed. 

135 The Maccabees are governors and 
high priests of Judea. 

135 Numantia taken by Scipio. 

113 The Romans defeated by the Teu- 
tones and Cimbri. 

109 Metellus is sent into Africa against 
J ugurtha. 

107 C. Marius chosen consul by the 
people. 

102 The Teutones are defeated at Aquae 
Sextiae by Marius. 


100 B. C. TO 1 A. D. 


88 The Social War. 

88 Sylia sent against Mithridates (first 
Mithridatic war). 

87 Athens captured by Sylia. 

86 Marius is chosen consul for the 
seventh time, but dies a few months 
after. 

74-65 The second Mithridatic war. 

72 The revolt of the slaves. 

66 Pompey subdues the Armenians and 
defeats Mithridates. 

60 The Triumvirate formed (Pompey, 
Caesar, Crassus). 

58-50 Caesar’s wars in Gaul. 

49, 48 The second civil war at Rome. 

49 Caesar advances upon Rome with his 
army. 

48 Pompey defeated at Pharsalus: is 
assassinated in Egypt. 

44 Caesar assassinated. 

43 Second Triumvirate formed. ((Octa¬ 
vius, Anthony, Lepidus.) 

42 The Republicans, under Brutus and 
Cassius, defeated at Philippi. 

31 Victory of Octavius at Actium. 

30 Egypt a province of Rome. 

b. c. 30) , , t- 

a. o 14 f Augustus, Emperor 

4 Birth of Jesus. 


























The Christian Era from the Birth of Christ to the Year 900 


1 to 100 A. D. 


9 Romans under 
Varus defeated 
by Germans. 

14 Tiberius Emperor 
of Rome. 

29 Crucifixion of 
Jesus. 

40 Disciples of Jesus 
first called 
Christians. 

43 Romans under 
Claudius invade 
Britain. 

04 First Persecution 
of Christians at 
Rome. 

70 Titus destroys 
Jerusalem. 

78 Agricola Com¬ 
mands in Bri¬ 
tain. 

95 Second Persecu¬ 
tion. (Rome and 
Syria.) 


100 to 200 A. D. 


03 Trajan subdues 
the Dacians. 

10 Third Persecution 
(Bithynia). 

18 Fourth Persecu¬ 
tion (Asia Mi¬ 
nor). 

25 The Jewish na¬ 
tion, as a state, 
at an end. 

37 Jerusalem r e - 
stored under 
the name ZElia 
Capitolina. 

67 Fifth Persecution 
(Smyrna) — 
Martydom o f 
Polycarp. 

77 Sixth Persecution 
(Lyons). 

93 Septimius Sever- 
us, Emperor of 
Rome. 


200 to 300 A. D. 


02 Seventh Persecu¬ 
tion (Egypt). 

11 Death of Severus 
at York. 

36 Eighth Persecu¬ 
tion (Asia Mi¬ 
nor). 

50 Ninth Persecu¬ 
tion (Rome and 
Provinces). 

58 Tenth Persecu¬ 
tion (Rome and 
Africa) 

61 Capture of An¬ 
tioch by Sapor. 

73 Defeat of Zenobia 
and capture of 
Palmyra by 
Aurelian. 

86 Division of the 
Empire between 
Diocletian and 
Maximian. 

88-300 Britain inde¬ 
pendent under 
Carausius and 
Allectus. 


300 to 400 A. D. 


03 Eleventh Persecu¬ 
tion, beginning 
at Nicomedia. 

06 Accession of Con¬ 
stantine. 

08 Six Emperors at 
once. 

24 Constantine sole 

ruler. 

25 First General 

Council held at 
Nicaea. 

30 Dedication of 
Constantinople. 

G4 Division of the 
Empire under 
Valens and Val- 
entinian. 

76 Goths allowed to 
settle in Thrace 

81 Second General 
Council held at 
Constantinople. 

94 Paganism abol¬ 

ished by law. 

95 Arcadius rules 

the East; Hon- 
orius the West. 


400 to 500 A. D. 


10 Rome sacked by 
Alaric. 

10 Romans leave 
Britain. 

18 Pharamond, King 
of the Franks. 

31 Third General 
Council at 
Ephesus. 

39 Vandals take 
Carthage. 

49 Angles, Saxons, 
and Jutes in¬ 
vade Britain. 

51 Fourth G e n e r a 1 
CouncilatChal- 
cedon. 

51 Battle of Chalons 
between Ro¬ 
mans and Goths 
under Aetius 
and Theodoric, 
and Huns under 
Attila. 

55 Rome sacked by 
the Vandals. 

76 Fall of the West¬ 
ern Empire, 507 
years after bat¬ 
tle of Actium 
and 1229 from 
the building of 
Rome. 

86 Clovis Kingof the 
Franks con¬ 
quers the coun¬ 
try between the 
Seine and Loire 
Rivers. Won 
battle of Sois- 
sons. 

88 The Ostrogoths 
seize Italy. 


500 to 600 A. D. 


10 Paris the capital 
of Clovis. 

15 Supposed reign of 
Arthur in Bri¬ 
tain. 

27 Justinian begins 
to reign. 

33 Victories of Beli- 
sarius in Africa. 

36-39 Victories of 
Be 1 i sa r i u s in 
Italy. 

50 Foundation of Po¬ 

land by Lech. 

51 Silk manufacture 

first known in 
Europe. 

53 Ostrogothic king¬ 
dom in Italy 
ends. 

68 Lombards con¬ 
quer Italy. 

71 Birth of Moham¬ 
med. 

96 Mission of Augus¬ 
tine to Britain. 


600 to 700 A. D. 


22 The Hegira. 

32 Death of Moham¬ 
med. 

37 Jerusalem taken 
by Omar. 

40 Alexandria cap¬ 
tured by the 
Mohammedans 
under Amru. 

68-75 Saracens foiled 
at Constan¬ 
tinople. 

80 Sixth General 
Council at Con¬ 
stantinople. 


700 to 800 A. D. 


11 Invasion of Spain 
ty the Saracens 

16-18 Second fruit¬ 
less siege of 
Constantinople. 

32 Defeat of Sara¬ 
cens by C. Mar¬ 
tel in the great 
battle of Tours. 

50 The Abbasides 
get the caliphate 
52 Pepin 1 e Bref 
made King of 
France. 

71 Charlemagne sole 
ruler of the 
Franks. 

78 Battle of Ronce- 
valles. 

86 H a r o u n a 1 

Raschid caliph. 

87 Seventh General 

Council (at 
Nice). 

87 First landing of 

Danes in Eng¬ 
land. 

88 Irene, empress of 

the East. 

00 Charlemagne 
crowned at 
Rome. 


800 to 900 A. D. 


14 Charlemagne’s 
death. 

27 Egbert sole ruler 
of England. 

41 Battle of Fon- 
tenaille 

43 Treaty of Verdun. 

62 Ruric founds the 
Russian Empire 

71 Alfred the Great, 
King of Eng¬ 
land. 

75 Harold Fairhair 
founded King¬ 
dom of Norway 

































FROM THE YEAR 900 TO 1500 A. D. 


)oo to 1000 A. D. 


01 Alfred’s death. 

11 Rollo the Norse, 
man obtains 
Neustria. 

11 Conrad I., Em¬ 
peror of Ger¬ 
many. 

36 Otho the Great, 
Emperor of 
Germany. 

40 Emir al Omra 
first appointed 

62 Otho crowned 
Emperor of 
the West. 

69-75 John Zimisces, 
Emperor of 
the East. 

73 Otho’s death. 

87 Capetian dy¬ 
nasty begins 
in France 
(Hugh Capet 
King). 


iooo to iioo A. D. 


17 Canute the Dane 
on the English 
Throne. 

40 Normans con¬ 

quer South 
Italy. 

41 Edward the Con¬ 

fessor restores 
the Saxon line 
in England. 

55 Bagdad taken by 
the Turks. 

61 The Guelph and 
G h i b e 11 i n e 
Feud begins. 

65 Jerusalem taken 

by the Turks. 

66 The Norman con¬ 

quest of Eng¬ 
land. 

81 Battle of Du- 
razzo. 

81 Gregory deposed. 

96 The First Cru¬ 
sade. 

99 Jerusalem taken 
by Crusaders. 


iioo to 1200 A. D. 


02 Guiscard of Nor¬ 
mandy, King 
of Naples. 

18 Knights Temp¬ 
lars instituted. 

37 Justinian’s Pan¬ 
dects discov¬ 
ered at Amalfi. 

47 The Second Cru¬ 
sade. 

52 Frederick Bar- 
barossa, Em¬ 
peror of Ger¬ 
many. 

54 Accession of 
Plantagenets in 
England. 

70 Thomas a Becket 
died. 

72 Invasion of Ire- 
• land under 
Henry II. of 
England. 

76 Germans under 
Frederick de¬ 
feated at Leg- 
nano. 

87 Jerusalem taken 
by Saladin. 

89 The Third Cru¬ 
sade. 

89 Richard(the Lion- 
hearted) King 
of England. 

95 The Fourth Cru¬ 
sade. 

98 The Fifth Cru¬ 
sade. 


1200 to 1300 A. D. 


03 Conquest of Con¬ 
stantinople by 
the Crusaders. 

08 War against 
Albigenses in 
Languedoc. 

12 The Boy Crusade. 

15 Magna Charta 
signed by John 
of England. 

27 The Sixth Cru¬ 
sade. 

27 Zenghis Khan 
overruns the 
Saracen empire. 

33 Inquisition for¬ 
mally estab¬ 
lished by Gre¬ 
gory 1X. 

37 Russia made 
tributary to the 
Moguls. 

48 The Seventh Cru¬ 
sade. 

58 End of the Abba- 
side Caliphs. 

61 The Greeks re¬ 
take Constanti¬ 
nople. 

70 The Eighth Cru¬ 
sade—death of 
St. Louis. 

70 Egypt falls into 
the hands of 
the Mamelukes. 

73 Rudolph of Haps- 
b u r g elected 
Emperor of 
Germany. 

81 Conquest of 

Prussia by, the 

Teutonic 

Order. 

82 Conquest of 

Wales by Ed¬ 
ward I. of 
England. 

91 Acre taken by the 
Turks—end of 
the Crusades. 


1300 to 1400 A. D. 


02 Battle of Cour- 
trai. 

05 Seat of the Pope¬ 
dom removed 
to Avignon. 

07 The Swiss Revo¬ 
lution begins. 

14 Battle of Ban¬ 

nockburn. 

15 Battle of Mor- 

garten. 

46 Battle of Cressy. 

47 Rienzi tribune of 

Rome. 

52 Union of the eight 
Swiss Cantons. 
56 Charles IV. of 
Germany insti¬ 
tutes the Gold¬ 
en Bull — the 
fundamental 
law of the Em¬ 
pire. 

60 Calais and the 
S. W. of France 
ceded to Eng¬ 
land. 

61-89 Ottomans 

under Murad 1. 
conquer Asia 
Minor and pass 
into Europe. 

64 Final embodi¬ 
ment of the 
Hanseatic 
League by Act 
signed at 
Cologne. 

77 Return of the 
Popes to Rome. 
86 Battle of Sem- 
pach. 

92 T h e Cape of 
Good Hopedis- 
covered by the 
Portuguese. 

97 The Treaty of 

Calmar, uniting 
Denmark, Swe¬ 
den and Nor¬ 
way under 
Margaret. 

98 Tamerlane takes 

Delhi. 

99 Henry IV. (Lan¬ 

caster) King of 
England. 


1400 to 1500 A. D. 


02 Tamerlane de¬ 
feats the Turks 
at Angora. 

15 Battle of Agin- 
court. 

15 John Huss 

burned. 

16 Jerome of Prague 

burned. 

28 Cosmo de Medici 
flourished 
(Florence). 

28 Joan of Arc vic¬ 
tor i o u s at 
Orleans. 

31 Her death. 

44 Guttenberg 

prints at Stra>- 
burg. 

45 Accession of Con¬ 

stantine Pala:o- 
logus, last of 
the Byzantine 
Emperors. 

53 Constantinople 
taken by the 
Turks. 

55 Wars of the Roses 
begin in Eng¬ 
land. 

73 Copernicus 

flourished. 

74 Michel Angelo 

flourished. 

78 Lorenzo the Mag¬ 

nificent rules 
Florence. 

79 Union of Castile 

and Aragon 
under Ferdi¬ 
nand and Isa¬ 
bella. 

83 Raphael flour¬ 
ished. 

85 Battle of Bos- 
w r orth. 

91 Fall of Granada. 

92 Columbus dis¬ 

covers Amer¬ 
ica. 

94 Invasion of Italy 
by Charles 
VIII.ofFrance. 

97 Cape of Good 
Hope doubled 
by Vasco di 
Gama. 

97 Cabot explores 

coast of North 
America. 

98 S a v o n a r o 1 a 

burned at Flor¬ 
ence. 

99 Switzerland inde¬ 

pendent. 


























The 16th and 17th Centuries from 1500 to 1700 A. D 


FIRST 50 YEARS 
18th CENTURY 


1500 to 1550 A. D. 


01 Battle of Ceri- 
zoles — the 
French lose 
Naples. 

08 League of Cam- 
bray against 
Venice. 

18 Battle of Flod- 

den. 

15 Francis I. be¬ 

comes King of 
France. 

16 Charles I. be¬ 

comes King of 
Spain. 

17 Luther publishes 

his ninety-five 
Theses. 

19 Charles I. of 

Spain becomes 
E m p e r o r 
Charles V. 

19 The Disputation 

at Leipsic. 

20 Luther burns the 

Papal Bull. 

21 Cortez takes 

Mexico. 

2o Battle of Pavia. 

27 The sack of 
Rome by Bour¬ 
bon Troops. 

29 The Reformers 
first called Pro- 
testants at 
Spires. 

80 The League of 
Smalcald. 

38 Pizarro conquers 
Peru. 

35 The Order of 
T esuits founded 
by Loyola. 

45 The Council of 
Trent begins to 
sit. 

49 Charles V. grants 
the Interim. 


1550 to 1600 A. D. 


52 The Treaty of 
Passau. 

56 The abdication 
of Charles V. 

58 Elizabeth be¬ 
comes Queen of 
England. 

58 The Inquisition 
established in 
France. 

62 Battle of Dreux. 

70 The Peace of St. 

Germain en 
Laye. 

71 Battle of Lepanto 

— Turks d e- 
feated by Don 
John of Aus¬ 
tria. 

72 The Massacre of 

St. Bartholo¬ 
mew. 

74 Siege of Leyden. 

79 The Union of 
Utrecht. 

87 Mary Queen of 

Scots beheaded. 

88 Defeat of the 

Spanish Ar¬ 
mada. 

89 Henry IV. (first 

royal Bourbon) 
becomes King 
of France. 

90 Battle of 1 vry. 

98 The Edict of 
Nantes. 

98 Peace of Vervins. 


1600 to 1650 A. D. 


03 Union of the 
English and 
Scottish 
Crowns. 


10 Assassination of 
Henry IV, 

18 Opening of the 
Thirty Years’ 
War. 


20 Defeat of the 
Elector Fred¬ 
erick at Prague. 

24 Richelieu gains a 
seat in the 
Council. 

28 The Siege of 

Rochelle. 

29 Peace of Lubeck. 


30 Gustavus Adol¬ 
phus lands in 
Pomerania. 

30 Sack of Magde¬ 

burg. 

31 Battle of Leipsic. 


32 Battle of Lutzen 
— Death of 
Gustavus Adol¬ 
phus. 

48 The great Peace 
of Munster or 
Westphalia. 


49 C h a r 1 e s I. of 
England be¬ 
headed. 


1650 to 1700 A. D. 


53 Cromwell, Pro¬ 
tector of Eng¬ 
land. 

60 The restoration 
of the Stuarts 
in England. 

68 Peace of Aix-la- 
Chapelle. 

74 Battle of Seneffe. 

78 Treaty of Nime- 

guen. 

79 Habeas Corpus 

Act passed in 
England. 

83 John Sobieski of 
Poland defeats 
the Turks at 
Vienna. 

85 The Edict of 

Nantes revoked 
by Louis XIV. 

86 The League of 

Augsburg. 

88 The second Eng¬ 

lish Revolution 

89 Peter the Great, 

sole ruler of 
Russia. 

90 B a 11 1 e of the 

Boyne. 

92 B a 11 1 e of La 
Hague. 

97 Treaty of Rys- 
wick. 

97 Charles XII. be¬ 
comes King of 
Sweden. 

99 Set 1 1 ement of 
Louisiana. 

1700 Battle of 
Narva. 


1700 to 1750 A. D. 


01 The Grand Alli¬ 
ance. 

02 French fleet de¬ 
stroyed at 
Vigo. 

04 Battle of Blen¬ 
heim. 

06 Battle of Ramil- 
lies 

07 Union of Eng¬ 
land and Scot¬ 
land. 

08 Battle of Ouden- 
arde. 

09 Battle of Pul- 
towa. 

09 Battle of Malpla- 
quet. 

13 Treaty of 

U trecht. 

14 The Guelphs 

ascend the Eng¬ 
lish throne. 

15 Death of Louis 

XIV’. of France. 

18 Charles XII. of 
Sweden killed 
at Frederics- 
hall. 

25 Death of Peter 
the Great. 

40 Frederic the 
Great becomes 
King of 
Prussia. 

42 Treaty of Bres¬ 

lau. 

43 Battle of Det- 

tingen. 

45 Battle of Fon- 
tenoy. 

45 Peace of Dres¬ 
den. 

48 Second Peace of 
A i x -1 a -Ch a- 
pelle. 
























Last Half of the 18th Century, 


The 19th Century. 

1ST 20 YEARS. 


1750 to 1775 A. D. 


55 Braddock’s de¬ 
feat. 

55 Earthquake in 
Lisbon. 

55 Acadian exile. 

56 The Seven Years’ 

War begins. 

57 Battles of Ross- 

bach and Leu- 
then. 

57 Fort William 

Henry captured 
by Montcalm. 

58 Battle of Zorn- 

dorff. 

59 Battle of Minden. 

59 Schiller flour¬ 
ished. 

59 Battle of Quebec 

and death of 
Wolfe. 

62 Catherine the 

Great flourished 
in Russia. 

63 Close of the Seven 

Years’ War— 
Peace of Paris, 

63 Canada becomes 

British territory 

64 Pontiac’s War. 

60 Stamp Act passed 

66 Stamp Act re¬ 
pealed. 

68 War begins bet¬ 

ween Russia 
and Turkey, 

69 Birth of Napoleon 

Bonaparte. 

70 Boston Massacre 

71 Gustavus III 

flourished. 

72 First partition of 

Poland. 

73 'Lea destroyed in 

Boston. 

74 Accession of 

Louis XVI. of 
France. 

74 Boston harbor 

closed by 
the British. 

75 Begi nn i ng of 

American war 
of the Revolu¬ 
tion. 


I 775 to I 79° A. D. 


75 Battle of Bnnker 

Hill. 

76 Declaration of In¬ 

dependence. 

76 Battles of Long 

Island and 
Trenton. 

77 Battles Benning¬ 

ton, Brandy¬ 
wine and Ger¬ 
mantown. 

78 French American 

alliance formed. 

78 Battle of Mon¬ 

mouth. 

79 S p a i n forms 

alliance with 
America. 

80 Battles of Charles¬ 

ton and Cam¬ 
den, Americans 
defeated 

82 Surrender of 

Cornwallis, end 
of Revolution¬ 
ary War. 

83 Independence of 

America, con¬ 
ceded by Eng¬ 
land. 

86 Shay’s rebellion 
in Massachu¬ 
setts. 

86 Frederick the 

Great died. 

87 The Assembly of 

the French No¬ 
tables. 

89 Meeting of the 
Stated-General.-. 

89 Opening of the 
N first French 
Revolution. 

88 Gustavus III 

wages war with 
Russia. 

89 Constitution o f 

the U. S. goes 
into effect. 

89 George Washing¬ 
ton, President. 

89 Storming of the 
Bastille. 


1790 to 1800 A. D. 


90 Netherlands de¬ 

clare their In¬ 
dependence. 

91 Death of Mira- 

beau. 

91 French Legisla¬ 
tive Assembly 
begins to sit. 

91 Canada is given 

a Constitution. 

92 Attack on the 

Tuileries. 

92 Battle of Jem- 
appes. 

92 The National 

Convention be¬ 
gins to sit. 

93 Louis XVI. of 

France guillo¬ 
tined. 

93 The Reign of 
Terror. 

93 Cotton gin in¬ 
vented. 

93 Poland partition- 

ed between 
Russia and 
Prussia. 

94 Execution of 

Robespierre. 

94 Toronto made 

Capital of 
Upper Canada. 

95 The Directory 

established. 

95 Bonaparte scat¬ 

ters the National 
Guard. 

96 His splendid 

campaign in 
Italy. 

96 Battles of Lodi, 

Areola, Rivoli 
and La Favorita 

97 Treaty of Campo 

Formio. 

97 John Adams, 
President, U.S. 

97 Peace of Tolen- 

tino. 

98 The Battle of the 

ramids. 

99 Directory over¬ 

turned — Bona- 
parte First 
Consul. 

99 French victory 
at Aboukir, 

00 Passage of the 
Alps. 

00 Bonaparte de¬ 
feats Austrians 
at Marengo 
and Hohenlin- 
den. 


1 S 00 to 1810 A. D. 


01 Thomas Jefferson 
President, U.S. 

01 Union of Great 
Britain and Ire¬ 
land. 

01 Treaty of Lune- 
ville. 

02 Treaty of Amiens. 

02 Napoleon made 
First Consul 
for life. 

03 Renewal of war 
between Eng- 
1 a n d and 
France. 

03 L o u i s i a n a pur¬ 
chase. 

03 Swiss Cantons 
made indepen¬ 
dent. 

03 War with Tripoli 

03 Slavery abolished 
in Canada. 

04 Napoleon I. elect¬ 
ed Emperor of 
the French. 

05 Battles of Tra¬ 
falgar and Aus- 
teriitz. Death 
of Nelson. 

05 Treaty of Press- 
burg 

06 Battle of Jena. 
Death of Pitt. 

07 Battles of Eylau, 
Friedland and 
Copenhagen. 

07 Lisbon court flees , 
to Brazil. 

07 Fulton’s first 
Steamboat plies 
the Hudson. 

08 Opening of the 
Peninsular War. 
Joseph Bona¬ 
parte named 
King of Spain. 

09 Battle of Wagram 

09 Treaty of Schon- 
brunn. 

09 Napoleon divor¬ 
ces Josephine. 

09 Napoledn, being 
excommunicat¬ 
ed, imprisons 
the Pope. 

09 Wellington de¬ 
feats Fiench at 
Talavera. 

09 James Madison, 
President, U.S. 

10 Napoleon marries 
Maria Louisa 
of Austria. 


1810 to 1820 A. D. 


11 Birth of Na¬ 
poleon’s Son 
“KingofRome” 


11 Battle of Tippe¬ 
canoe. 


12 Terrible Russian 
Campaign. 

12 War between 
America and 
England. 


13 Battles of Lake 
Erie and the 
Thames. 


13 Battles of Lutzen, 
Bautzen, Vit- 
toria and Leip- 
sic. 


14 ’The allies enter 
Paris. 


14 Napoleon banish¬ 
ed to Elba. 


14 Battle of Lundy’s 
Lane. 


14 Burning of Wash¬ 
ington by the 
British. 


15 Return of Na¬ 
poleon from 
Elbaand Battle 
o f Waterloo, 
Wellington vic- 
toriousand Na¬ 
poleon banish¬ 
ed to St. Helena 


15 Second peace of 
Paris. 


15 Formation of 
Holy Alliance, 


15 Battle of New 
Orleans, Jack¬ 
son’s victory. 


17 James Monroe, 
President, U.S. 


20 Revolution in 
Spain. 




























From 1820 to 1865 A. D 


1820 to 1830 A. D. 


21 Rising of Ypsil- 
anti in Mol¬ 
davia. 

21 The Missouri 
Compromise. 

21 Death of Napo¬ 
leon. 

21 Greek War for 

Independence. 

22 Brazil severed 

from Portugal. 

24 Welland canal. 

24 Accession of 
Charles X. of 
France. 

24 Death of Lord 

Byron. 

25 J o h n Quincy 

Adams, Presi¬ 
dent, U. S. 

25 Agitation in Can¬ 
ada over Alien 

Bill. 

25 First steamer 

crossed the 
Atlantic. 

26 Missolonghi 

taken. 

27 Battle of Navar- 

ino. 

29 Andrew Jackson, 
President, U.S. 

29 Agitation for re¬ 
sponsible gov- 
ernment in 
upper Canada. 

29 Friction matches 

first used. 

30 Lord Aylmer, 

Governor of 
Lower Canada. 

30 Algiers taken by 
the French, 

30 Second French 
Revolution. 

30 Revolution i n 
Brussels. 


1830 to 1840 A. D. 


31 Battle of Ostro- 
lenka. 

31 Belgium separ¬ 
ated from Hol¬ 
land. 

31 Surrender of 

Warsaw and 
Prague. 

32 Otho elected 

King of Greece. 

32 Imperial duties 
surrendered to 
Canadian 
Assembly. 

32 South Carolina 
N unification 
Act. 

35 Slave emancipa¬ 
tion bill passed 
by England. 

35 First electric tele¬ 
graph. 

37 Canadian Insur¬ 
rection. 

37 Victoria, Queen 
of Great Brit¬ 
ain. 

37 Martin Van 
Buren, Presi¬ 
dent of U. S. 

39 Union of Upper 
and Lower 
Canada.—Lora 
Sydenham, 
Governor. 

39 The Carlist 

leader, Maroto, 
lays down his 
arms. 

40 Responsible gov¬ 

ernment estab¬ 
lished in Can¬ 
ada. 

40 Frederick Wil¬ 
liam IV., King 
of Prussia. 

40 Queen Victoria 
marries Albert 
of S a x e - Co¬ 
burg. 


1840 to 1850 A. D. 


41 W. H. Harrison, 

President, U.S. 
—died same 
year. 

42 Corn Laws re¬ 

laxed. 

42 Treaty settling 
North Eastern 
boundary of 
the U. S. 

44 Canadian gov- 

e r n m e n t re¬ 
moved to Mon¬ 
treal. 

45 Great fire at 

Quebec. 

45 Annexation of 
Texas. 

45 Jas. K. Polk, 

President of 
U. S. 

46 Anesthetics first 

used. 

46 War between 
United States 
and Mexico. 

46 Taylor defeats 
Mexicans at 
Palo Alto, 
Resaca de la 
Palma and 
Monterey. 

40 N orthwestern 
boundary of 
U. S. settled 
by treaty. 

46 Doniphan defeats 

Mexicans at El 
Paso. 

47 Battles of Buena 

Vista, Sacra¬ 
mento, Vera 
Cruz, Cerro 
Gordo, Cheru- 
busco, Molino- 
del-Rey, Che- 
pultepec and 
the City of 
M e x i c o—a 1 1 
won by the 
Americans. 

48 Peace with Mex¬ 

ico. 

48 Francis Joseph, 
Emperor o f 
Austria. 

48 Gold found in 

California. 

49 Hungary de¬ 

clared indepen¬ 
dent of Austria. 

49 The French enter 
Rome. 


1850 to i 860 A. D. 


51 

World’s Fai 

r in 


London. 


52 

N apoleon 

III. 


declared 

Em- 


peror. 


52 

Canadian 

gov- 


e r n m e n t re¬ 
moved to Que¬ 
bec. 


53 Franklin Pierce, 
President, U.S. 

53 Santa Ana, Dicta¬ 

tor of Mexico. 

54 Crimean War be¬ 

gun.— Battles 
of Alma, Bala- 
klava. Inker- 
man and siege 
of Sebastopol. 

55 Sir Edmund W. 

Head, Gover¬ 
nor of Canada. 

55 Alexa nder II., 

Czar. 

56 British War with 

China and 
Persia. 

56 Treaty of Paris- 

57 Great commer¬ 

cial crisis. 

57 Indian mutiny. 

57 James Buchanan, 

President, U.S. 

58 Jewish disabili¬ 

ties removed in 
Great Britain. 

58 First Atlantic 
cable. 

58 Livingstone’s 

Zambezi expe¬ 
dition in Africa. 

59 War between 

France and 
Austria.— 
Battles of Ma¬ 
genta and Sol- 
ferino. 

59 Spanish War with 
Morocco. 

59 War between 
Austria and 
1 taly. 

59 Charles XV. rules 
in Sweden and 
Norway. 

59 John Brown’s in¬ 

surrection. 

60 South Carolina 

secedes. 

60 Gari b a Id i in¬ 
vades Naples. 


i 860 to 1865 A. D. 


61 Lord M onck, 
Governor of 
Canada. 

61 Abraham Lincoln 
President of 

U. S. 

61 Southern States 
secede. Begin¬ 
ning of Civil 
War in Amer¬ 
ica. — Battles of 
Bull Run and 
Wilson’s Creek. 
61 William I., King 
of Prussia. 

61 Victor Emman¬ 
uel, King of 
Italy. 

61 Polish insurrec¬ 

tion. 

62 Battles of Antie- 

tam, Fort Don- 
alson. Pea 
Ridge, Shiloh 
and the second 
of Bull Run in 
the Civil War. 

62 France makes 
war on Mexico, 

62 Bismarck made 

Premier in Ger¬ 
many. 

63 Russia frees the 

Serfs. 

63 Emancipation 
Proclamation. 

63 Battle of Chan- 
cellorsville and 
siege of Vicks¬ 
burg and battle 
of Gettysburg. 

63 French enter City 

of Mexico. 

64 Battle of the Wil¬ 

derness, siege 
of Petersburg 
and Sherman’s 
march to the 
sea. 

64 Maximilian 
made Emperor 
of Mexico. 

64 Ionian Isles 
annexed to 
Greece. 

64 Prussia and Aus¬ 

tria at war with 
Denmark. 

05 Battles of Five 
Forks, Peters¬ 
burg, Rich¬ 
mond. Surren¬ 
der of the C 011 - 
federates. — 
End of the Civil 
War. — Lincoln 
assassinated. 

65 Grea t fire at 

Quebec. 






















I. 

From 1865 to the Close of the 19th Century. 


1865 to 1875 A. D. 


66 War betwee n 
Italy and Ger¬ 
many. 

06 Prim insurrection 
in Spain. 

06 War between 
Germany and 
Austria. 

06 Battle of Sadowa. 
00 Reciprocity 
Treaty between 
U. S. and Can¬ 
ada. 

66 Austria with¬ 

draws from Ger¬ 
man confedera¬ 
tion. 

07 English War with 
Abyssinia. 

67 Dominion of Can¬ 

ada formed. 

67 Alaska purchased 
by the United 
States. 

67 Maximilian ex¬ 
ecuted. 

09 Disestablishment 
of the Irish 
Church. 

09 Cuban revolt. 

69 U . S . Grant, 

President, U.S. 

70 War between 

France and 
Germany. 

70 Battle of Sedan. 

70 Surrender of Na¬ 
poleon. 

70 German Empire 

formed. 

71 William of 

Prussia, E m - 
peror. 

71 Italian Govern¬ 
ment transfer¬ 
red to Rome. 

71 Commune and 
Republic in 
France. 

71 Great Fire in 

Chicago. 

72 Oscar II. made 

King of Sweden 
72 Carlist War in 
Spain. 

72 Geneva award on 

the Alabama 
Claims. 

73 Death of Na¬ 

poleon III. in 
England. 

73 Ab d i c a t io n of 
King Amadeo 
of Spain, a 
Republic pro¬ 
claimed. 

75 Alfonso, Prince of 
the Asturias, 
King of Spain. 


1875 to 1885 A. D. 


76 Centennial cel¬ 
ebration in 
Philadelphia. 

76 Queen Victoria, 
Empress of 
India. 

76 Conquest of 

China by 
Russia. 

77 R . B . Hayes, 

President, of 
the U. S. 

77 War between 
Russia and 
Turkey. 

77 Great Fire at St. 

John New 
Brunswick. 

78 War in Afghani¬ 

stan. 

78 Death of Victor 
Emmanuel, 
and Humbert 
made King. 

78 Pius IX. dies,and 
Leo XIII.made 
Pope. 

78 Treaty of Berlin. 
78 Montenegro In¬ 
dependent. 

78 Roumania Inde¬ 
pendent. 

78 Servia a Free 
State. 

78 Yellow Fever Epi¬ 
demic in U. S. 

78 Marquis of Lome 

Viceroy in Can¬ 
ada. 

79 Zulu War. 

79 J u 1 e s Grevy, 
President of 
France. 

79 Queen Mercedes 
of Spain dies. 

79 War between 

Chili and Peru. 

80 Famine in Ire¬ 

land. 

80 Slavery abolished 

in Cuba. 

81 James A.Garfield 

President, U.S., 
killed and suc- 
ceeded by 
Chester A. 
Arthur. 

81 Alexander II. of 
Russia assassi¬ 
nated. 

81 Greely North 

Pole Expedi¬ 
tion, 

82 War in Egypt by 

England 

83 Brooklyn Bridge 

opened. 

83 Indian War. 

84 Dynamite Explo¬ 

sion at Quebec. 
83 Grover Cleveland 
President, U.S. 

85 Rebellion Louis 

Riel, Canada. 


1885 to 1890 A. D. 


86 Labor Agitation 
in the U. S. 

86 Anarchist Riot in 
Chicago. 

86 Louis Riel hang¬ 

ed in Canada. 

87 Sadi Carnot, 

President of 
France. 

87 Stanley pene¬ 

trates the heart 
of Africa, gone 
two years. 

88 William I. of Ger¬ 

many dies, Son, 
Frederick 111., 
succeeds. Dies 
soon after and 
his Son William 
II. made Em¬ 
peror of Ger¬ 
many. 

88 Lord Sackville 
British Minister 
dismissed from 
Washington. 

88 Canadian Fish¬ 
eries Treaty re¬ 
jected by the 
U. S. 

88 Lord Stanley Gov. 

General of Can¬ 
ada. 

89 Dom Pedro, Em¬ 

peror ot Brazil, 
deposed. 

89 Ci vi 1 War in 
Hayti. 

89 Benjamin Harri¬ 
son, President, 
U. S. 

89 Great Fire in 
Quebec. 

89 Boulanger excite¬ 
ment in France. 

89 Mining strikes in 

Germany. 

90 Heligoland trans¬ 

ferred to Ger¬ 
many. 

90 De Castillo, Pre¬ 
mier of Spain. 

90 Duke of Orleans 
banished from 
Paris. 

90 Death of Sitting 
Bull. End of 
Indian out¬ 
break. 

90 11th Censusof the 
j United States. 

90 McKinley Tariff 
goes into effect 


1890 to 1895 A. D. 


91 Balmaceda, Presi¬ 

dent of Chili 
deposed. 

92 Birth of People’s 

Party at Omaha 

93 Socialistic gains 

in Germany. 

93 Cleveland, Presi¬ 
dent 2nd term. 

93 Home Rule bill 
passed House 
of Commons. 
Defeated in 
House of Lords 

93 War between 
Spain and the 
Moors. 

93 World’s Fair at 
Chicago. 

93 Financial depres¬ 
sion in U. S. 

93 Congress of Re¬ 
ligions Chicago 

93 Revolutions in 
Brazil and Ar¬ 
gent i n e Re¬ 
public. 

93 Sherman Bill re¬ 
pealed. 

93 Attempt to assas¬ 

sinate Emperor 
of Austria. 

94 President Carnot 

of France as¬ 
sassinated. 

94 Nicholas 11. Czar 
of Russia. 

94 War be tween 
China and 
Japan. 

94 Great Coal and 

Kail Road 
Strikes in 
United States. 

95 Norway adopts 

Universal Male 
Suffrage. 

95 Armenians Mas¬ 
sacred by r the 
Turks. 

95 Venezuelan 
Boundary Dis¬ 
pute. 

95 Free Silver Move¬ 
ment in United 
States. 

95 F e 1 i x F a u r e , 
President of 
France. 

95 Cuban Revolt 
against Spain, 
War of Inde¬ 
pendence. 


1895 to 1900 A. D. 


96 Italians defeated 
in Abyssinia. 

96 Nicholas II. of 
Russia, Crown¬ 
ed. 

96 X-Ray discover¬ 

ed. 

Maceo the 
Cuoan General 
killed. 

97 Wm. McKinley, 

President, U. S. 
97 War between 
Greece and 
Turkey. Greece 
defeated. 

97 Gold discovered 
in Klondike. 

97 Dingley Tariff 

Law enacted. 

98 Spanish Ameri¬ 

can War. Bat¬ 
tles of Manila 
and Santiago. 
Spain defeated 
and loses Cuba, 
Porto Rico, 
Guam and the 
Philippines. 

98 Bread Riots in 
I taly. 

98 Empress Eliza¬ 
beth assassi¬ 
nated. 

98 Anti-Jew Riots 
in Germany. 

98 Dreyfus case in 
France. 

98 Universal Peace 
Conference 
held. 

98 South African 
War begins. 

98 Gold discovered 
at Cape Nome, 
Alaska. 

98 Venezuelan 

Boundary dis¬ 
pute settled. 

99 F i 1 i p i n o War 

begins. 

00 World’s Fair at 
Paris. 

00 King Humbert 
of Italy assas¬ 
sinated. H i s 
Son, Victor 
Emmanuel III., 
succeeds to 
Throne. 

00 War of the Na¬ 
tions against 
China. 

00 M c K i n 1 e y re- 
elected P r e s i - 
dent, U. S. 

00 Election in Can¬ 
ada retained 
Liberals in 
Power. 

00 Cuban Constitu¬ 
tional Conven¬ 
tion called. 




















History and Geography 

THE EARTH—ITS CONTINENTS—ITS COUNTRIES—ITS PEOPLES— 
GOVERNMENTS—HISTORICAL, GEOGRAPHICAL, STATISTICAL 
INFORMATION CONCERNING THEM CONCISELY STATED 


THE EARTH, ITS COUNTRIES AND ITS PEOPLES 


Astronomy teaches us that the earth, 
man’s home, is one of the class of stars 
called planets that move around the sun, 
and the sun and its planets constitute the 
solar system. 

Physical Geography gives descriptions of 
the earth's surface, and Political Geography 
tells of the countries of the earth and of the 
people inhabiting them. 

History relates of the doings of the peo¬ 
ples of the earth, their forms of government, 
manners, customs, etc. History and Geo¬ 
graphy are so closely united, and the lives 
of nations are so connected with the natural 
features of the part of the earth they inhabit, 
that the two subjects should be studied 
together,, The following brief treatise is 
accordingly arranged : 

The earth is divided by geographers into 
the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. 
The eastern half is the home of civilization 
and history. No spot on the Western 
Hemisphere, with the exception of parts of 
Greenland, has an unbroken record of over 
four hundred years ; and nine-tenths of the 
Western Hemisphere’s vast area was wholly 
unknown to civilization even two hundred 
years ago. The greater portion of it has 
been explored since the beginning of the 
nineteenth century. 

Archaeologists, who dig in mounds and 
read the signs on ruined temples and on the 
relics secured from prehistoric graves, tell 
us there was a high order of civilization 
in the temperate portions of our hemisphere 

35 C 


in ancient times ; but of the history of those 
people and of their governments we have no 
positive knowledge. They and their civil¬ 
ization- had passed away from the Atlantic 
seaboard when Columbus came and found a 
savage wilderness. The last vestiges of it 
were perhaps later found and destroyed by 
Pizarro. 

To-day the Western Hemisphere is more 
civilized as a whole than the eastern half of 
the earth. One who would find the lowest 
order of mankind and the densest ignorance 
must seek it in Africa, Asia and Oceanica, 
all of which, with the exception of the ex¬ 
treme northwestern point of Siberia, lie 
wholly within the Eastern Hemisphere. 
But the East has also the other extreme. 
The most learned and advanced state ot 
civilization on earth has its home in Europe. 
Here we may, therefore, begin this outline 
of history; a bird’s-eye view of all the con¬ 
tinents of the earth and its races of people 
is obtained from the important statistics fur¬ 
nished by the Royal Geographical Society. 

The Continent of Europe. 

The name of this continent is derived 
from the mythological Europa, whom 
Jupiter is reputed to have carried over to 
its shores from Mount Ida. The country is 
a peninsula projecting from Asia. It is the 
smallest of the great continental divisions of 
the globe, and also the most thoroughly devel¬ 
oped and highly civilized. It is situated in 
almost the same latitude as the United States 


543 




544 


HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 


Population by Continents. 


Conti- 


Inhabitants 

nental 

Divisions 

Area, in 
Square Miles 

Number 

Per Sq. 

Mile 

Africa . . . 

11 , 514,000 

127 , 000,000 

II.O 

America, N. 

6 , 446,000 

89 , 250,000 

13-8 

America, S. 

6 , 837,000 

36 , 420,000 

5-3 

Asia .... 

14 , 710,000 

850 , 000,000 

57*7 

Australasia 

3 , 288,000 

4,730,000 

1.4 

Europe 

3,555 >000 

380 , 200,000 

106.9 

Polar Reg. 

4 , 888,800 

300,000 

0.7 

Total . . 

51 , 238,800 

1 , 487 , 900,000 

29.0 


(The above estimate was made by Ernest George 
Ravenstein, E.R.G.S., geographer and statistician.) 


and Canada, and occupies an area of about 
one-fifth part of that of America. The 
population of Europe is about five times 
that of the United States, divided among 
twenty-three nations the population of 
which may be found on the charts. 
For further statistics concerning the various 
countries, see special treatment of each 
hereafter: 

Population oe the Earth According 


to Race. 

(Estimated by John Bartholomew, F.R.G.S. 
Edinburgh.) 


Rack 

Location 

Number 

Indo-Germanic or 

Europe,Persia, 


Aryan (white) . 

etc. 

545,500,000 

Mongolian or Tur- 


ainian (yellow 

Greater part of 


and brown) . . 

Asia .... 

630 , 000,000 

Semitic or Hamitic 

North Africa, 

(white) .... 

Arabia . . . 

65 , 000,000 

Negro and Bantu 


(black) .... 

Central Africa 

150 , 000,000 

Hottentot and 


Bushman (black) 

South Africa 

150,000 

Malay and Poly¬ 

Australasia and 

nesian (brown) . 

Polynesia . 

35 , 000,000 

American Indian 

North & South 

(red). 

America . . 

15 , 000,000 

Total. 


1 , 440 , 650,000 


The human family is subject to forty-two principal govern¬ 
ments. As to their form they may be classified as follows : 
Absolute monarchies, China, Korea, Morocco,Persia, Russia, 
Siam, Turkey; Limited monarchies , Austria-Hungary, Bel¬ 
gium, British Empire, Denmark, Germany, Greece, Italy, 
Japan, Netherlands, Portugal, Roumania, Servia, Sweden 
and Norway, Spain ; Republics , Argentine Republic, Bolivia. 
Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, France, Guate¬ 
mala, Hayti, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Paraguay, Peru, 
Salvador, San Domingo, Switzerland, United States of Amer¬ 
ica, Uruguay, Venezuela. Besides these are the undefined 
despotisms of Central Africa, and a few insignificant inde¬ 
pendent States. 


The extreme length of Europe, from 
northeast to southwest is about 3,400 miles. 
Its water boundary, if a continuous line, 
would reach four-fifths of the way around 
the world. The islands of Europe consti¬ 
tute one-twentieth of its entire area ; there¬ 
fore, in relative extent its coast line sur¬ 
passes that of all other countries. The 
coast of Europe is also greatly indented by 
in-running seas and bays, and the great 
number of these indentations secure to 
Europe her commercial supremacy. 

The British Isles, are, and for more than 
a century have been, the headquarters of 
commercial Europe. They are separated 
from the Continent by the North Sea, which 
has an average depth of about 600 feet, and 
there is much to show that they were once 
a part of the main land. 

The greater part of the Continent is low 
and level. 

Russia and all the territory bordering on 
the North and Baltic Seas constitute a vast 
plain called “Low Europe the basin of 
the Caspian Sea and much of the country 
of the Netherlands being really below the 
level of the ocean. 

‘ ‘ High Europe ’ * is made up of the 
plateau extending along the southern part 
of the Continent. This plateau is sur¬ 
rounded by the irregular and broken moun¬ 
tain ranges which constitute the Alpine 
system, of which the Alps, proper, form the 
highest range, the other principal ranges 
being the Pyrenees, Apennines, Balkan, 
Carpathian and Caucasus Mountains. 

The Alps are the sources of the rivers 
Rhine, Rhone, and Po, and several tribu¬ 
taries of the Danube. The real birthplaces 
of these streams are in the glaciers, for the 
great number and extent of which the Alps 
have long been celebrated. Most of the 
rivers of Western Europe are navigable, and 
are connected with one another by canals. 

The Lakes of Europe are chiefly located in 
the northwestern part of the Continent, Lake 
Ladoga in Russia being the largest. Those 
in the Swiss Alps, especially Geneva and 
Constance, are famed for their beauty of 
scenery. There are many salt lakes in 
I Russia, most of which are situated in the 
1 basin of the Caspian Sea. 




















545 


HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 


The Climate of Europe is more equable 
than that of any other country situated in 
corresponding latitudes. Its mildness is 
due chiefly to the southwesterly winds 
which are warmed by the waters of the Gulf 
Stream. The southern part of the Con¬ 
tinent reaches within 12 0 of the tropics, 
while the most northern boundaries do 
not approach the limit of the frozen zone. 

The Products of Europe are grain, hemp, 
flax, and tobacco in the central region, and 
grapes, olives, oranges, lemons, figs, mul¬ 
berries, and cotton in the vicinity of the 
Mediterranean coast. Animals of the large 
wild type have disappeared before the foot¬ 
steps of civilization, except in the more 
thinly settled and least accessible sections. 
White bear, the reindeer and fur-bearing 
animals are found in the north; the wolf 
and wild boar are yet hunted by sportsmen 
in the forests, while chamois and ibex may 
be stalked by the bold hunter in the Alpine 
heights. Fish, which come in schools, 
abound perhaps as much as ever in the sur¬ 
rounding waters. 

Minerals, such as coal, iron, and copper, 
are widely distributed. Silver, zinc, and 
lead are plentiful in the central highlands, 
quicksilver, nitre, sulphur, and salt in the 
volcanic regions, and coral of great beauty 
is obtained in the Mediterranean Sea. In 
richness of mineral products, however, 
Europe does not compare with North 
America—the United States and Canada. 

Growth of European Civilization. 

During the zenith of Asiatic civilization 
the continent of Europe remained in utter 
barbarism. At length the light broke out 
in Greece, and she attained an eminence 
in learning, arms, art, literature, and law 
which is yet the enviable pride of nations. 
Next followed Rome, in the eighth century 
before Christ, and with its fall the Dark 
Ages again settled down upon the continent, 
and had not her treasury of history and 
learning been preserved in another land the 
world would have been robbed of this great 
storehouse of knowledge. 

In succession barbarians, tribes of Huns 
and Goths and Scythians, devastated the 
greater part of Europe’s surface, ultimately 
to settle and start a new civilization—the 


Visigoths in Spain, the Lombards ltt Italy, 
the Franks in Gaul, the Saxons in Germany 
and Scandinavia, and the Anglo-Saxons in 
Britain. 

About 800 A.D. the accession of Charle¬ 
magne changed the political map of Conti¬ 
nental Europe from the Pyrenees to the 
Carpathian mountains, uniting this vast 
territory under his dominion. After his 
death there were carved out of this empire 
the several kingdoms of France, Germany, 
Lombardy, Burgundy, Lorraine, etc. 

Two centuries later the Scandinavian 
powers of Sweden, Denmark, Norway, and 
Russia joined the European family of 
nations. Near the end of the eleventh cen¬ 
tury the Moors were driven out of Spain, 
and the European autonomy was definitely 
established in $453, when Constantinople 
was taken by the Turks. 

In the sixteenth century the war which 
resulted in the independence of the Nether¬ 
lands was the great historical event. The 
seventeenth century was characterized by 
the Thirty Years’ War, ending in the tri¬ 
umph of Protestantism in Germany, together 
with the civil war in England, with Crom¬ 
well as its great leader. 

The eighteenth century began with the 
terrible wars of the Spanish Succession, fol¬ 
lowed by the Seven Years’ War, carried on 
between Frederick II. of Prussia and the 
Emperor of Austria, England being the ally 
of the former and Germany, France, Russia, 
and Sweden assisting Austria. This war, 
though it terminated in succeeding massa¬ 
cres and later -the French Revolution, added 
new territory to Prussia and established the 
Prussian line ol kings, who, after the Franco- 
German War in 1870, became the Royal 
Family of United Germany in the person of 
King William of Prussia, first Emperor of 
Germany. 

Europe in the 19th Century. 

The last five years of the eighteenth, and 
the first decade of the nineteenth, century 
marked the rise and wonderful success of 
Napoleon I., who for twenty years devas¬ 
tated and terrorized Europe as no other 
military despot has ever done. The com¬ 
bined forces of Europe, in 1815, accom¬ 
plished his final overthrow at Waterloo, and 



54 ^ 


HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 


the same year a reorganization of Conti¬ 
nental Europe was effected by the Treaty of 
Vienna. 

In 1821 the Greeks revolted against the 
Turks, under whose dominion they had 
been for more than three centuries. For 
six years the war continued, until, finally, 
the Turks were defeated at Navarino in 
1827, and by interference of the outside 
powers Turkey was compelled to grant 
them independence, and Otho of Bavaria 
became the first king of modern Greece in 
1832. He occupied the throne (31 years) 
until 1863, when he was dethroned by his 
subjects, and their present king, Prince 
George, son of King Christian of Denmark 
and brother of Queen Alexandra of Eng¬ 
land, was placed upon the throne. In 1897 
Greece again went to war* with Turkey for 
the independence of Crete, but was de¬ 
feated. However, the powers interfered to 
save her, and Turkey was further required 
to grant greater freedom to Crete, the son 
of the Greek king being made its governor. 

In 1831 the new kingdom of Belgium 
was formed from the lower part of the 
Netherlands, but an eight-years’ war with 
Holland was necessary to confirm her rights 
and secure the recognition of the European 
powers. 

“ The Year of Revolutions,” 1848, wit¬ 
nessed the uprising of popular democratic 
ideas, which began in Prance and spread to 
many nations in Europe, resulting in the 
fall of several thrones. In 1852 the Second 
French Empire was established by Napo¬ 
leon III. In 1854-5 the Crimean War 
occurred, in which England, France, and 
Turkey fought against Russia. The battles 
of Alma, Balaklava and Inkerman, during 
this war, have added undying celebrity to 
the plains and hillsides of the Crimean 
Peninsula. Turkey was saved from Russian 
power by this war. 

In 1859 lh e Franco-Austrian War re¬ 
sulted in the cession of Eombardy to Italy; 
1862 saw the spoliation of Denmark by 
Austria and Prussia. The “ Three Weeks’ 
War” of 1866 aided in the autonomy of 
Italy as a nation, absorbed into Prussia 
several of the minor German states, and 
excluded Austria from the position of lead¬ 
ing German power. 


In 1870 Napoleon III. made war OH 
Prussia ostensibly to avenge a pretended 
insult from the Prussian monarch. The 
injustice of Napoleon’s cause and Bis¬ 
marck’s shrewdness united all the German 
states except Austria in a war against a 
common enemy. In less than a year the 
French were beaten. Napoleon was cap¬ 
tured and compelled to abdicate the throne. 
Alsace and Eorraine were taken from 
France and added to Germany. All Ger¬ 
many (except Austria) united to form the 
German Empire, with King William of 
Prussia as the first emperor. France be¬ 
came a republic and has since so remained. 

Russia declared war against Turkey in 
1877, which ended in the total defeat of the 
latter in 1878, with a partial dismember¬ 
ment of the Ottoman Empire. Servia, 
Roumania, and Montenegro were recog¬ 
nized as independent; East Roumelia was 
formed south of the Balkans; Bosnia and 
Herzegovina were occupied by Austria; 
Cyprus by Great Britain; Bessarabia and 
other territory in Asia was ceded to Russia, 
and Bulgaria was granted an autonomic 
administration. Thus shorn of so large an 
outlying territory, Turkey became the 
“Sick Man of Europe.” The Armenian 
massacres of 1896 incensed the Christian 
world anew against her. The Greek war 
already referred to in 1897, taking Crete 
from under her thumb, left her yet weaker. 
Nothing but the European powers’ jealousy 
of one another keeps the once powerful, 
but now effete, Ottoman Empire alive. 

During the last quarter of the nineteenth 
century Europe has been comparatively at 
peace within her own borders. The bound¬ 
ary lines are well settled, and all the pow¬ 
ers have looked abroad for their conquests 
and extensions of dominion. The end of 
the Boer w r ar of 1901 makes England pre¬ 
eminent in Africa. Spain, stripped of well 
nigh all her foreign possessions by the war 
of 1898 with America, has retired within 
her own narrow borders and is no longer 
reckoned a factor among the world powers. 

The Chinese invasion by England, 
Russia, Germany, France, Italy and Amer¬ 
ica in 1900, to protect foreign subjects from 
Chinese persecution, has flung wide the 
closed door of the East, and left no longer 




HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 


547 


a doubt that Western civilization is to over¬ 
run the Orient, and that the theatre of the 
world’s great historic play for the next half 


century must be rendered, not in Europe, 
but upon the stage of the far East, the 
birthplace of the earliest civilization. 


THE GOVERNMENTS OF EUROPE 


To treat the governments of Europe 
individually, it is necessary to confine our¬ 
selves to the briefest statements of facts as 
gleaned from available statistical material. 

The United Kingdom of Great Britain 
and Ireland 

comprises England, Wales, Scotland, Ire¬ 
land, and other British isles, amounting to 
about 500 in number, one-half of which are 
inhabited, and all lying just west of the main 
continent of Europe in the Atlantic Ocean. 
The total area of the United Kingdom is 
120,973 square miles, with a population of 
37,888,439. Originally England stood alone. 
In 1172 A.D. she took Ireland by conquest. 
In 1282 she conquered and annexed Wales. 
In 1603 Scotland was induced to join her. 

The government is an hereditary limited 
monarchy, with the sovereign as chief ex¬ 
ecutive. The legislative department em¬ 
braces the sovereign and the House of Lords 
and the House of Commons. The House 
of Lords is composed of 540 members of the 
titled nobility. There are 670 members in 
the House of Commons, elected by the peo¬ 
ple, 465 representing England, 30 Wales, 72 
Scotland, and 103 Ireland. 

England and Wales form the southern 
and larger part of the island. Scotland 
forms the northern and smaller part. Ire¬ 
land forms an independent island, sur¬ 
rounded by the Atlantic Ocean on all sides 
except the east, where it‘is separated from 
Great Britain by St. George’s Channel, the 
Irish Sea, and the North Channel. 

Religiously the inhabitants of the United 
Kingdom are divided as follows: Roman 
Catholics, which predominate in Ireland, 
about 6,000,000 ; Episcopalians, which pre¬ 
dominate in England, about 14,000,000; 
Presbyterians, which predominate in Scot¬ 
land, about 1,400,000. All other branches 
besides those mentioned and Jews, are 
classed as Dissenters, of which there are 
6,000,000. The Jewish faith numbers 60,000. 

London, the capital of the British Em¬ 


pire, is the largest city and chief commercial 
emporium of the world, with a population 
of nearly 5,000,000 inhabitants. In com¬ 
merce, industry and finance, as also in art 
and literature, London stands as the chief 
centre of the world. It also ranks first as 
a seaport and in manufacture. Among its 
numerous and magnificent buildings, the 
most important are Westminster Abbey, St. 
Paul’s Cathedral, Buckingham Palace, the 
Houses of Parliament and the Tower. 

The reign of Queen Victoria, who as¬ 
cended the throne in 1837, was in all re¬ 
spects the golden age of British history. 
She died January 22, 1901, and was suc¬ 
ceeded by her son, the Prince of Wales, as 
King Edward VII. 

The British Empire. 

The little United Kingdom just described, 
with less than 38,000,000 people and of di¬ 
minutive area, is but the head of the gigan¬ 
tic body of the British Empire, the entire 
population of which, since the annexation 
of the South African Republics, in 1900, is 
over 381,000 000 souls, with a territory cov¬ 
ering about 11,500,000 square miles. The 
East Indian possessions of the British Em¬ 
pire alone embrace an area larger than the 
whole continent of Europe, exclusive of 
Russia. Her North American possessions 
are larger still, and, including Hudson Bay 
and the Great Lakes, cover an area greater 
than all Europe. The possessions in Aus¬ 
tralasia are next in size, embracing the great 
Island of Australia, which like Canada is 
divided into provinces with their provincial 
and central legislative bodies ; the islands of 
New Zealand and Borneo are other impor¬ 
tant British Colonies. Since the Boer-British 
War of 1899-1900-01 England’s hold upon 
the Continent of Africa is supreme, and her 
subject territory there is of vast dimensions. 
How this stupendous empire has been built, 
together with the area and population of the 
different sections, is shown by the following 
table: 




5+8 


HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 


Colonies and Dependencies. 


Continents 

Square Miles 

How Obtained 

When 

Population 

Europe: 






Gibraltar.. 

2 

Conquest. 

1704 


25,869 

Malta, etc. 

122 

Treaty cession. 

1814 


165,662 

Asia : 






India (including Burmah) . . 

1,800,258 

f Conquest.. 

\ Transfer from East India Co. 

Begun 1757 \ 

1858 / 

287,223,431 

Ceylon . 

25,365 

Treaty cession . 

l8oi 


3,008,239 

Cyprus . 

3,584 

Convention with Turkey . . . 

1878 


187,000 

Aden and Socotra. 

3,070 

(Aden) conquest. 

!839 


44,000 

Straits Settlements. 

1,500 

Treaty cession. 

1785-1824 

506,577 

Hong Kong . 

30 X 

Treaty cession. 

1841 


221,441 

Labuan . 

3 1 

Treaty cession. 

1846 


5,853 

British North Borneo .... 

31,000 

Cession to Company. 

1877 


150,000 

Africa : 






Cape Colony. 

221,310 

Treaty cession. 

1588-1814 

1,527,224 

Natal. 

21,150 

Annexation. 

1843 


543,913 

St. Helena. 

47 

Conquest. 

1673 


4,116 

Ascension. 

38 

Annexation. 

1815 


200 

Sierra Leone. 

15,000 

Settlement. 

1787 


300,000 

British Guinea, Gold Coast, etc 

339,900 

Treaty cession. 

1872 


23 , 455 ,ooo 

Mauritius, etc. 

1,063 

Conquest and cession .... 

1810-1814 

392,500 

^British South and East Africa 

1,989,247 

Conquest and cession .... 

1870-1890 

14,911,000 

America : 






Canada Proper. 

370,488 

Conquest. 

1759-60) 



New Brunswick. 

28,200 

Treaty cession. 

1763 



Nova Scotia. 

20,907 

Conquest. 

1627 



Manitoba. 

73,956 

Settlement. 

1813 

■ 

4 , 833,239 

British Columbia, etc. . . . 

383,300 

Transfer to Crown. 

1858 

Northwest Territories .... 

3,257,500 

Charter to Company. 

1670 



Prince Edward Island .... 

2,133 

Conquest. 

1745 J 



Newfoundland. 

42,200 

Treaty cession. 

I 7 L 3 


198,000 

British Guiana. 

76,000 

Conquest and cession .... 

1803-1814 

282,000 

British Honduras. 

7,562 

Conquest. 

1798 


28,000 

Jamaica. 

4 G 93 

Conquest. 

1655 


581,000 

Trinidad and Tobago .... 

L 754 

Conquest. 

1797 


205,000 

Barbadoes . 

166 

Settlement. 

1605 


172,000 

Bahamas . 

5,794 

Settlement.. 

1629 


48,000 

Bermuda. 

4 i 

Settlement.. 

1612 


16,000 

Other Islands. 

8,742 


• • 


255,000 

Australasia : 






New South Wales. 

310,700 

Settlement. 

1788 


1,132,234 

Victoria. 

87,884 

Settlement. 

1832 


1,140,405 

South Australia. 

903,690 

Settlement. 

1836 


320,43! 

Queensland. 

668,497 

Settlement. 

1824 


393,718 

Western Australia. 

975,876 

Settlement. 

1828 


49,782 

Tasmania. 

26,215 

Settlement. 

1803 


146,667 

New Zealand. 

104,032 

Purchase. 

1845 


626,658 

Fiji.. 

7,423 

Cession from the natives . 

1874 


125,402 

New Guinea (British) .... 

234,768 

Annexation. 

1884 


350,000 


x Statistics for Orange Free State and South African Republic not yet available. 














































































































HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 


5 49 


France. 

All together the Republic of France 
controls approximately sixty-three and a 
quarter million people, and three and one- 
half millions of square miles of territory. 
But France proper, without her colonies, 
has only 38,517,975, and 204,177 square 
miles. The home territory is bounded on 
the north by the English Channel; on the 
west by the Bay of Biscay ; on the south by 
Spain and the Mediterranean Sea; and on 
the east by Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, 
and Italy. Religion, Roman Catholic. 
About 693,000 Protestants. Government 
—Republican. Executive, the President of 
the Republic. Legislative, the Senate and 
the Chamber of Deputies, the former com¬ 
posed of 300 members, and the latter of 584 
members. Education is entirely under 
Government supervision, and the schools 
rank among the best in the world. The 
Republic of France has been, for hundreds 
of years, one of the great powers of Europe. 
The geographical situation of the country 
is admirably adapted for political and com¬ 
mercial eminence. It is crossed on the north 
by the parallel of latitude which forms a 
part of the northern boundary of the United 
States. Its frontiers are open to the sea 
and its plains are fertile. The larger rivers 
are navigable for a considerable distance in¬ 
land and are connected by canals. More 
than one-half of all the land is under cul¬ 
tivation, and its splendid climate has given 
this country the name of “ Sunny France.” 
Among its chief manufactures are silk, lace, 
ribbons, jewelry, and perfumery. Wine¬ 
making is one of the most profitable indus¬ 
tries of France. 

The French people are noted for their 
politeness, intelligence, gaiety and taste. 
They are very patriotic, possess a great na¬ 
tional pride, and seldom emigrate. Their 
love of home has undoubtedly done much 
to give England an advantage over France 
as a colonizing nation. 

The chief city and capital of France is 
Paris, the most beautiful city in the world, 
with its broad streets, smooth pavements, 
stately trees, and miles upon miles of mag¬ 
nificent buildings and palaces, surrounded 
by gardens, fountains, and statues. This 


city sets the fashions for the world, and is 
its mart for fancy goods. The largest 
library in the world is at Paris, and here, 
also, may be said to be the headquarters for 
the study of the mental and psychic sciences, 
as well as of chemistry and art. The Louvre, 
formerly a royal palace, contains the most 
extensive collection of modern pictures and 
sculptures in the world. 

The foreign possessions of France are 
located in South America, Asia, Africa, and 
also many islands, the principal divisions, 
with statistics, being as follows : 


Countries. 

Popula¬ 

tion. 

Square 

Miles. 

Capital Cities. 

Algeria. 

Senegal, etc. 

Tunis. 

3,870,000 

183,237 

1,500,000 

26,502 

1,500,000 

1,223,000 

2,000,000 

62,752 

12,800 

1,000,000 

3.500,000 

260,000 

580,000 

45,000 

46,697 

82,254 

13,692 

60,000 

7,624 

462 

1,550,000 

230,000 

Algiers. 

St. Louis. 
Tunis. 
Cayenne. 
Saigon. 

Cayenne. 

Cambodia. i . 

Cochin-China. 

Tonquin. 

New Caledonia. 

Tahiti . 

Hanoi. 

Noumea. 

Sahara. 


Madagascar. 

Antananarivo 


Since the establishment of the French 
Republic in 1870, there have been seven 
presidents : Thiers, McMahon, Grevy, Car¬ 
not, Perier, Faure, Loubet. The present 
ruler, Emile Loubet, was elected February 
18, 1899, to succeed President Faure, who 
died suddenly the night before. 

Spain. 

At one time Spain was the most impor¬ 
tant nation of the world, governing a popu¬ 
lation of over 80,000,000 souls, with colonies 
exceeding those of any other nation on earth. 
At present she has been stripped of nearly 
all her colonies, her dominion extending at 
present only over her home territory with a, 
population of 18,114,388, and an area of 
401,897 square miles, bounded on the north 
by France and the Bay of Biscay ; on the 
west by the Atlantic Ocean and Portugal ; 
and on the south and east by the Mediter¬ 
ranean Sea. Religion —Roman Catholic, 
except 34,000 (6,654 Protestants). Gov¬ 
ernment —Constitutional monarchy. Ex¬ 
ecutive, the King. Legislative, the King 
and Cortes, composed of the Upper House 
with 360 members and Chamber of Deputies 


























550 


HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 


of 431 members. Education, 30,000 ele¬ 
mentary schools with 1,700,000 pupils ; ten 
universities with 15,700students. 

Though there are elections in Spain, 
universal suffrage does not exist. The 
franchise is peculiar. A Spaniard, to vote, 
must be of age, domiciled twenty-five years, 
must contribute $5.00 as a real-estate tax, 
and double that sum industrial tax. Poli¬ 
ticians in power do not try to increase voters, 
but to diminish their number. All priests 
and their curates, members of academies and 
ecclesiastical chapters are permitted to vote. 

Madrid is the capital city, with a popu¬ 
lation of over 400,000. Comparatively little 
manufacturing is done in Spain. Agricul¬ 
ture is the principal industry, and this is 
conducted with implements far behind the 
age. 

The history of Spain is a long and dra¬ 
matic one. The last chapter ended with the 
Spanish-American War in 1898, the results 
of which took from her the last of her colo¬ 
nial possessions of consequence. 

Alfonso XIII., the present King, was 
born in 1886, ruling through his mother, 
Maria Christina, as Queen Regent until of age. 

Portugal. 

The Kingdom of Portugal comprises 
34,028 square miles, with a population of 
4,708,000. 

Portugal is bounded on the east and 
north by Spain, and on the west and south 
by the Atlantic Ocean. Religion —Roman 
Catholic ; 500 Protestants. Government 
—Hereditary limited monarchy. Executive, 
the King and Cabinet. Legislative, the Cor¬ 
tes, composed of House of Peers with 162 
members, and House of Commons with 149 
members. Education —5,500 schools with 
240,000 pupils ; one university with 670 stu¬ 
dents. 

During the fifteenth century Portugal ex¬ 
ceeded any other European nation in power 
and prosperity. Her ships were in every 
port. She had colonies throughout the 
world. Her decline, however, was nearly 
as rapid as her elevation had been. She 
finally became a dependency of Spain, but 
in 1640 threw off the Spanish yoke, and has 
since, except during the dominancy of Na¬ 
poleon, been independent. 


Lisbon , the capital of Portugal, and 
Oporto, are its principal commercial cities, 
in which all the manufacturing interests of 
the country are centered. For want of 
roads, internal commerce is almost entirely 
neglected. In 1785 a terrible earthquake 
destroyed Lisbon, 60,000 people perishing. 

Charles /., King of Portugal, was born in 
1863, and acceded to the throne in 1889. 

Portuguese colonies in Africa number 5,- 
416,000 population and 841,025 square 
miles; in Asia 847,503 population and 
7,923 square miles. 

Italy. 

This country has increased rapidly in 
population during recent years. It now 
has about 35,000,000 subjects, with a terri¬ 
tory of 114,610 square miles. 

Italy was formerly called Rome, which 
empire included, in the process of time, near¬ 
ly all the known world. Latterly it has been 
designated as the ‘ ‘ Garden of Europe ’ ’ and 
the “ Cradle of Art.” 

“ A land of art and beauty rare, 

Of sunny skies and balmy air.” 

The Peninsula of Italy projects into 
the Mediterranean Sea, which forms its 
southern boundary. On the north it is 
bounded by Austria and Switzerland ; on 
the west by France and the Tyrrhenian Sea ; 
and on the east by the Adriatic Sea. Relig¬ 
ion —Roman Catholic, but about 62,000 
Protestants and 38,000 Jews. Government 
—Limited monarchy, Executive, the King; 
Legislative, the Parliament, consisting of 
two Chambers—the Senate of 367 members, 
made up of the Royal Princes and any num¬ 
ber of distinguished men above forty years 
of age who are nominated by the King; the 
second Chamber, that of the Deputies, con¬ 
sists of 508 members elected by the people. 
Education —Italy has twenty-one univer¬ 
sities with about 14,000 students. Her prim¬ 
ary schools are mostly parochial, or are con¬ 
ducted under the direction of the Catholic 
Church. The majority of the people are 
unable to read or write. 

Rome , the capital of Italy, has a popu¬ 
lation of over 500,000, and is famous for 
its ruins, art schools and fine buildings, as 
well as for the fact that it is the home of the 



HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 


55i 


Pope, the head of the Catholic Church. 
The ancient city was situated on seven hills. 
Modern Rome stands on a plain northwest 
of these hills, and is surrounded by a wall 
fitteen miles in circuit. 

St. Peter's Cathedral at Rome is the 
largest and grandest in the world, and The 
Vatican , a palace of the Pope, has many 
thousand rooms, and the most valuable 
picture-gallery in the world. Its museum 
of statuary is nearly a mile in length. The 
Coliseum at Rome is the grandest ruin in 
the world. This and the Catacombs—subter¬ 
ranean passages and chambers extending 
far underand around the city—together with 
the ruins of the Forum, constitute objects of 
unending interest to students. In fact, with 
Naples, Pompeii, and Vesuvius added to the 
foregoing, there is much in Italy to tempt 
the tourist. 

The present King, Victor Emmanuel 
III. , was born in 1869, and acceded to the 
throne after the assassination of his father, 
King Humbert, in 1900. 

In addition to home territory and popula¬ 
tion already mentioned, Italy has colonies 
in Abyssinia numbering 4,500 inhabitants, 
189,000 square miles; in Eritrea 660,000 
inhabitants, 56,000 square miles, and on the 
Somal Coast 210,000 inhabitants, 70,000 
square miles. 

Greece. 

With a population of 2,433,806 and 25,- 
041 square miles of territory, the little King¬ 
dom of Greece, only about two-thirds the 
size of the State of Maine, sits unique 
among the monarchies of Europe. Sur¬ 
rounded by islands, and penetrated by the 
sea, it was a natural starting-point for the 
introduction of the civilization of the Egyp¬ 
tians and the Phoenicians into Europe— 
modified and improved. 

The ancient Greeks were a beauty-loving, 
song-making, cultured nation, and it is to 
them that modern civilization owes more 
than to any other ancient people. The 
islands of Greece have been famous in song 
and story longer than any other land. In 
the days of Homer Crete had at least one 
hundred cities. Athens, the modern capital 
of Greece, was for centuries the centre of the 


world’s civilization. Its population at pre¬ 
sent is 115,000. 

Greece is bounded on the north by Tur¬ 
key in Europe; on the east by the iEgean 
Sea; on the south by the Mediterranean 
Sea ; and on the west by Turkey and the 
Ionian Sea. Religion— Greek Orthodox 
Church with the exception of 46,000. Gov¬ 
ernment —Eimited monarchy. Executive, 
the King. Legislative, the Boule (Cham¬ 
ber of Deputies), consisting of 150 repre¬ 
sentatives. Education —There are 2,600 
schools attended by 140,000 pupils, and one 
university with 2,400 students. 

King George, son of King Christian of 
Denmark, is the present sovereign of Greece. 
He was born in 1845, and ascended the 
throne in 1863, at 17 years of age. 

The Austro=Hungarian Empire. 

Comprises the Empire of Austria and 
the Kingdom of Hungary, with 201,591 
square miles and 41,827,700 population. It 
is bounded on the north by Poland, Silesia, 
and Saxony; on the west by Bavaria and 
Switzerland; on the south by Venetia, the 
Adriatic and the Balkan States ; and on the 
east by Moldavia and West Russia. Relig¬ 
ion —Roman Catholics, 25,598,000; Pro¬ 
testants, 3,630,000; Jews, 1,646,000. Gov¬ 
ernment —Austria and Hungary form a 
hereditary dual-monarchy, each country 
having its own Parliament, Ministry, and 
Administration. They are both united un¬ 
der a hereditary sovereign, the Emperor of 
Austria being also King of Hungary, and a 
controlling body known as the “ Delega¬ 
tions,” or Parliament, of 120 members, one- 
half of whom are chosen by and represent 
the Legislature of Austria proper, and the 
other half that of Hungary. Within the 
jurisdictions of the Delegations are all mat¬ 
ters affecting the common interests of the 
two countries, notably foreign affairs, war, 
and finance, each of these having its own 
executive department. According to the 
military law, the obligation for service is 
universal; the time of service in the line is 
two years; in the reserve, seven years ; in 
the landwehr, two years. 

The mines of Austria are among the 
richest in Europe, gold, silver, lead, copper, 
and iron being widely distributed. The 



552 


HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 


largest cave in Europe is in the Julian Alps 
in Austria. The coal and salt mines of 
Austria are the richest in the world. The 
musical instruments of Vienna are famous. 
This city is the capital and metropolis of 
the empire, with a population of 1,365,000, 
the fourth city of Europe, and one of the 
most beautiful in the world. Its streets 
converge towards a common centre, like the 
spokes of a wheel. Buda-pest (really two 
cities standing on opposite banks of the 
Danube) is the capital of Hungary, with a 
population of more than half a million. 

The city of Carlsbad stands over a vast 
caldron of boiling water, which is noted for 
its medicinal qualities, and attracts health¬ 
seeking tourists from every land. Salts are 
extracted from these boiling springs and 
sold all over the world. The present ven¬ 
erable emperor, Francis Joseph, was born 
August 30, 1830, and ascended the throne 
December 2, 1848. 

Germany. 

The German Empire, with its 52,280,000 
inhabitants and 211,108 square miles, con¬ 
sists of the four kingdoms of Prussia, Sax¬ 
ony, Bavaria, and Wurtemburg, six grand- 
duchies, five duchies, seven principalities, 
the three free cities of Eubec, Bremen, and 
Hamburg, and the territory of Alsace- 
Lorraine, the latter acquired from France 
in the settlement of the Franco-Prussian 
War of 1870. 

On the north Germany is bounded by 
the North Sea, Denmark, and the Baltic 
Sea; on the east by Russia; on the south 
by Austria and Switzerland; and on the 
west by France, Belgium, and the Nether¬ 
lands. Religion—P rotestants, 30,450,130; 
Roman Catholics, 17,236,500; Jews, 586,- 
200. Government —The twenty-six states 
which comprise the German Empire are 
united into a Confederation. The supreme 
direction of the military and political affairs 
is vested in the King of Prussia, as Em¬ 
peror of Germany ; controlled by the Bund- 
esrath, or Federal Council, consisting of 
sixty-two members appointed by the in¬ 
dividual states of the Empire, and the 
Reichstag, or Diet of the Realm, composed 
of 397 members elected by universal suf¬ 


frage. Education —There are twenty-one 
universities, attended in round numbers by 
28,000 students ; 57,000 elementary schools, 
with 7,300,000 pupils; and 1,484 higher 
class and technical schools, with 280,000 
pupils. 

The Germans are intelligent and indus¬ 
trious, and their schools are among the best 
in the world—education being compulsory. 
Every German youth is also required to 
serve from one to three years in the army. 
It is more necessary for Germany to main¬ 
tain a large standing army than for any 
other European nation, because the Empire 
lies in the very heart of Europe and is 
poorly protected by nature from its enemies. 
The Germans are music-loving people, and 
many of the world’s greatest musicians are 
natives of that country. They are also a 
remarkably artistic and mechanical people, 
in almost every house children, men and 
women, cutting, carving, whittling, gluing, 
and painting. 

Berlin , the capital, with 1,843,000 in¬ 
habitants, is by far the largest town in Ger¬ 
many, and for the beauty and size of its 
buildings, the regularity of its streets, the 
importance of its institutions of science and 
art, and its activity, industry, and trade, is 
one of the finest cities in Europe. Built in 
a sandy plain on both banks of the Spree, 
it is ten miles in circumference. The most 
celebrated street is that called “ Unter den 
Linden,” a broad and imposing avenue, 
planted with four rows of lime trees, orna¬ 
mented by an equestrian statue of Frederick 
the Great, and terminated at one end by the 
Brandenburg Gate—a colossal structure, 
surmounted by a statue of Victory in a car 
drawn by four horses, and by the royal 
palace at the other. Around the principal 
squares and streets are grouped numerous 
public buildings, among which are the royal 
castle and palace, .he arsenal, the university, 
museum, exchange, opera-house, theaters, 
and palaces 01 the princes. Berlin is the 
great centre of instruction and intellectual 
development in Northern Germany. It is 
also the first city in Germany for the variety 
and importance of its manufacturing prod¬ 
ucts, which comprise, among other things, 
the beautiful cast-iron ornaments known as 
Berlin jewelry. 



HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 


553 


William II. , the Emperor of Germany, 
was born in 1859, and succeeded his father 
on the German throne in 1888. 

Germany has colonial possessions in 
Africa embracing 822,000 square miles, 
with a population of 5,950,000 inhabitants. 

Switzerland. 

The ancient Helvetia of the Romans is 
to-day the Swiss Republic, embracing 15,981 
square miles, with a population of 2,933,334. 
Switzerland is the highest country in Eu¬ 
rope. One-third of the whole republic lies 
above the line of perpetual snow. The poet 
aptly says: 

‘ Upon the heights of Alpine lands 
The Swiss Republic proudly stands.” 

The surface of Switzerland exceeds in 
sublimity and ruggedness every other part 
of Europe. The immense mass of Mt. St. 
Gothard forms the centre or nucleus of a 
system of mountains, covered with perennial 
snow, the peaks of which rise from 5,000 to 
15,000 feet above the sea level. The chief 
passes are St. Bernard, 8,120 feet; Cervin, 
10,938 feet; Simplon, 6,595 feet; St. Goth¬ 
ard, 6,936 feet; Splugen, 6,945 feet. Relig¬ 
ion —58 percent. Protestants; 41 per cent. 
Roman Catholics. Government —Federal 
Republic of twenty-two Cantons. Execu¬ 
tive, Federal Council of seven, including 
the President. Legislative, the State Coun¬ 
cil of forty-four members, and the National 
Council of 143 Representatives. Educa¬ 
tion—Compulsory. There are four univer¬ 
sities (Basle, Berne, Zurich, and Geneva), 
with 1,500 students, and 5,500 elementary 
and secondary schools with 500,000 pupils. 

The Swiss are a simple, brave people, 
and the security of the mountain recesses 
has fostered their independent spirit. The 
St. Gothard’s Tunnel through the Alps 
gives Switzerland a direct outlet into Italy. 
This tunnel represents the most stupendous 
work of engineering known in the world. 

Berne, the capital of the Republic, is a 
thriving city, and one of the handsomest in 
Europe. It is celebrated for its numerous 
fountains. Geneva is the largest city, and 
is noted for its manufacture of watches. 

Belgium. 

Belgium is the most densely-settled coun¬ 
try on the earth. The population in Janu¬ 


ary, 1900, was 6,744,553, crowded into an 
area of 11,313 square miles, making an 
average of 593 persons to each square mile 
of territory. 

On the west Belgium is bounded by the 
North Sea; on the north by the Nether¬ 
lands ; on the east by Holland ; and on the 
south by France. Religion —The Roman 
Catholic religion is professed by nearly the 
entire population, though full liberty and 
social equality are granted to all confessions. 
There are 15,000 Protestants, and 3,000 
Jews. Government —Constitutional and 
hereditary monarchy. Executive, the King 
and ministry. Legislative, vested in the 
King, the Chamber of Representatives, and 
the Senate. The Chamber consists of 138 
members, and the Senate of sixty-nine. 

Much of Belgium in the west is below 
the level of the sea, from which it has to be 
protected by dikes and sand dunes. The 
soil is unusually fertile. Minerals are 
abundant, the inhabitants very industrious, 
and manufacturing is extensively carried 
on, Belgium surpassing all other European 
countries except England and Germany. 
Brussels is the capital city, with a popula¬ 
tion of 210,000. Antwerp is the largest 
city, with a population of 282,000. If the 
immediate suburbs of Brussels were taken in, 
as is done in our American cities, in would 
increase the population to more than half a 
million. The great battle of Waterloo, in 
which Napoleon was defeated, was fought 
a few miles from the city of Brussels. 

The Netherlands (Holland). 

As Switzerland is the highest country in 
Europe, so The Netherlands is the lowest. 
One-third of Switzerland lies above the 
snow-line; one-third of Holland is below 
the level of the sea. There are no forests, 
rocks, or hills in the whole country, the 
highest land being less than 200 feet above 
the ocean, which is literally dammed out of 
the land by sand mounds along a part of the 
coast and dikes built at other places. 

The country comprises 12,680 square 
miles (200 miles long by 60 wide), with a 
population of 4,550*870 people. It is 
bounded on the west and north by the 
North Sea; on the south by Belgium; and 





554 


HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 


on the east by Germany. Religion —Prot¬ 
estants, 2,469,814; Roman Catholics, 1,439,- 
137 ; Jews, 81,693. Government —Heredi¬ 
tary and constitutional monarchy. Ex¬ 
ecutive, the sovereign. Legislative, the 
sovereign and Parliament or States-General, 
composed ol the First Chamber with fifty 
members, and the Second Chamber with 
190. Education —There are four univer¬ 
sities (Leyden, Groningen, Utrecht, and 
Amsterdam), attended by over 2,000 stu¬ 
dents ; 1,278 private and higher class schools, 
with over 175,000 scholars; 2,923 public 
elementary schools, with 45,000 pupils. 

Next to England, the Netherlands pos¬ 
sess the most important colonial posses¬ 
sions. Nearly 23,000,000 of her colonial 
inhabitants are in the Island of Java; the 
balance are principally in Borneo, the Cele¬ 
bes, the Moluccas, Sumatra, Surinam, and 
New Guinea. 

Travelers in Holland are struck by the 
novel appearance of windmills scattered all 
over the land, and canals running through 
it like roads. Windmills grind the grain, 
saw the wood, wash the garments, pump 
the water off the lowlands, and do all sorts 
of work. In summer the canals are used 
for boats, and in winter as roads for vehicles, 
sleighing and skating. The chief city of 
Holland is Amsterdam, its commercial cen¬ 
tre, with a population of 513,000. It stands 
on soft, wet ground, the houses being gen¬ 
erally built on piles. The capital is The 
Hague, with a population of 200,000. 

Queen Wilhelmina, the present ruler of 
Holland, succeeded to the throne in 1890, 
at the age of ten years. In February, 1901, 
she was married to Duke Henry of Mecklen- 
burg-Schwerin. She is universally beloved, 
and regarded as a wise ruler. 

Denmark. 

Denmark, with Norway and Sweden, 
forms ancient Scandinavia. The country 
'proper consists of only 14,780 square miles, 
and has 2,172,205 inhabitants. It is bounded 
on the west by the North Sea ; on the north¬ 
west by the Skager Rack ; on the east by the 
Cattegat, the Sound, and the Baltic ; and on 
the south by the Baltic and the German pro¬ 
vince of Schleswig. The State religion is 
Lutheran, though complete toleration is ex¬ 


tended to every sect. In 1880, only 17,526 
persons did not belong to the Lutheran 
Church. Of this number 3,946 were Jews 
and 2,985 Roman Catholics. 

The Government is an hereditary limited 
monarchy. Executive, the King and Min¬ 
istry. Legislative, the Rigsdag, or Diet, 
composed of the Landsthing, or upper 
House, with sixty-six members, and the 
Folkething, or House of Commons, with 102 
members. Elementary education is com¬ 
pulsory. The university at Copenhagen 
has about 1,300 students. There are also 
forty-five colleges and higher schools, and 
2,940 parochial schools. 

The climate of Denmark is generally 
cold and murky in winter. Copenhagen, 
the capital, is the chief city, with a popula¬ 
tion of over 300,000. King Christian IX. 
ascended the throne in 1863, at the age of 
forty-five years. He is very democratic in 
his habits, loves to mix with his people, and 
is one or the most beloved monarchs of 
Europe. King Christian is also remarkable 
for having his descendants on many European 
thrones. The King of Greece is his son, the 
present Czar of Russia is his grandson, and 
his daughter Alexandra married the Prince 
of Wales, and is consequently now the Queen 
of England. 

Outside of her home territory Denmark 
owns the islands of Iceland and Greenland, 
the Faroe Islands, and some of the smaller 
West Indies. These added to the home ter¬ 
ritory increase its square miles near ten 
times, but augment its population only 
about 120,000 souls. 

Sweden and Norway. 

These two kingdoms, forming the Scan¬ 
dinavian Peninsula, comprise jointly 297,- 
321 square miles and 6,785,898 population. 

Norway and Sweden are bounded on the 
north by the Arctic Ocean ; on the east by 
Russia, the Gulf of Bothnia, and the Baltic 
Sea; on the south by the Baltic Sea, the 
Sound, Cattegat, and Skager Rack ; and on 
the west by the Atlantic Ocean. 

Norway and Sweden together form an 
hereditary and limited monarchy, the King 
of Sweden being also King of Norway. But 
each country has a separate legislative gov¬ 
ernment, which in Norway consists of the 



HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 


555 


King as executive and the Storthing, with 
twenty-eight members, and the Odelsthing, 
with eighty members, as the legislative de¬ 
partment. In Sweden the King is the ex¬ 
ecutive, while the legislative comprises the 
Diet, composed of two chambers, the first 
with 142 members and the second with 214 
members. 

Education is fostered in both countries. 
In Norway there is one university with 
about 1,400 students, and nearly 7,000 ele¬ 
mentary schools with 380,000 pupils. Swe¬ 
den has two universities, with from 2,500 to 
3,000 students, and more than 10,000 ele¬ 
mentary and other schools, with upwards 
of 700,000 pupils. The Lutheran Protest¬ 
ant religion prevails in both Norway and 
Sweden. 

Oscar II., the present King of Sweden 
and Norway, was born in 1829, and suc¬ 
ceeded to the throne in 1872, at the age of 
forty-three. • 

The Russian Empire. 

The Russian Empire, next to that of 
Great Britain, is the most extensive domin¬ 
ion in the world, embracing, as it does, 
8,660,395 square miles, with a population 
in round numbers of 136,000,000 of people. 
Great Britain rules over about 3,000,000 
square miles of territory in excess of that of 
Russia, and her entire subject population is 
more than twice that of Russia. The popu¬ 
lation of China (402,680,000) is still larger, 
but China’s dominion covers less than half 
the area dominated by the Russian Empire, 
which includes about one-half of Europe 
and all of the northern part of Asia. The 
area of European Russia is about two-thirds 
that of the United States, while Asiatic 
Russia includes Siberia, Turkestan, and 
Trans-Caucasia, or Georgia. 

Russia in Europe is bounded on the east 
by Siberia and the Caspian Sea; on the 
south by Persia, the Black Sea, and Tur¬ 
key ; on the west by Austria, Germany, the 
Baltic Sea, and Sweden ; and on the north 
by the Arctic Ocean. The established re¬ 
ligion is the Russo-Greek. Protestants, 
4,766,000; Roman Catholics, 8,910,000. 
Government —Absolute hereditary mon¬ 
archy. Executive and legislative, the Czar. 
Administrative entrusted to four Councils, 


the Council of the Empire, the Ruling Sen¬ 
ate, the Holy Synod, and the Committee of 
Ministers. Finland has had until recently 
a partly independent government—Grand 
Duke, the Czar. Education —Including 
Finland, there are nine universities with 
14,000 students, and 38,000 schools with 
2,250,000pupils. In 1882 only 19 per cent, 
of the Russian recruits could read and write. 

Recent statistics, in 1900, show that 
only 2 per cent, of the population attend 
school, and only one young man in every 
five enrolled in the army can read or write. 
It has been the policy of the Russian Gov¬ 
ernment to discourage education among the 
masses. The state considers it dangerous 
that they should acquire an education. 

Russia in Asia is bounded on the north 
by the Arctic Ocean; on the east by the 
Pacific Ocean ; on the south by the Chinese 
Empire, Bokhara, Afghanistan, Persia, and 
Turkey in Asia; and on the west by Eu¬ 
ropean Russia. It comprises 6,645,720 
square miles, with a population in round 
numbers of about 17,000,000. Religion— 
Christianity and Mohammedism prevail in 
Caucasia, while in Central Asia and Siberia 
Christianity is professed by the Slavs, and 
Buddhism, Shamanism, and Mohammedan¬ 
ism by the native races. 

Government —For administrative pur¬ 
poses the country is divided into five gen¬ 
eral governments—Caucasia, Turkestan, 
Stepnoye, Eastern Siberia, and Amur. At 
the head of each of these is either a viceroy 
or a governor-general, who represents the 
Czar, and has the supreme control of all 
affairs, whether civil or military. 

Education throughout Asiatic Russia is 
rudimentary, and provision for even this is 
meager. 

As a class, the people of Russia are 
hardy, ambitious, and industrious. The 
tyrannical government under which they 
have lived, and their ignorance, alone hold 
them back. 

St. Petersburg, the capital, founded by 
Peter the Great, is the principal city, with a 
population of 1,267,000. Everything about 
the city is on a colossal scale, the streets 
wide, buildings large, area extensive. 

Moscow, the Holy City of the Russians, 
with a population of nearly one million, is 



556 


HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 


the second city in importance. It is irregu¬ 
larly built, and presents a most striking 
contrast of costly palaces, wretched hovels, 
and magnificent churches with gilded domes 
huddled together. 

The present Czar of Russia, Nicholas 
II., was born in 1868, and succeeded his 
father on the throne in 1894. 

Turkey. 

The Ottoman Empire includes Turkey in 
Europe, Turkey in Asia, a large part of 
northeastern Africa, and several islands, 


der consist of Mohammedans, with a few 
Jews. Government —Absolute monarchy. 
The Sultan is ruler,and his will is absolute, 
in so far as it is not in opposition to the pre¬ 
cepts of the Koran. The legislative and 
executive authority is exercised, under the 
supreme direction of the Sultan, by the 
Grand Vizier, the head of the temporal 
government, and the “ Sheik-ul-Islam,” 
the head of the Church. 

Turkey in Asia , with a population of 
about 17,000,000, embraces an area of 
680,000 square miles. 


The Countries of Europe. 


Political Division 

Form of 
Government 

Areas in British 
Square Miles 

Capitals 

1. Russia in Europe. 

Empire. 

2,266,983 

St. Petersburg. 

2. Germany. 

Empire. 

212,091 

Berlin. 

3. Austria and Hungary. 

Empire. 

240,943 

Vienna. 

4. France. 

Republic .... 

204,177 

Paris. 

5. Great Britain and Ireland. 

United Kingdom . 

122,511 

London. 

6. Italy. 

Kingdom .... 

114,296 

Rome. 

7. Spain. 

Kingdom .... 

I 9 2 ,957 

Madrid. 

8. Sweden and Norway. 

Kingdom .... 

293,918 

Stockholm, Christiania. 

9. Belgium. 

Kingdom .... 

11,366 

48,307 

Brussels. 

10. Roumania.*. 

Principality . . . 

Bucharest. 

11. Turkey in Europe. 

Empire. 

75,523 

Constantinople. 

12. Portugal. 

Kingdom .... 

36.462 

Lisbon. 

13. Holland. 

Kingdom .... 

20,527 

Amsterdam. 

14. Switzerland. 

Federal Republic . 

15,716 

Berne. 

15. Denmark. 

Kingdom .... 

14,553 

Copenhagen. 

16. Bulgaria. 


24,360 

Sofia. 

17. Servia. 

Principality . . . 

20,850 

Belgrade. 

18. Greece. 

Kingdom .... 

19,941 

Athens. 

19. Montenegro. 

Principality . . . 

3,550 

Cetigne. 

20. Andorra. 

Republic .... 

148 

Andorra. 

21. Liechtenstein. 

Principality . . . 

63 

Liechtenstein. 

22. San Marino. 

Republic .... 

26^ 

San Marino. 

23. Monaco. 

Principality . . . 

6 

3 , 963,333 

Monaco. 

Less—Transcaucasian provinces of Russia. 

156,564 


Totals of Europe .... 


3,806,769 



embracing in all 1,652,533 square miles, 
with a population of 33,559,787. 

Turkey in Europe now, strictly speaking, 
only comprises the provinces, nearest Con¬ 
stantinople, the capital, the remainder of its 
territory being divided among the inde¬ 
pendent and tributary states of the Balkan 
Peninsula. Religion —More than one- 
half of the population are Christians, chiefly 
belonging to the Greek Church ; the remain- 


On the northeast it is bounded by Trans¬ 
caucasia ; on the east by the Black Sea and 
the Sea of Marmora; on the west by the 
Aegean, Mediterranean, and Red Seas; on 
the south by Arabia and the Persian Gulf, 
and on the east by Persia and the Persian 
Gulf. 

Education in Turkey, among the Mo¬ 
hammedans, consists almost entirely of 
learning the Koran and certain verses of 












































HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 


557 


poetry. There are, however, public schools 
of an inferior grade throughout the empire, 
which are poorly patronized. There are 
also colleges and public libraries attached to 
a number of the principal mosques, but the 
instruction afforded by these establishments 
is limited. The Christians have established 
a number of schools, which are, however, 
discouraged by the government. 

Abdul Hamid , the present Sultan of 
Turkey, was born in 1842, and ascended 
the throne in 1876. 

Constantinople , the capital, is a beauti¬ 
ful city of nearly 1,000,000 inhabitants, and 
is situated on the Bosphorous. Of its many 
beautiful buildings, St. Sophia is the finest 
example of Byzantine architecture. 

The Balkan States. —These are four 
states which formerly were part of the Turk¬ 
ish Empire which have been set apart as 
independent or semi-independent govern¬ 


ments, but which have very little political 
influence or importance. 

Roumania.—Area 48,300 square miles. 
Population— 5,800,000. Religion —The 
Greek Orthodox predominates. Govern¬ 
ment —Vested in King, assisted by council 
of State, a Senate of 120 members and 
Chamber of Deputies. Sovereign, Charles 
I. acceded to throne 1881. 

Bucharest is capital and centre of trade. 

Bulgaria.—Area, 37,060 square miles. 
Population— “3,309,816. Capital city, Sofia. 
Religion is Greek Orthodox. Govern¬ 
ment —A constitutional monarchy, vested in 
a Prince, council of ministers and a national 
assembly. Reigning Prince is Ferdinand 
who acceded in 1887. 

Montenegro.—Area,3,630 square miles. 
Popul ation —2 2 8,000. Capital city, Cetigne. 
Government —Similar to that of Bulgaria, 
with Nicholas as reigning Prince. 


THE CONTINENT OF ASIA 


Asia, the supposed birthplace of mankind, 
is the largest of the continents and the most 
populous. More than half the human race 
live on this continent. It comprises about one- 
third of the land surface of the earth—being 
twice as large as North America and nearly 
five times the size of the United States. Its 
greatest length is 7,500 miles—nearly one- 
third the circumference of the earth—and it 
has at once the coldest and the hottest 
country, as well as the highest and lowest 
land, within its borders. 

Siberia is swept by icy winds from the 
Arctic Ocean ; Arabia by the hot and fatal 
simoon. The Himalaya Mountains are the 
highest in the world ; the Caspian Sea and 
much of the land near it are below the level 
of the ocean. Mecca, the birthplace of Mo¬ 
hammed, in Arabia, is the hottest, and 
Yakootsk, on the Lena River in Siberia, is 
the coldest city in the world Northwestern 
Asia is a continuous plain ; the southeastern 
part is an elevated plateau traversed by lofty 
mountains, and the islands attaching to the 
continent are but continuations of the 
mountain chains extended into the sea. 
They are all of volcanic origin. The highest 
peak on earth is Mount Everest in the 


Himalayas. Its summit is 29,000 feet above 
the sea, 6,000 feet above the loftiest peak in 
America. 

The rivers in Asia, though of great 
length, are distinguished for their narrow 
valleys, and the Obi is the only one that is 
navigable to any considerable distance. 
The Yang-tse and Hoang rivers are subject 
to great changes brought about by the shift¬ 
ing of their channels. In 1851 the Hoang- 
Ho burst through its banks and poured its 
waters into the gulf of Pichulu, so changing 
its course within two years that its mouth 
was located 250 miles from its former posi¬ 
tion. The river valleys and plains, which 
are well watered, are extremely fertile, while 
the highest central regions and plateaus are 
dry, sandy and barren. The deserts of 
Arabia, Persia, Turkestan and Gobi receive 
little, and, in some places, no rain, while 
the southern slope of the Himalayas is 
annually inundated. India is traversed by 
winds which scorch the entire surface for 
half the year, and flood it with rain the 
other half. Destructive cyclones also visit 
the warm coasts, piling up the waters of the 
Bay of Bengal and submerging the lowlands 
of the Ganges. 




558 


HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 


The mineral products of Asia are numer¬ 
ous, and have been from remote antiquity. 
No land is more famous for its precious stones, 
unless it be Africa since the late discovery of 
the gold and diamond fields there in the 
last half of the nineteenth century. Most of 
the large and valuable sapphires, rubies, dia¬ 
monds and emeralds are from the mines of 
India ; the finest pearls re from the Persian 
Gulf and from the waters along the coasts 
of Ceylon. Gold and platinum are widely 
diffused throughout the Ural Mountains and 
the central plateaus. Silver is mined in Sibe¬ 
ria. Copper and iron are widely distributed. 

The vegetable products of Asia are as 
varied as its climates, temperatures and 
latitudes, we being able to find here many 
of the plants and trees belonging to the 
temperate, torrid and frigid zones. North 
of the 6 oth degree of latitude scarcely any 
vegetable growth is seen except birches, 
mosses and lichens, while the southern part 
of the continent is covered with a dense tro¬ 
pical vegetation. The palm, bamboo and 
banyan tree are abundant; and rice, cotton, 
sugar-cane, flax, jute, hemp, poppy and 
spices are cultivated on the plains and val¬ 
leys . In Central Asia we find such vegetation 
as thrives best in the temperate zones. Vast 
forests of pine, larch, teak, maple and birch 
extend over the uplands of Siberia, while 
wheat, tea and rice are cultivated in Central, 
Eastern and Southeastern Asia. Western 
Asia produces tobacco, figs, dates, olives ; 
and from this section also comes the fa¬ 
mous Mocha coffee. 

The animal life of Asia numbers in its 
catalogue nearly all the domestic animals of 
the earth, and most of them are native to it. 
The camel and elephant have been used as 
beasts of burden here from time immemorial. 
In the colder regions the bear, wolf, fox, 
buffalo and several species of wild cattle are 
common, and also many kinds of deer. In 
Southern Asia fierce animals and dangerous 
reptiles abound. Here are found in their 
native haunts, in the jungle, the rhinoceros, 
tapir, lion, tiger, hyena and jackal. Here 
are also the homes of the crocodile, python 
and the deadly cobra, which slays 20,000 
people annually by its bite. The tropical 
forests are also alive with numerous mon¬ 
keys and beautiful birds. 


Asia is the cradle of the earliest civili¬ 
zation of mankind. And to this day more 
than one-half of the inhabitants of the 
earth live on that continent—in fact, fully 
one-half live in China and India alone. 
The history of this vast horde, divided into 
many governments, clans, and wandering 
tribes, is shrouded in much mystery, and, 
despite the research of antiquarians in mod¬ 
ern times, except where the Asiatic has 
touched the ancient Jew or later European 
in war, comparatively little is definitely 
known. A few of the powerful govern¬ 
ments of ancient times, Syria, Assyria, 
Persia, Babylonia, etc., and those modern 
nations which have arisen on the sites they 
occupied, constitute about all that have a 
definite history yet given to the outside 
world. 

The principal divisions, foreign posses¬ 
sions and populations of Asia at present 
are: 


Countries. Population. 

Chinese Empire.402,680,000 

Japan. 41,090,000 

Persia. 7.653,600 

Anani.14,000,000 

Siam. 6,000,000 

Afghanistan. 4,000,000 

Beloochistan. 600,000 

Arabia. 12,000,000 

Independent states and tribes : Turko¬ 
mans, Usbecks, Tartars, Caucasians, 

Malays, etc.43,772,000 

Foreign Possessions: 

Great Britain: British and Further 
India, Ceylon, Straits Settlements, 

Hong-Kong, Aden, etc.150,800,000 

France: Settlements on coasts of 
Malabar, 

Coromandel, etc.\ 

Cochin-China (Saigon).j i j 3 00 > 000 

Russia: Siberia, Ural provinces, 

Transcaucasus, etc. 9,200,000 

Turkey: Asia-Minor, Mesopotamia, 

Kurdistan, Syria, etc. 16,500,000 

Holland: Dutch East Indies, Java, 

Sumatra, Banca, etc.23,000,000 

United States: Philippine Islands, 8,500,000 
Portugal: 

Goa, and Settlements in Hindostan I 

Macao, etc. (China).j- 1,500,000 

Malay Archipelago. J 


Total.882,595,600 

China. 

The Chinese Empire contains nearly 
four and one-half million square miles, 






















HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 


559 


divided into China Proper, with 1,554,000 ; 
Manchuria, 380,000; Mongolia and Zun- 
garia, 1,462,000 ; Thibet, 661,500, and East¬ 
ern Turkestan, with 580,000 square miles. 
This territory is bounded on the north and 
west by Asiatic Russia; on the south and 
west by British India, and on the southeast 
and east by Indo-China and the Pacific 
Ocean. The government is a despotic 
monarchy. 

From the above table it will be seen that 
China, with an area only one-half larger 
than that of the United States, has a popu¬ 
lation almost equal to both the British and 
Russian Empires, with all their colonies and 
subject territories. In fact, if we leave out 
England’s Asiatic subjects in India, China 
has more people than the Russian and Brit¬ 
ish Empires, together with the United States, 
France, and Germany thrown in for good 
measure. 

This vast and marvelous country, with 
its teeming millions, had in 1900 only 269 
miles of railway, against North America’s 
over 200,000 miles. With her boasted an¬ 
cient civilization, China is the least pro¬ 
gressive of all nations, and at the same time, 
perhaps, her people are the most universally 
energetic and frugal in habits. It would be 
wild to state what leaps and bounds this 
country must make in progress if the flood 
of Anglo-Saxon enterprise, education and 
business methods rolls in upon it as it now 
seems certain to do during the first quarter 
of the twentieth century. The food of the 
people consists chiefly of rice and fish, and 
it has already become proverbial in America 
that five Chinamen can live on what is re¬ 
quired to support one white man. As 
throughout all Asia, there are practically 
no wagons or wagon-roads in China. Pro¬ 
duce from the interior must be brought in 
wheelbarrows, on beasts of burden, and on 
the backs of laborers, to the rivers and sea¬ 
board. 

The trade between China and Russia is 
now conducted by caravans; that with 
Great Britain, Australia, the Philippines, 
and the United States, by means of ships. 
Where rivers and canals (which are numer¬ 
ous) penetrate the country, freight and 
traveling is done by boats. The leading 
exports of China are tea, porcelain and 
36 C 


pottery. The soil is exceedingly fertile, 
and agriculture is the chief occupation of 
the people. Sheep and cattle raising has 
latterly received considerable attention, and 
the wool market of the world has been 
affected by Chinese competition. Their 
latitude and climate enable them to put upon 
the market in crops and animals very sim¬ 
ilar products to those of the United States 
and Canada. 

When the Chinese learn western methods 
of farming and stock-raising, as well as of 
business and manufacture, the world’s com¬ 
merce will feel the power of this multi¬ 
tudinous race. With the opening of China, 
which promises to come early in the new 
century, following the invasion of the 
European and American forces in 1900, and 
its troublous times with Russia in 1901, the 
investment of foreign capital becomes far 
more inviting than it has ever been in the 
past. The cheapness of labor there offers 
another inducement to capital, while the 
tractable and industrious nature of the 
Chinese native makes him a desirable ap¬ 
prentice in every branch of manufacturing. 

The Religion of the bulk of the Chinese 
is Buddhistic. The higher classes are Con- 
fucians. There are also estimated to be 
1,000,000 Roman Catholic Christians and 
50,000 Protestant Christians, and 30,000,- 
000 Mohammedans in the Empire. 

Japan. 

The Empire of Japan , with its over 41,- 
000,000 subjects, stands next to China in im¬ 
portance among the independent govern¬ 
ments of Asia. In fact, in point of progress 
and development, both in its people and its 
resources, it is far ahead of any other Asiatic 
country. The kingdom consists entirely of 
islands (nearly 4,000 in number), embracing 
an area of nearly 150,000 square miles, con¬ 
taining mountains, streams, forests, and a 
well-cultivated soil, teeming with every va¬ 
riety of agricultural produce. The total 
length of the country is 2,450 miles and its 
area about 180,000 square miles, The coasts 
are indented by splendid harbors. The 
mountains are rich in minerals. The gold 
mines of Matsumai have long been cele¬ 
brated. Silver, copper (the chief mineral), 
iron and sulphur abound; also several 




560 


HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 


varieties of precious stones. It possesses also 
ample deposits of coal. Among the most 
remarkable of its vegetable products is the 
varnish tree, with the juice of which the na¬ 
tives lacquer or “japan’’ their furniture. 
The camphor and vegetable-wax trees, the 
paper mulberry, the chestnut, oak, pine, 
beech, elm, maple, cypress, etc., are also 
noteworthy ; the wagreen oak and the maple 
being the finest of all Japanese trees. Bam¬ 
boos, palms, bananas, etc., also flourish. 
The tobacco-plant, tea-shrub, potato, rice, 
wheat, and other cereals, are all cultivated, 
—agriculture, upon which the people be¬ 
stow great care and which they thoroughly 
understand, being their chief occupation ; in 
fact, nothing can surpass their diligent and 
successful husbandry. The floral kingdom 
is rich, beautiful and varied. The fruits 
comprise those of the temperate zone, to¬ 
gether with such semi-tropical varieties as 
the orange, lemon, and fig. The chief manu¬ 
facturing industries are those of silk and 
cotton, lacquering, and porcelain, in which 
they are said to excel the Chinese; also 
lithochromo printing, engraving, etc. The 
leading commodities exported are copper, 
camphor, tea, silk, japanned ware, painted 
paper, etc. The internal trade of Japan is 
very extensive, and rigid regulations are in 
force to protect and encourage home indus¬ 
try. Foreign commerce was, until of quite 
recent date, completely excluded. In 1854, 
however, treaties were entered into with the 
United States and Great Britain, and in fol¬ 
lowing years with others of the European 
States, by which the ports of Nagasaki, 
Kanagawa (Yokohama), Hiogo, Osaka-Nu- 
gata, and Hakodadi were thrown open to 
foreign traffic. 

Since the China-Japanese War in 1895, 
the country has been practically as accessible 
to the commerce and enterprise of the world 
as that of any other civilized nation, and the 
manufacturing and business spirit of the 
Japs has won for themselves the title of ‘ ‘ the 
Yankees of the East.” The empire is po¬ 
litically subdivided into provinces, depart¬ 
ments and districts, formerly governed by 
upwards of 200 princes called Daimios, each 
of whom held absolute power over his own 
jurisdiction ; in 1870-71, these princes were 
made subordinate to the Mikado, or supreme 


ruler of the empire. This Mikado, or em¬ 
peror, is considered of semi-divine origin, 
and was until quite recently invisible to the 
people at large. The Japanese army has 
latterly been reconstituted after the Euro¬ 
pean manner. The navy consists of several 
splendid fighting ships, built in the United 
States and England. A railroad 517 miles 
in length connects the cities of Yeddo and 
Kioto, and many shorter lines have been and 
are being built to keep pace with the grow¬ 
ing spirit of trade and progress which within 
the last decade of the nineteenth century be¬ 
came the great passion of the nation, col¬ 
lectively and individually. Telegraphic com¬ 
munication was opened first with China in 
1870 and quickly extended to all other 
countries. 

In view of the fact that Japan is now rec¬ 
ognized as one of the world powers, and 
joined the concert of nations in their armed 
invasion of China in 1900, it is hardly pos¬ 
sible to realize that this nation has been con¬ 
sidered as civilized for scarcely more than 
fifty years. In 1867 the first Japanese em¬ 
bassies were sent out to Europe. Since 
then her statesmen and students have gone 
officially to all foreign courts ; and as stu¬ 
dents—some at the government’s expense— 
large numbers of her young men have been 
sent to the leading institutions of learning 
iu Europe and America, to study not only 
the lore of the books, but, more especially, 
to learn what the Westerner knows outside 
of books, in business and everywhere, that 
it might be taken back for “ home improve¬ 
ment.” The fruitage of this planting has 
been remarkable for its quickness and abun¬ 
dance. No other people of modern times, if, 
indeed, in any age, have advanced so rapidly 
in the threefold sense of material, educa¬ 
tional and governmental progress as have 
the Japanese. 

India. 

The Empire of India , by which we mean 
nearly the whole of India, is subject to 
Great Britain, either absolutely or as tribu¬ 
tary states. In area India is larger than all 
the Pacific states and territories, and it has 
(despite the terrible ravages of the famine of 
1899 and 1900, which carried away millions) 
more than three times as many inhabitants 




HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 


561 


as the United States. Next to the Chinese 
Empire, India is the most populous govern¬ 
ment of the world. The country, as a whole, 
is remarkable for its high, snow-covered 
peaks, hot climate, and large population. 
Agriculture and stock-raising are the prin¬ 
cipal industries. Its low plains in the north 
are the most fertile in the world, the west 
and south being occupied by desert tracts. 

India was settled by the Aryans about 
1400 B. C. They were Brahmins, but un¬ 
like the Brahmins of the present time in 
their religious teaching and practices. Their 
language was the Sanskrit. The people are 
divided into castes. They believe in the 
transmigration of souls. Gautama or Budd¬ 
ha, about 500 B. C., introduced a form of 
religion which, after a long struggle with 
Brahmanism, was overcome in India and 
transplanted into China, where it has degen¬ 
erated into a debasing form of idolatry.. 
Queen Elizabeth chartered the East India 
Company in 1600 A. D. The vast empire, 
which had grown by its conquests, was 
transferred to the British Crown in 1858. 

The exports are cotton, opium, rice, 
wheat, and jute. Cattle, camels, buffalos, 
sheep, and goats are numerous. The in¬ 
habitants subsist, principally, upon rice, 
fish, and tea. 

Calcutta is the capital and the largest 
city in India, and the most important city 
in Asia. Bombay, on the western coast, 
and Madras, on the eastern, are important 
cities. 

Queen Victoria was made the Empress 
of India in 1876, and Edward VII., her son 
and successor on the British throne, is its 
present Emperor. 

Indo=China. 

Farther India or Indo-China, compris¬ 
ing the kingdoms of Burmah, Siam, and 
Anam, Lower Cochin-China, Cambodia, and 
the Malay Peninsula, is noted for its long 
mountain ranges, hot, moist climate, fertile 
valleys, and dense forests and jungles. 
Here are the homes of large savage animals 
and many tribes of people scarcely removed 
from barbarism. The cultivation of rice, 
which forms the chief article of food for 
man, is the principal occupation of the 
people. Bangkok, the capital of Siam, is 


the largest city in Farther India. Manda¬ 
lay, the capital of Burmah, and Singapore 
are other chief cities. 

Persia. 

Persia , Afghanistan , and Beloochistan , 
are remarkable for their desert tracts, 
forest-covered mountains, and fertile river 
valleys. Grain, sugar, fruits, indigo, and 
dates grow abundantly. Many inhabit¬ 
ants own large flocks of goats and sheep, 
and others are engaged in the manufacture 
of silk goods, shawls, rugs, and perfumery. 
Others do the caravan carrying trade. There 
are also many warlike tribes that rove over 
the deserts ostensibly as cattle-raisers, but 
their chief business is that of bandits. 

Persia is especially noted for its exten¬ 
sive salt deserts. The inhabitants are a 
slow, easy-going people, hospitable and 
generous. All of the above countries are 
important chiefly for the fact that they lie 
between Russia and the Indian Ocean. Af¬ 
ghanistan is called “ the gateway of India.” 
Nearly all the people are Mohammedans, 
and their education is confined chiefly to 
learning portions of the Koran and scraps 
of poetry. 

Turkey in Asia. 

Turkey in Asia is a part of the Ottoman 
or Turkish Empire, the capital of which is 
Constantinople. In Eastern Asiatic Tur¬ 
key flow the rivers famous in both sacred 
and profane history—the Tigris and Eu¬ 
phrates. In the northern part are remark¬ 
able forests, fertile valleys, and mountains. 
Among the latter, in Armenia, is the noted 
Mount Ararat, famed in the Bible as the 
resting-place of the ark after the Flood. 
Within Asiatic Turkey. also, is Damascus, 
a famous old city, with its grand old mos¬ 
ques. Damascus is the metropolis and 
centre of the caravan trade. It was here 
the famous Damascus steel of the ancients 
was made. Its chief manufactures now are 
saddles and silk goods. 

Smyrna is the most important commer¬ 
cial city and seaport of Asiatic Turkey. 

Tropical fruits, cotton, grain, and to¬ 
bacco grow well in all the watered parts of 
the country. The people are chiefly Turks 
and Arabs, professing the Mohammedan 



562 


HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 


faith. The Armenians, however, are Chris¬ 
tians, and have suffered a number of serious 
massacres for their religion, the last of great 
proportions being in 1896. 

Arabia. 

Arabia is sparsely settled, and has no 
general government. A part of it is under 
Egyptian rule. The rest of the country, 
though nominally shared among an uncer¬ 
tain number of petty states, is really ruled 
by sheiks, or chiefs, in small bodies, subject 
to the larger rulers called sultans. 

The country is chiefly a hot, desert 
plateau, of about 1,500 miles in length and 
800 average width, with oases scattered over 
the deserts, in which dates, grapes, and other 
fruits grow. It was in this desert that the 
Israelites wandered on their way to the Holy 
Land ; and here, also, are the holy Moham¬ 


medan cities of Mecca and Medina, which' 
yearly attract crowds of Moslem pilgrims. 

Palestine. 

Palestine , or the “Holy Land” of the 
Christians, and the “Promised Land” of 
the ancient Hebrew, adjoins Arabia. It is 
a mountainous and unfertile little country, 
containing the cities of Jerusalem and Beth¬ 
lehem, the valleys of the Jordan, the Dead 
Sea, and the Sea of Galilee. The Dead Sea 
is the saltest body of water on earth. Its 
valley lies considerably below the level of 
the ocean. The Jordan flows into it, but 
there is no outlet. Palestine is under the 
dominion of the Turks, and has been for 
many centuries. To reclaim it religious 
zealots organized the Crusades, and hun¬ 
dreds of thousands of lives were sacrificed in 
the fruitless task. 


OCEANIA 


Oceania is separated from the continents 
in a manner to form it into a world of itself. 
It is composed of Australia and most of the 
islands of the Pacific. These islands are 
generally subject to volcanic action. The 
animal and vegetable life rank high ; but 
the original people take a very low place in 
the scale of humanity. They have no 
record of history prior to the coming of the 
white man, before whom, and the progress 
of civilization, they are rapidly diminishing 
in numbers. Oceania may be divided into 
Maylasia, Micronesia, Australasia and Poly¬ 
nesia, with a total area of 4,211,093 square 
miles and a combined population of 
39,200,000. 

I. Malaysia is usually considered as part 
of Asia under the “ East Indian Archipel¬ 
ago,” but here it is included with Oceania. 
Chief islands—Sumatra, 179,290 square 
miles ; population, 1884, 2,948,715. Java, 
50,800 square miles; population, 22,500,000. 
Borneo, 284,918 square miles; population, 
1,858,000. Celebes, 77,179 square miles; 
population, 933,823. Moluccas, 20,429 
square miles ; population, 352,580. Philip¬ 
pines, 114,219 square miles; population, 
8,000,000. Lesser Dutch Islands, 42,489 
square miles; population, 2,000,000. The 


total area of its islands is 769,324 square 
miles, and the population 34,661,000. 

II. Micronesia includes the Caroline and 
Pelew Islands, 1,450 square miles ; popula¬ 
tion, 36,000. Mariannes, 443 square miles; 
population 8,665. Gilbert Islands, 165 
square miles; population, 35,200. Marshall 
Islands, 154 square miles; population, 
11,600. Total area, 1,322 square miles; 
population, 91,465. 

III. Australasia comprises the great 
islands of Australia, Tasmania, New Zea¬ 
land, New Guinea (which five are treated 
individually hereafter). New Caledonia and 
Loyalty Islands, 7,644 square miles ; popu¬ 
lation, 68,400. Solomon Islands, etc., 
23,546 square miles; population, 260,850. 
Total area, 3,430,234 square miles ; popu¬ 
lation, 4,989,000. 

IV. Polynesia—Chief groups, Friendly 
Islands, 384 square miles; population, 
25,000 ; Samoa Islands, 1,073 square miles; 
population, 36,800. Society Islands, 636 
square miles; population, 16,300. Mar¬ 
quesas, 491 square miles; population, 5,776. 
Sandwich Islands, 6,558 square miles; popu¬ 
lation, 57,985. Total area, 10,313 square 
miles; population, 179,550. 





HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 


563 


Table of European Possessions. 


Country 

Area in 

Square Miles 

Population 

British. 

3,160,380 

3,223,041 

Dutch . .. 

718,800 

28,500,000 

Spanish. 

116,250 

5,680,665 

German. 

88,650 

343.600 

French. 

9,104 

85,753 

Portuguese .... 

6,290 

300,000 


Australia. 

Australia , the largest of the islands of 
the world, lies wholly south of the equator, 
and is really a continent within itself, its 
greatest length, from Cape Byron to Steepe 
Point, being 2,400 miles, and its greatest 
breadth, from Cape York to Cape Wilson, 
2,000 miles. The island is divided into the 
following provinces: Victoria, New South 
Wales, Queensland, South Australia, and 
West Australia (since the Federation West- 
ralia). 

Surface. —The surface is generally a 
level plateau, with a mean elevation of 
1,180 feet above the sea-level. The interior, 
especially in the west, consists largely of 
sandy and stony desert. The mountainous 
region is almost exclusively confined to the 
eastern and southeastern coasts, comprised 
in a belt about 150 miles wide. The only 
great river is the Murray, 1,55° miles long, 
and with its tributaries draining an area of 
270,000 square miles. A characteristic feat¬ 
ure of the continent is also its inland salt 
lakes, the principal ones of this character 
being Lakes Eyre, Gairdner, Amadeus and 
Torrens. A part of Queensland and North 
Australia lie in the torrid zone, and have a 
mean temperature of 78 degrees. Extremes 
of cold and heat prevail in the temperate 
zone. 

Vegetation. —The vegetation of the con¬ 
tinent is remarkable. Several varieties of 
trees not found elsewhere grow here, and, 
instead of being in dense forests, are scat¬ 
tered about like parks. The foliage of most 
of the shrubs and trees is evergreen. The 
animal life of the island is also unlike that 
of any other part of the world. There are 
no beasts of prey ; the swans are black in¬ 
stead of white, and a fish, called the climb¬ 
ing perch, ascends trees by the aid of its 
fins and catches insects. The island has 
practically no singing birds. 


Australia has been called the land of 
wool and gold. It produces more wool 
than any other country, and comes next to 
the United States and the now famous 
Klondike region in its production of gold. 

New South Wales is the oldest of the 
Australian colonies, with an area of 310,700 
square miles, and a population of about 
1,500,000. 

Victoria. —The population is estimated 
at 1,250,000, with an area of 87,884 square 
miles. 

Queensland. —The population approxi¬ 
mates 500,000, with an area of 668,224 
square miles. 

South Australia embraces 903,690 square 
miles, with a population of about 400,000. 
The name of this province would imply that 
the colony is confined to the south of the 
continent; on the contrary, it extends to the 
farthest north, and is popularly known under 
the name of the Northern Territory. 

Western Australia (or Westralia) is the 
largest of the Australian states, includ¬ 
ing all that portion of the continent situated 
to the westward of 129 degrees east longi¬ 
tude. Its area is 978,300 square miles. Its 
population is very sparse, numbering only 
about 40,000. 

Government. —Prior to 1901, the govern¬ 
ment of all the colonies comprised the Ex¬ 
ecutive, consisting of a governor appointed 
by the British Crown, assisted by a cabinet 
of ministers, and the Legislative, consisting 
of a Parliament and a Legislative Assembly. 
The number of the Executive Council of 
Ministers varied in the different provinces, 
as did also the number of members in the 
two legislative bodies. 

The Australian Federation. —On the first 
day of the year 1901 all of the colonies en¬ 
tered a federation, under the title of “ The 
Commonwealth of Australia,” composed of 
six states, five of which are above men¬ 
tioned, occupying the mainland of Aus¬ 
tralia, the sixth being the island of Tas¬ 
mania, which lies off the southern end of 
the great island, separated from it only by a 
narrow strait. As will be seen by the above 
statistics, two of these states, Westralia and 
South Australia, are about four times as 
large as the State of Texas. The Australian 
organization is the first federation of British 















564 


HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 


colonies to be governed under a constitution 
entirely framed by its own people. This 
constitution more nearly resembles that of 
the United States of America than any 
other, but it has some important differences. 
The Governor-General is appointed from 
time to time by the British Cabinet, to repre¬ 
sent the King, but he will be guided entirely 
by the advice of a Cabinet of Ministry, con¬ 
sisting of members of the Federal Parlia¬ 
ment, who are able to command a majority 
of the votes in the Chambers, particularly 
the Chamber of Representatives, which con¬ 
trols the finances of the commonwealth. 
The legislative power rests with the Parlia¬ 
ment, consisting of two chambers, denoted 
respectively, the Senate , with thirty-six 
members, six from each state, without refer¬ 
ence to population ; and the Representa¬ 
tive Chamber , consisting of seventy-two 
members, elected for three years, by the 
people of the states, in proportion to their 
population. The Senators are elected by 
the people of their respective states (not, as 
in America, by the State Legislature), and 
they hold office for six years. 

Religion in Australia (with the excep¬ 
tion of the aborigines, who still practice 
fetichism to a certain extent, and Judaism, 
which follows the Semitic race into all 
countries), is entirely Christian, divided be¬ 
tween the Protestant sect and the Roman 
Catholic, in the proportion of about five to 
two. 

Education is fostered with the character¬ 
istic industry of the English-speaking colon¬ 
ists everywhere. Public schools prevail 
throughout Australia. There are large uni¬ 
versities at both Sidney and Melbourne. In 
some of the provinces education is made 
compulsory. Melbourne is the commercial 
centre of Australia and the largest city in 
Oceania. Sidney is the capital and metro¬ 
polis of New South Wales. Brisbane is the 
capital of Queensland, Adelaide of South 
Australia, and Perth of Western Australia. 

Tasmania. 

This island forms the sixth state of the 
Australian federation. It is located in the 
South Pacific Ocean, situated at the south¬ 
eastern extremity of the Australian main¬ 
land, from which it is separated by Bass 


Strait, about 150 miles wide. Area, 26,215 
square miles. Population, estimated, 145,- 
000 (aborigines quite extinct). Religion, 
Protestants, 102,551 ; Roman Catholics, 
30,516; Jews, 316. Government adminis¬ 
tered as in other British colonies. Educa¬ 
tion, compulsory. There are sixteen supe¬ 
rior schools or colleges. 

New Zealand. 

Situated about 1,200 miles to the south" 
east of Australia, this is also a British colony, 
consisting of a group of three principal islands, 
called respectively, the North, South, and 
Stewart Islands, and several islets, mostly 
uninhabited. Area, 104,403 square miles. 
Population, over 600,000 (exclusive of 40,- 
000 Maoris). Religion, Protestants, 461,- 
340 ; Roman Catholics, 79,020 ; Jews, 1,550. 
Government, administered as in Australia 
and other British colonies. Education, 
compulsory, secular and free. By the latest 
available statistics there were three colleges 
affiliated with the University of New Zea¬ 
land ; twenty-three grammar schools ; 288 
private schools ; and 1,054 state schools with 
105,234 scholars. 

New Guinea. 

Next to Australia, this is the largest 
island in the world. Its greatest length is 
1,490 miles and its maximum breadth is 430 
miles. The area is estimated at 311,580 
square miles, with a total population of 2,- 
500,000. All the land to the west of 141 de¬ 
grees east longitude is claimed by the Dutch. 
East of this New Guinea has been divided 
between Britain and Germany, the northern 
portion belonging to Germany and the 
southern part to Britain. 

British New Guinea has an area of 86,- 
457 square miles and a population of 135,- 
000. The government is administered by 
the Deputy Commissioner, who resides at 
Port Moresby, the only port of entry for 
goods. 

German New Guinea, comprising 95,653 
square miles and a population of 325,000, 
lies to the east of the Dutch and north of 
the British possessions. This territory was 
taken possession of by Germany in 1885 and 
called Kaiser Wilhelm’s Land. Afterward 
the New Britain Islands, and the islands of 



HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 


565 


Bougainville, Choiseul and Isabel, in the 
Solomon group, were annexed under the 
name of Bismarck Archipelago. 

The seat of administration is at Finsch- 
haven, where the Governor resides. 

The Fiji Islands. 

The Fiji or Viti Archipelago is a Crown 
Colony of Great Britain, and comprises 
about 225 islands and islets, nearly eighty of 
which are inhabited. Area, 8,048 square 
miles. Population, 130.000, nearly all na¬ 
tives. Religion, Protestants, 105,000; Catho¬ 
lics, 9,500. Education, a few public schools, 


state-supported ; scholars are also taught by 
the native teachers of the Wesleyan Mission. 
The Roman Catholic Missions conduct a 
number of native schools with large attend¬ 
ance. The chief exports are sugar, copra 
and cotton. 

Malaysia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. 

For the various islands comprising these 
groups, with statistics concerning the same, 
see the beginning of this article. The most 
important are also further mentioned under 
the treatment of the respective governments 
to which they are subject. 


1 THE CONTINENT OF AFRICA 


Africa forms the vast southwestern 
peninsula of the old world, being joined to 
Asia by the narrow isthmus of Suez. This 
continent, next to Asia, is the largest of 
the continents of the earth, and, next to 
Asia, the home of the earliest civilization, 
but at the beginning of the twentieth cen¬ 
tury was the most uncivilized of all the 
continents of the earth. 

In area Africa covers about 11,000,000 
square miles, which is three times that of 
Europe, and one-fifth the land surface of 
the globe. Its extreme length is 5,000 
miles, its extreme width 4,600. No other 
division of the earth has such a rounded 
and compact outline as Africa. Access to 
the interior is rendered difficult by the gen¬ 
eral absence of gulfs and large inlets, and 
the total absence of roads. The coast line 
measures 16,000 miles ; hence, the continent 
contains 720 square miles of surface to each 
mile of coast. 

Population .—No definite figures exist 
for the larger part of Africa’s population. 
It is estimated to be about 200,000,000 
souls, or over one-seventh of the inhabitants 
of the world. 

Surface .—The interior of the continent 
is a plateau, almost completely surrounded 
by mountains. This plateau is lower in 
the north than in the south and east, its 
average elevation in the north being about 
1,500 feet, and in the south about 4,000 feet 
above the level of the sea. Nearly one- 
third of the entire area of the continent is 


occupied by deserts, the Sahara being the 
greatest, and this is a desert, not because it 
has a sandy surface, but from lack of water. 
Its soil, if it could be irrigated, would, 
doubtless, be highly productive. This great 
desert occupies an area about the size of the 
United States. 

Rivers .—Africa has many great rivers, 
the principal ones being the Nile, the 
Congo, the Niger, and the Zambeze, but 
because of cataracts in them, and lack of 
harbors about their mouths, these great 
rivers are commercially unimportant. The 
Nile is the most important of the African 
rivers. It brings down rich soil from the 
mountains, and annually overflows its 
banks, thus transforming its otherwise des¬ 
ert valley into the most fertile region of the 
world. Contrary to the usual rule, this 
great river diminishes in size as it ap¬ 
proaches the sea, which is owing to the 
large amount of water used in irrigation, 
and which evaporates during its course. 
For the last several hundred miles before it 
reaches the sea it has no tributaries. 

Lakes .—The lakes of Africa are next in 
size to those of North America. Lake 
Victoria is thought to exceed Lake Superior 
in area. Lake Tchad, during the rainy 
season, is even larger than Victoria. 

Climate .—Throughout a large part of 
Africa there are but two seasons. Owing 
to its position in the torrid zone, and to the 
large number of deserts, it is the hottest of 
the continents. In Nubia and Upper 





5 66 


HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 


Egypt eggs may be roasted in the sand. 
During the daytime the Soudan is the 
warmest spot in Africa, but at night it cools 
off so rapidly that water sometimes freezes. 
The climate of the highland countries is 
delightful. In Egypt it is mild and deli¬ 
cious. The clearness of the atmosphere 
exceeds everything of the kind known in 
other lands, while the dryness of the air 
preserves natural objects from decay, and 
so hastens evaporation that travelers are 
obliged to oil their faces and hands to pre¬ 
vent the cracking of the skin. Along the 
coast regions, however, within the tropics, 
the climate is deadly. 

Vegetation. —The agricultural products 
of Africa are tropical or semi-tropical, ex¬ 
cept upon the highlands. There are no 
large forests in the south or in the north of 
the continent, but along the low coasts, the 
streams and the lakes the forests are dense. 
In the interior are park-like regions of stately 
trees, without any undergrowth. Again, 
there are broad, treeless steppes, covered 
with grass and flowering plants several feet 
high. 

Minerals. —In mineral products Africa 
is among the richest of the continents. It 
is claimed by some historians that the 
famous gold of Ophir and the rubies and 
gems sought after and collected by King 
Solomon came from the mines of Africa. 
The richest diamond mines of the world are 
located at Kimberley, South Africa, and the 
richest gold mines on earth are those of 
Johannesburg, in the Transvaal country. 

Inhabitants .—Three distinct races now 
represent the population of Africa, the Cau¬ 
casian, the Negro, and the Malay. The 
Negro is found principally in the central 
part, north and south of the equator. In 
the Sahara and coast countries, from the 
Straits of Gibraltar to Cape Guardafui, the 
same race prevails, the Moors, Arabs, 
Berbers, and Egyptians belonging to the 
Caucasian race. Caucasians also dominate 
South Africa, in Cape Colony, and the 
Orange Free State and Transvaal countries, 
though the Negro population in these sec¬ 
tions far outnumbers the white. 

Slave Trade. —It was in Central Africa, 
or the heart of Africa, that the slave trade 
of the past was conducted. It was carried 


on mostly by the Arabs, who established 
encampments in the interior, and kept up 
communication with wealthy traders on the 
coast by means of caravans. On slight pre¬ 
text quarrels were picked with the natives, 
their huts were burned, and they were car¬ 
ried off and sold as slaves. 

History. —The history of Africa, until 
within very recent times, is confined to the 
northern part. In ancient times this sec¬ 
tion was the site of a high civilization, 
while other portions have always been hid 
in gross darkness, and until very recently 
regarded with superstitious awe. It was in 
Northern Africa that Carthage, the Phoeni¬ 
cian colony, became the head of a powerful 
empire, but was finally conquered by the 
Romans. In the seventeenth century the 
Arabs invaded N or them Africa. The M oors, 
expelled from Spain, came later, settled off 
the coast, and began a course of piracy 
against Christian nations. It was in their 
wars with the Moors that the French, in 
trying to protect their vessels, gained pos¬ 
session of Algiers. In 1815 the United 
States had considerable trouble with the 
piratical Barbary States. 

Development. —The development of Africa 
has recently progressed with wonderful rapid¬ 
ity. Within the past quarter of a century com¬ 
mercial enterprises have moved far up the 
Congo. Dutch, French, and Belgian com¬ 
panies have established many trading-posts 
on the upper river, between Stanley Pools 
and Stanley Falls, a caravan route being 
established to transport goods past the cata¬ 
racts. But the most marvelous develop¬ 
ment of the country must depend, not upon 
river transportation, but upon railroads. It 
sounds marvelous to speak of a railroad 
through Central Africa from Cape Colony 
on the south to the Mediterranean Sea on 
the north, but such a gigantic enterprise is 
now in progress. The road has been built 
a long part of the way, and it is confidently 
believed that before the first quarter of the 
twentieth century shall have passed it will 
be but a matter of one or two weeks to pass 
from Cape Town to Cairo, a distance of over 
5,000 miles, or from Cape Guardafui on the 
east to Cape Verde on the west, a distance 
of 4,600 miles. In fact, the eyes of the 
commercial world are looking to-day for 



HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 


567 


the startling developments of the next cen- 
tnry in Asia and Africa, the oldest and the 
least civilized of all the continents of the 
world. 

England, almost unmolested, dominates 
Africa, and Russia, now superior in, is 
struggling to dominate Asia, with all the 
other European powers and America watch¬ 
ing her actions with jealous eyes, and with 
no small inclination to divide the spoils 
with the Muscovite Empire. 

Governments of South Africa.—The 
principal states of South Africa are as fol¬ 
lows : 

Cape Colony , under British control. Ex¬ 
ecutive, the Governor and Executive Coun¬ 
cil ; legislative, the Eegislative Council and 
House of Assembly of seventy-four mem¬ 
bers. 

Natal , also under British control. Gov¬ 
ernment administered by a Governor, assisted 
by an Executive Council of thirty members. 

The South African Republic , until 1900 
independent. Now under British control. 
Government not yet organized. 

The Orange Free State , under British 
control. Government not yet organized. 

The two above-named Dutch Republics, 
prior to the British conquest of 1900 and 
1901, were independent in their internal 
affairs, but Great Britain claimed a suze¬ 
rainty in so far as dealing with outside 
nations was concerned. In the South Af¬ 
rican Republic the government consisted of 
the executive, vested in the President, and 
the legislative, consisting of the Volksraad 
of forty-four members, and the suzerain, her 
Majesty Queen Victoria. In the Orange 
Free State the same order prevailed, except 
that the Volksraad had fifty-six members. 

Central Africa. 

The Congo Free State , with an area of 
800,000 square miles and a population of 
24,000,000, was constituted in 1885, and its 
status defined by the International Confer¬ 
ence held at Berlin. It was declared neu¬ 
tral and free to the trade of all nations, and 
has been recognized by all the leading coun¬ 
tries of the world. The state was placed 
under the immediate sovereignty of the 
King of the Belgians, and is governed by 


an Administrator-General, who resides at 
Boma, the capital. 

Eastern Equatorial Africa is controlled 
by Germany and England, under the ar¬ 
rangements of the commission appointed by 
these two nations in 1886. It embraces, 
including Zanzibar, and the German and 
English protectorates, a little over 250,000 
square miles. 

The Portuguese colonies , south of the 
equator, are named respectively Angola and 
Mozambique, the former with an area of 
115,000 square miles and a population of 
1,000,000, the latter with an area of 80,000 
square miles and a population of 600,000. 

The French colonies , sometimes called 
Equatorial France, comprise the Gaboon 
and Ogowe-Congo regions, which, as divided 
by the Berlin Conference, have an area of 
174,000 square miles, with about 1,700,000 
inhabitants. 

The German colonies , otherwise known 
as Euderitzland, lie on the southwest coast, 
and embrace an area of 200,000 square miles, 
with about 236,000 inhabitants, comprising 
all the land between the Cunene and Orange 
rivers, with the exception of Walfish Bay. 

Central Africa also includes the territory 
of Soudan and a number of colonial pos¬ 
sessions on the Guinea and Zanzibar coasts. 
All of these countries are populated almost 
entirely by negroes. 

Libe?ia , or the Land of Liberty, is a 
republic, founded as a home for liberated 
slaves from the United States. The capital, 
Monrovia, is the principal city, and was 
named in honor of President Monroe of the 
United States. 

Sierra Leone, meaning the Negio’s Para¬ 
dise, is a British colony, settled largely by 
negroes liberated from slave-ships. 

Ashantee and Dahomey are inhabited by 
native tribes noted for their cruelty. 

Zanzibar includes a long strip of the 
Atlantic coast, together with a number of 
islands, inside of which Germany and Great 
Britain obtained the foothold above referred 
to, the ostensible object of this move being to 
prevent the Arabs from carrying on the 
slave-trade. 

All of Central Africa is regarded as an 
impossible place for the Caucasian race to 
live for any length of time. 



568 


HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 


Northern Africa. 

Northern Africa includes the Barbary 
States of Tripoli, Tunis, Algeria, and Mo¬ 
rocco, the inhabitants of which are Moors, 
Arabs, and Berbers, an ignorant and war¬ 
like people. Morocco is the largest of the 
Barbary States, and is subject to Turkey. 
Algeria and Tunis are French possessions. 
Tripoli is a Turkish province. 

Egypt , the most important country of 
Northern Africa, with an area of 494,000 
square miles and a population of about 
7,000,000, is the oldest of civilized nations 


existing to-day with a history. It was 
conquered successively by the Persians, 
Grecians, Romans, and Saracens, and is 
now under the control of Great Britain. It 
is noted for its massive ruins of ancient 
Egyptian architecture, the Pyramids being 
probably the oldest monuments in the world. 
These and the Sphinx are the wonders of 
Egypt sought by travelers. 

Cairo , with 570,000 inhabitants, is the 
capital of Egypt. Alexandria is its chief 
seaport, and has a large European popula¬ 
tion. 


AMERICA—THE NEW WORLD 


North and South America constitute 
what is known as the “New World.” 
They are really one continent connected by 
the Isthmus of Panama, but are usually con¬ 
sidered as two. The New World was first 
discovered to modern civilization in 985 by 
the Scandinavians, but little heed was given 
their reports by the world, and a silence of 
half a millenium followed, without a record, 
until Columbus landed on the West Indies 
in 1492. Five years later Cabot discovered 
Newfoundland, and the next year, 1498, the 
two Cabots (John and Sebastian) explored 
the Atlantic coast for a considerable dis¬ 
tance. In 1499 Amerigo Vespucci voyaged 
on the tracks of Columbus, and, returning to 
Spain, wrote an account of his discoveries. 
After his name the new world was called 
America. 

In 1512 Ponce de Leon, the Spanish 
governor of Porto Rico, discovered Florida. 
The next year Balboa marched over the nar¬ 
row land of Central America and discovered 
the Pacific Ocean. Eight years later, 1521, 
Cortez invaded and conquered Mexico. In 
1534 the French under Cartier explored the 
St. Lawrence as far as Quebec and Montreal, 
and ten years later the Spaniards under De 
Soto marched for months through the for¬ 
ests of the territory now covered by the 
Southern States and discovered the Missis¬ 
sippi River. 

Thus, less than four hundred years ago, 
the Continent of America, now the most 
progressive and prosperous, and with the 
most hopeful prospects, generally speaking, 


of all the continents of the earth, was just 
beginning to be known to the world. 

Though the present city, St. Augustine, 
Florida, was founded in 1565, it amounted 
to nothing more than a trading-post for a 
long time. The first real settlement was 
attempted at Roanoke Island in 1585, but 
failed. The next was at Jamestown, Va., 
in 1607, and in 1614 the Dutch started a 
permanent settlement at New Amsterdam 
(now New York). Six years later, 1620, 
the Puritans landed at Plymouth Rock. In 
1527 the Swedes and Finns settled along the 
Delaware; 1636 Roger Williams settled in 
Rhode Island ; 1665 the Clarendon Colpny 
was planted in North Carolina; 1670 the 
Carteret Colony founded Old Charleston, 
S. C. ; and in 1682 William Penn’s Colony 
settled in Pennsylvania. 

At the beginning of the year 1700 all 
these colonies had a combined population of 
less than half a million people. In the 
whole New World, North and South Amer¬ 
ica, there were less than one and one-half 
million people of Caucasian blood in an 
area of nearly sixteen million square miles. 
In the year 1900 this territory contained ap¬ 
proximately 135,000,000 souls, over 100,- 
000,000 of them being of the white man’s 
race. 

The history of any independent govern¬ 
ment in America is scarcely more than a 
century old. Spain, France and England 
owned the New World one hundred and 
twenty-five years ago. In 1781 the sur¬ 
render of Cornwallis at Yorktown, followed 





HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 


569 


by the treaty of peace in 1783, sealed the 
Declaration of Independence of 1776. The 
Constitution of the United States of America 
was adopted in 1787, ratified by eleven States 
in 1788 and followed shortly by two others. 
In 1789 George Washington was made the 
first President of the first republic of Amer¬ 
ica, which has since become the govern¬ 
mental light of the world. At present all of 
North America south of the Dominion of 
Canada, all of Central America (except 
British Honduras and Balize), and all of 
South America (except the small space cov¬ 
ered by English, Dutch and French Guiana), 
are under republican form of government, 
modeled after that of the United States. 
There are twenty republics on the American 
continent, as follows: 


NORTH 

North America, the northern continent 
of the western hemisphere, forms a large 
part of the New World. It is directly op¬ 
posite the great mass of the Old World. 
Next to Asia and Africa, it is the largest of 
the continents, with an area of 9,300,000 
square miles, with a total length of 5,000 
and a breadth of 3,000 miles. It extends 
from the Arctics to the tropics, hence has a 
varied climate. Hudson Strait is bridged 
with ice for ten months of the year, Green¬ 
land and Alaska are the home of the earth’s 
greatest glaciers of never-melting ice, while 
Southern California, Florida, the West 
Indies and Mexico are ‘ ‘ lands of perpetual 
summer, where flowers never cease to 
bloom.” 

The surface of the continent consists of 
a primary highland in the west, a secondary 
highland in the east and a great central 
plain. The primary highlands include the 
western two-thirds of the continent; the 
Rocky Mountains are the apex or comb of 
this elevation, and form the principal water¬ 
shed of the continent. 

The Rocky Mountains are magnificently 
grand, wild and broken. The lowest pass 
across them is one and one-half miles above 
the sea. The first view of them from a dis¬ 
tance is a faint outline against the sky. 
This outline gradually becomes more dis- | 



Area 
Sq. Miles 

Popula¬ 

tion 

Capital City 

North America 




The United States. 

3,602,990 

76,295,220 

Washington 

Mexico. 

667,316 

12,619,949 

City of Mexico 

Central America and 




West Indies 

46,774 

1,535,632 

New Gautemala 

Gautemala . 

42,658 

420,000 

Tegucigalpa 

Honduras. 

7,222 

800,500 

San Salvador 

Salvador . 

51,660 

420,000 

Nicaragua 

Nicaragua . 

I 9 , 9^5 

309,683 

San Jose 

Costa Rica . 

4^655 

1,600,000 

Havana 

Cuba. 

46,744 

1,211,625 

Port au Prince 

Hayti. 

20,596 

600,000 

San Domingo 

San Domingo. 

South America 

Brazil . 

3,219,000 

18,000,000 

Rio Janeiro 

Venezuela.. 

566,159 

2,444,816 

Caracas 

U. S. of Columbia. 

33*,420 

4,600,000 

Bogota 

Ecuador . 

144,000 

1,300,000 

Quito 

Peru. 

405,010 

3,000,000 

Lima 

Bolivia . 

472,000 

2,500,000 

Lapaz 

Chili . 

256,860 

3,110,085 

Santiago 

Argentine Republic . 

1,095,013 

4,044,911 

Buenos Ayres 

Paraguay. 

145,000 

600,000 

840,725 

Asuncion 

Uruyguay.| 

72,112 

Montevideo 


AMERICA 

tinct until it appears like a vast irregular 
wall supporting the heavens; nearer still, 
the wall takes the form of a ruined fortress 
battered and torn by artillery. This outer 
wall passed, we enter mountain valleys 
bounded on all sides by snow-crowned peaks 
which glitter and glisten in the sunshine. 
Cliffs rise in places like walls made of bright 
red-colored, brick-shaped rocks of immense 
size piled one above another. Then come 
deep chasms of sandy pools. A feeling of 
loneliness and littleness creeps over the tra¬ 
veler—everything is so grand and impos¬ 
ing—as he looks and marvels in silence at the 
mountains rolled up in all shapes around, 
amid a solitude that is gloriously sublime. 
The Great Basin of the Rockies is formed by 
the sides of the ranges sloping together. 
This region is a desert which has no outlet, 
its streams generally being lost in the sand. 
Death Valley, within the Great Basin, is so 
called from the number of persons who have 
perished there from thirst. Colorado Plateau , 
drained by the Colorado River, has many 
deep canons, the grand canon of the Colo¬ 
rado being the most celebrated. The entire 
region is like some fabled land of old. Many 
of the peaks on the ranges are nearly three 
miles above the level of the sea. Along the 
40th parallel are twenty-five peaks of more 
than two miles in height. Mt. St. Elias 

































57 ° 


HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 


with 19,500 feet, and Mt. McKinley 20,460, 
both in Alaska, are the highest peaks in 
North America. 

The Secondary Highlands occupy the 
eastern side of the continent, and are formed 
by the Laurentide Mountains in Labrador, 
and the Blue Ridge, Alleghany, and Cum¬ 
berland ranges of mountains. The Alle¬ 
ghany and Cumberland ranges are noted for 
their rich mines of coal and iron. The 
highest point of the secondary highlands 
is less than 7,000 feet, and its height aver¬ 
ages about 2,000 feet. 

The Great Central Plain, which lies be¬ 
tween the eastern and western highlands 
just described, comprises nearly all the low¬ 
lands of North America, and is one of the 
largest valleys in the world. It is drained 
by the Mississippi River. This plain is the 
greatest agricultural region of the world, 
and it is also rich in minerals. 

The navigable rivers of North America 
surpass, in number and importance, those 
of any other continent. The Mississippi is 
the principal liver, which, with its chief 
tributary, the Missouri, admits of the long¬ 
est continuous navigation of any river of 
the earth. Of this and the other rivers of 
North America, the following table is ap¬ 
pended : 


River. 

Length. 

Area 
of Basin. 

Mississippi with Missouri . 

. . 4,500 

982,400 

Mackenzie. 


580,000 

St. Lawrence. 

. . 2,384 

480,000 

Rio Grande. 


240,000 

Saskatchewan. 

• • I > 5 1 5 

478,000 

Columbia. 


298,000 

Colorado. 


257,000 

Yukon . 

. . 2,000 

200,000 


North American Lakes are the most im¬ 
portant of the earth. The five Great Lakes 
are estimated to contain one-half of all the 
fresh water in the world; and they are so 
connected by rivers and canals as to form 
an immense system of commerce, of incal¬ 
culable service to the United States and 
Canada. Lake Superior is as large as all 
the New England States. Lake Erie is 
shallow and much disturbed by storms. 
Great Salt Lake has the densest (most 
buoyant) water known, except the Dead 
Sea. It has four considerable streams run¬ 
ning into it, but no outlet. Following is a 


table of the 
America : 

principal 

lakes of 

North 

Depth 

Lake. 

Area. 

Elevation. 

in Feet. 

Lake Superior . 

. . • 31 >500 

602 

688 

Lake Michigan . 

. • • 23,150 

579 

600 

Lake Huron . . 

. . . 23,100 
. . . 7,800 

578 

600 

Lake Erie . . . 

573 

84 

Lake Ontario 

. . . 6,900 

247 

5 °° 

Great Salt Lake 

. . . 2,000 

4,200 


Lake Winnipeg 

. . . 9,000 

628 



The vegetable life of North America is as 
varied as its climate. In the extreme north, 
where the cold is intense and there is little 
moisture, vegetation is scant and stunted. 
There is here a treeless zone called the 
“barrens.” Further south is a broad belt 
of pine and fir forests, extending across 
the continent. The Central Belt contains 
the agricultural lands of the continent. 
The Mississippi Valley has been called the 
“Garden of the World.” The Southern 
Belt is the region of palms, tropical fruits, 
dye-woods, sugar-cane, and live-oak. Cot¬ 
ton is king in one section, corn, wheat, and 
other grains in another. 

Animal life is also at its best in North 
America. The wealth of moisture and 
abundance of vegetation encourages herbr 
iverous life, and flesh-eating animals do not 
predominate as in the Old World. Animals 
of the Arctic belt,—beaver, walrus, seal, 
and whale; of the central belt, bear, deer, 
panther, wolf, elk, goose, duck, bison; 
and of the southern belt, monkeys, alli¬ 
gators, parrots, lizards, and other tropical 
animals and birds of rich plumage. The 
puma, the American lion, replaces on this 
continent the lion and tiger of Asia, and 
the turkey and some other birds are peculiar 
to America. 

The people of North America are a mixt¬ 
ure made up of the best blood of Cauca¬ 
sian nations, the English, Scotch, Irish 
and German type predominating in the 
United States and Canada, except in the 
Province of Quebec, where the French stock 
prevails. I11 Mexico, as in Central America, 
the West Indies and South America, Span¬ 
ish blood, pure and mixed with the negro, 
predominates. The Indians were the abo¬ 
rigines of the New World, but, while certain 
historians claim there are as many still 
living in the United States and Canada as 















HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 


57 1 


were here when Columbus came, it is their 
nature to retire before civilization, and to 
the casual observer they have comparatively 
passed from the land. Unlike the negro, 
they have not been inclined to mix with the 
white man. The Spaniards tried to enslave 
them in the West Indies and South America, 
but in such cases the Indian suffered exter¬ 
mination rather than submit, and the negro 
was imported to supply his place. The 
presence of the millions ot blacks in America 
is wholly due to the wicked system of slavery 
which introduced him, and to his tractable 
and docile nature, which submitted to what 
the red man would not endure. 

The typical American of the future will 
doubtless arise from the amalgamation of 
the good and the bad of the nationalities 
and races mentioned above. 

Countries of North America. 

North America includes British America, 
the United States, Mexico, Central America 
and the West Indies. The boundary line be¬ 
tween the Uni ted States and Canada is marked 
by a row of iron pillars, earth mounds, 
cairns and red timber posts to show the divi¬ 
sion. The Rio Grande River for part of the 
way and posts mark its line of division from 
Mexico. 

Danish America includes Greenland and 
Iceland. Greenland is a large wedge-shaped 
island or series of islands surrounded by an 
icy sea. Its interior is a desolate expanse of 
glacier and snow. The principal settle¬ 
ments of Greenland are on the western coast. 
Most of the inhabitants are Esquimaux, with 
a few hundred Europeans, chiefly Danes. 
Barley and a few vegetables ripen on the 
southwestern coast. Seal skin, whale oil, 
eiderdown and furs are exported. In north¬ 
ern Greenland the sun is below the horizon 
seventy-nine days—a long night. Their 
summer days are sometimes warm, but snow¬ 
storms come even in July. 

Iceland might more properly be called 
“ Fireland.” It is evidently of volcanic 
origin. The greater part is uninhabited, being 
covered with lava-beds, glacier-fields and 
mountains. There are also hundreds of hot 
springs and geysers. The inhabitants are 
chiefly of Scandinavian descent, intelligent 
and well educated. The Protestant religion 


prevails. Sheep and cattle are raised in the 
southern part of the islands. The Governor 
is appointed by the King of Denmark. 

British America 

comprises the Dominion of Canada, New¬ 
foundland and Labrador, and embraces all 
of North America north of the United 
States except the Danish Islands, Greenland 
and Iceland, and embraces a total area of 
3,700,000 square miles. 

Newfoundland is the only one of the 
British provinces in North America which 
has not joined the federation forming the 
Dominion of Canada. Its total area is 
42,000 square miles, with a population of 
210,000. Newfoundland lies nearer Europe 
than any other part of America. Its interior 
has not yet been fully explored. It is noted 
for its dense fogs and bold, rocky cliffs. 

St. John , the capital is the only import¬ 
ant town with a fine harbor. Fishing is the 
principal industry. 

Religiously the inhabitants are divided as 
follows: Church of England, 72,000; Roman 
Catholics, 75,000; Wesleyans 49,000. 

The Government is administered by the 
Governor, appointed by the Crown, assisted 
by an Executive Council (not exceeding 
seven members), a Legislative Council (not 
exceeding fifteen members), and a House of 
Assembly consisting of thirty-six Repre¬ 
sentatives. 

Labrador is a vast wilderness uninhabited 
by civilized man, with the exception of a 
few settlements along the coast where 
fishermen from Canada and the Unites 
States-swarm in summer. 

The Dominion of Canada. 

Canada lies immediately north of the 
United States of America, and has a popu¬ 
lation roundly estimated at 5,000,000 inhab¬ 
itants. Before the Revolutionary struggle 
which gave the United States independence, 
France and England waged a long war for 
supremacy in the New World. England 
triumphed in the victory of Wolfe over 
Montcalm on the Heights of Abraham, and 
Canada has since been British territory. 
The provinces were governed independently 
until 1867, when, through the instrument¬ 
ality of Sir John Macdonald, Sir John 





572 


HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 


Thompson, and others, a Confederation was 
effected, finally uniting all the provinces 
with the exception of Newfoundland. 

The Dominion of Canada has an area of 
3*653,946 (including the Hudson Bay) 
square miles, and comprises one-sixteenth 
of the land surface of the globe. It is the 
largest of all the British possessions, Aus¬ 
tralia, the next in size, containing 2,944,- 
628 square miles. The government of 
Canada is Federal, centered at Ottawa, 
which city is the capital of the Dominion, 
while the provinces and the northwest ter¬ 
ritories have their respective local legislat¬ 
ures. The head of the Federal Government 
is the Governor-General, appointed by the 
King of Great Britain, and holding office 
for five years, his salary ($50,000 per an¬ 
num) being paid by the Dominion Govern¬ 
ment. 

The lieutenant-governors of the several 
provinces are appointed by the Federal 
Government for a term of five years. The 
legislatures are elected by the people of 
each province. The highest court in the 
Dominion is the Supreme Court, composed 
of a chief justice and five judges, each of 
whom receive a salary of $7,000 per annum,- 
except the chief justice, who is paid an ad¬ 
ditional $1,000. 

The salary of each member of the Do¬ 
minion Cabinet holding a portfolio is $7,000 
per annum, except the Premier, who re¬ 
ceives $8,000. 

The following list of officers constitute 
the Ministry or Cabinet: Premier and 
President ol the Privy Council, Secretary of 
State, Minister of Trade and Commerce, 
Minister of Justice, Minister of Marine and 
Fisheries, Minister of Militia and Defence, 
Postmaster-General, Minister of Agricul¬ 
ture, Minister of Public Works, Minister of 
Finance, Minister of Railways and Canals, 
Minister of the Interior, Minister of Cus¬ 
toms, Minister of Inland Revenue. 

Legislative Bodies .—The Senate (Do¬ 
minion Parliament) is composed of eighty 
members and the Speaker, whose salary is 
$4,000. Each senator receives a sessional in¬ 
demnity of $1,000 and mileage. The House 
of Commons is composed of 213 members. 
Each member of the House receives a ses¬ 
sional indemnity of $1,000 and mileage. 


The members of the House of Commons are 
elected under the several provincial fran¬ 
chises, in accordance with a Federal act 
passed in 1898. The senators are appointed 
for life by the Crown on the nomination of 
the Governor-in-Council. 


Area, Population and Seats oe Gov¬ 
ernment of the Provinces 


Provinces 

Area 

Square 

Miles 

Popula¬ 

tion 

Seats of 
Government 

Alberta . 

100,000 

25,278 

Regina 

Assiniboia . 

90,340 

30,374 

Regina 

Athabaska. 

251,300 


Regina 

British Columbia. 

383,300 

98,173 

Victoria 

Manitoba. 

73,956 

152,506 

Winnipeg 

New Brunswick. 

28,200 

321,270 

Fredericton 

Nova Scotia. 

20,600 

450,523 

Halifax 

Ontario . 

222,000 

2,114,475 

Toronto 

Prince Edward Island.... 

2,000 

109,088 

Charlottetown 

Quebec. 

347.350 

1,488,586 

Quebec 

Saskatchewan. 

114,000 

11,146 

Regina 

Mackenzie, Ungava and 




Franklin. 

1,019,200 

31,462 

Regina 

Yukon .. 

198,300 



Keewatin... 

756,000 



Great Bakes and Rivers.. 

47,4°o| 



Total. 

3,653,946! 

4,823,875 



Canada has a magnificent canal system. 
The Welland Canal, between Lakes Erie 
and Ontario, and the Rideau Canal, between 
Lake Ontario and Ottawa River, enable ves¬ 
sels to avoid Niagara Falls and the rapids 
of the St. Lawrence River. 

Montreal , in the Province of Quebec, 
with a population of 216,650, is the largest 
city and metropolis of the Dominion. The 
Cathedral of Notre Dame, in this city, is 
the largest church building in America ex¬ 
cept the Mormon Tabernacle at Salt Lake 
City, Utah. Toronto, Halifax, and Quebec 
are the next cities in importance. 

Sir Wilfred Laurier is the present Pre¬ 
mier of the Dominion, and the Earl of 
Minto the Governor-General. 

In 1900 British North America con¬ 
tained upwards of 17,000 miles of railroads, 
and the commerce of the Dominion is rap¬ 
idly expanding. 

Religion .—No State Church. By the 
latest available statistics, there were 1,791,- 
982 Roman Catholics, 2,422,285 Protest¬ 
ants (Presbyterians, 676,165; Church of 
England, 574,818 ; Methodists, 1,042,980) ; 
Jews, 2,373. 

Education is liberally encouraged. There 
are many excellent colleges throughout the 




























HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 


573 


Dominion, and the public schools of Can¬ 
ada vie with those of the United States in 
point of excellence. 

The United States 

Among the nations of the earth, none 
has shown such marvelous achievements 
within so short a time as the United States 
of America. One and a quarter centuries 
ago 3,000,000 people were struggling for 
their independence. At the beginning of 
the nineteenth century they were among the 
weakest of nations. At the beginning of 
the twentieth they were one of the strongest 
in war, the greatest in industrial enterprise, 
and by far the most progressive people of 
the earth. 

The United States is bounded on the 
north by the Dominion of Canada, on the 
east by the Atlantic Ocean, on the west by 
the Pacific Ocean, and on the south by the 
Republic of Mexico and the Gulf of Mexico. 
Its area is 3,602,990 square miles, and its 
population 76,295,220. If we add its co¬ 
lonial possessions of the Hawaiian Islands 
and those in the East and West Indies, its 
area will be increased over 150,000 square 
miles and its population augmented by 
10,000,000. 

The Pubeic Domain. —In 1800 the 
public domain consisted of 404,955 square 
miles. Subsequent acquisitions were the 
following: The first was the purchase of 
Louisiana from France, which took place 
in 1802. This purchase included portions 
of the States of Alabama and Mississippi 
south of the thirty-first parallel—the entire 
surface of Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, 
Iowa, Nebraska and other states and terri¬ 
tories to the Rocky Mountains, north of 
he boundary of Mexico. 

The cost, according to the original treaty 
stipulations, was $15,000,000 in money and 
stocks. The interest on the stocks to the 
time of redemption was $8,529,353. The 
United States assumed the payment of cer¬ 
tain claims of citizens of the United States 
against France, $3,738,208, making a total 
expenditure of $27,267,621. For this sum 
the Government obtained a title to 920,000 
square miles of territory or 588,961,280 
acres of land. | 


The next acquisition to the public do¬ 
main (1819) was the purchase of Florida 
from Spain for the sum of $5,000,000. For 
this amount stocks were issued, and prin¬ 
cipal and interest amounted to $4,489,768. 
This purchase added to the public domain 
59,267 square miles, which cost seventeen 
and one-sixteenth cents per acre. 

In 1846 the Oregon country was acquir¬ 
ed by treaty with England, adding to our 
territory 255,000 square miles. From it 
were formed the States of Washington, 
Oregon and Idaho. 

The next acquisition to the public do¬ 
main was from Mexico in 1848. By this 
cession the United States obtained the States 
of California, Nevada, and part of Colorado, 
also the lands in the Territories of Utah, 
Arizona, and New Mexico, which added 
522,568 square miles to the public domain, 
at a cost of $15,000,000, or four and one- 
half cents per acre. 

In 1850 the United States purchased of 
the State of Texas 96,707 square miles, or 
61,892,480acres, forthesum of$16,000,000, 
or 25 17-20 cents per acre. This territory 
is now included in Kansas, Colorado, and 
New Mexico, and embraces the “public 
land strip,” or “ No-Man’s Land.” 

The next acquisition was in 1867, when 
Alaska was bought from Russia for the sum 
of $7,500,000. 

In 1898 the Hawaiian Islands were an¬ 
nexed at their own request. 

The same year Porto Rico was taken by 
conquest from Spain ; and, by the Treaty of 
Peace at Paris which followed, the Philip¬ 
pine Islands were also acquired for the sum 
of $20,000,000. 

The United States is composed of forty- 
five States, six Territories, the District of 
Columbia and the colonial possessions of 
Porto Rico, with 3,600 square miles and a 
population of 953,243, Guam , with 8,661 
inhabitants, the Philippine Islands , with 
140,000 square miles and 8,000,000 inhabit¬ 
ants, and Tutuila , the Samoan island.- with 
fifty-four square miles and 4,000 inhabitants, 
which was acquired by virtue of the tripar¬ 
tite treaty with Great Britain and Germany 
in 1899. 

The following table shows the dates of 
admission: 




574 


HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 


Population and Growth of the. Various States During the Ten Years 

1890 to 1900. 


Name of State 

Admitted to the Union. 

Population 

1900 

Population 

1890 

Increase. 

Percentage 
of Increase. 

Alabama. 

December 14,1819. 

June 15, 1836. 
September 9, 1850. 
August 1,1876. 

Original State. 

1,828,697 

1,311,064 

1,485,153 

539,700 

908,355 

184.735 

1,513,017 

315,680 

20.8 

Arkansas. 

1,128,179 

325,654 

40.58 

California. 

1,208,130 

276,923 

22.9 

Colorado. 

412,198 

127,502 

30.9 

Connecticut... 

746,258 

162,097 

21.7 

Delaware.... 

Original State- 
March 3,1845. 

Original State. 

July 3, 1890 

December 3, 1818. 
December 11,1816 
December 28, 1846. 
January 29,1861. 

June 1,1792. 

April 30, 1812. 

March 15, 1820. 

168,493 

16,242 

9.6 

Florida. 

528,542 

2,216,331 

161,772 

391,422 

137,120 

35. 

Georgia.. 

Idaho. 

1,837,353 

84,385 

378,978 

77,397 

20.6 

91.7 

Illinois.. 

4,821 ;550 
2,516,462 

3,826,351 

995,199 

23.4 

Indiana. 

2,192,404 

324,058 

14.8 

Iowa. 

2,231,853 

1,911,896 

319 957 

16.2 

Kansas. 

1,470,495 

1,427,096 

43,399 

3 t 

Kentucky. 

2;i47il74 

1,858,635 

288,539 

15.6 

Louisiana. 

1,381,625 

694,466 

1,118,587 

263,038 

23.5 

Maine. 

661,086 

33,380 

5.4 

Maryland. 

Original State. 
Original State. 
January 26, 1837. 

May 11, 1858. 

December 10,1817. 

1,190,050 

1,042,390 

148,660 

14.2 

Massachusetts. 

2,805,346 

2,238,943 

566,403 

25.2 

Michigan. . 

2,420^982 

2,093,889 

327,093 

15.9 

Minnesota. 

1 '751,394 

1,301,826 

449,568 

34.5 

Mississippi.. 

1,551,270 

1,289,600 

261,670 

20 3 

Missouri. 

August 10,1821. 
November 8, 1889. 

3,106 ,'665 

2,679,184 

427,481 

16. 

Montana. 

243,329 

132,159 

111,170 

84.1 

Nebraska... 

March 1, 1867. 

October 31,1864. 

1,068,539 

42,335 

1,058,910 

9,629 

0.9 

Nevada. 

45,761 

loss 3,426 

loss 7.5 

New Hampshire. 

Original State. 

Original State. 

Original State. 
Original State. 
November 2,1889. 
November 29, 1802. 

411'588 

376,530 

35,058 

9.3 

New Jersey. 

1,883,669 

1,444,933 

438,736 

30.3 

New York. 

7,268,012 

5,997,853 

1,270,159 

21.2 

North Carolina. 

1,893,810 

319,146 

4,157,545 

413,536 

6,302,115 

428,556 

1,617,947 

275,863 

17.1 

North Dakota . 

182,719 

136,427 

74 7 

Ohio. 

3,672,316 

485,229 

13 2 

Oregon. 

February 14,1859. 
Original State. 
Original State. 
Original State. 
November 2, 1889. 

June 1, 1796. 

December 29, 1845. 

313,767 

99,769 

31.8 

Pennsylvania. 

5,258,014 

1,044,101 

19.9 

RhnHp T<;1atirl. .^. 

345,506 

83,050 

24. 

South Carolina. 

* 

1,340 316 
401,570 

1,151,149 

189,167 

16.4 

South Dakota. 

328,808 

72,762 

22.1 

Tennessee. 

2,020,616 

1,767,518 

253,098 

143 

Texas. 

3”048,710 

276,749 

2,235,523 

813,187 

36 4 

Utah. 

January 4, 1896. 

March 4,1791. 

Original State. 
November 11, 1889. 

207,905 

68,844 

33.1 

Vermont. 

343,641 

332,422 

11,219 

3.3 

Virginia. 

1,854,184 

1,655,980 

349,390 

198,204 

12. 

Washington. 

518,103 

168,713 

48.3 

West Virginia. 

June 19,1863. 

May 29, 1848. 

July 10,1890. 

Territory. 

Territory. 

National Capital. 
Territory. 

Territory. 

Territory. 

Territory, 

958,800 
2,069 042 
92,531 

762,794 

196,006 

25.9 

Wisconsin. 

1,686,880 

60,705 

382,162 

22.7 

Wyoming. 

31,826 

52.4 

Alaska. 

63,441 

122.212 

32,052 

31,389 

97.9 

Arizona. 

59,620 

62,592 

104.9 

District of Columbia. 

278,718 

154,001 

391,960 

195 310 

230,392 

48,326 

20.9 

Hawaii. 

89,990 

180,182 

153,593 

64 011 

71.1 

Indian Territory . 

211,778 

41,717 

336,497 

117.5 

New Mexico . 

27.2 

Oklahoma. 

398,331 

61,834 

644.2 




Inhabitants. 

The inhabitants of the United States are 
made up chiefly of English, Scotch and 
Irish stock, descended from the settlers from 
these sources during the past three hun¬ 
dred years. There has been, however, 
within the past fifty years a strong tide of 
emigration from Germany, Scandinavia and 
Italy. These different nationalities (with 
the exception of Italians) intermarry freely, 
and the American is therefore a combination 
of the best elements of the best blood of the 
earth. This fact, no doubt, had much to do 
with producing that progressive and ingeni¬ 


ous character which has placed the American 
at the front in commerce and inventions. 

The 8,000,000 people of African blood 
are descendants of the slaves of forty years 
ago, and since their emancipation have 
shown marked advance in every line of de¬ 
velopment. The public schools of America 
are the best in the world and every child has 
the chance of a liberal education with tuition 
free. Colleges and universities are numer¬ 
ous—every State has its State university; 
the religious denominations support hun¬ 
dreds of colleges, and the public schools of 
the large cities provide free curriculums 










































































HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 


575 


equal to the ordinary college of a few years 
ago. 

In manufacturing and commerce the 
United States in the year 1900 took the lead 
among the nations of the earth. She has 
nearly, 90,000 miles of railroad within her 
borders, or about one-third of all the rail¬ 
roads of the earth. 

The Government is a model Republic 
administered by the President, as executive, 
and two branches of Congress—the Senate, 
composed of two members from each State 
in the Union, and the House of Representa¬ 
tives, composed of representatives appor¬ 
tioned among the different States in propor¬ 
tion to population. The President is elected 
by a College of Electors, the members of 
which are chosen in the different States by 
a majority vote. The Senators are elected 
by the State Legislatures. Representatives 
are elected by a direct vote of the people. 

The State Governments are independent 
in administering their local affairs, but can¬ 
not make laws out of harmony with the 
United States laws. Each State has its 
Governor and two legislative branches, the 
Senate and House of Representatives, which 
meet at the State capital. The Governor 
and State legislative representatives are 
elected by direct vote of the people. 

William McKinley, the present President 
of the United States, was born January 29, 
1843. Was inaugarated March 4, 1897, an d 
again March 4, 1901. 

The New Possessions of the United 
States. 

Porto Rico. —The island of Porto Rico, 
which came under the United States flag on 
October 18, 1898, is the most eastern of the 
Greater Antilles in the West Indies, and is 
separated on the east from the Danish island 
of St. Thomas by a distance of about fifty 
miles, and from Hayti on the west by the 
Mona Passage seventy miles wide. San Juan, 
the capital, is distant from New York 1,420 
miles; Key West, Fla., 1,050 miles. 

The island is a parallelogram in general 
outline, 108 miles from the east to the west, 
and from thirty-seven to forty-three miles 
across, the area being about 3,600 square 
miles, or somewhat less than half that of 
the State of New Jersey (Delaware has 2,050 
37 G 


square miles and Connecticut 4,990 square 
miles). The population, according to an 
enumeration made in 1887, was 798,565, of 
whom 474,933 were whites, 246,647 mulat- 
toes, and 76,905 negroes. An enumeration 
taken by the United States Government in 
1900 showed a population of 953,243. 

Porto Rico is unusually fertile, and its 
dominant industries are agriculture and 
lumbering. The principal crops are sugar, 
coffee, tobacco, cotton, and maize, but ban¬ 
anas, rice, pineapples, and many other fruits 
are important products. The largest article 
of export from Porto Rico, is coffee, which is 
over 63 per cent, of the whole. The next 
largest is sugar, 28 per cent. The other 
exports in order of amount are tobacco, 
honey, molasses, cattle, timber, and hides. 

There are 137 miles of railway, with 170 
miles under construction, and 470 miles of 
telegraph lines. These connect the capital 
with the principal ports south and west. 
Submarine cables run from San Juan to St. 
Thomas and Jamaica. The principal cities 
are Ponce, 27,952 inhabitants; Arecibo, 
30,000, and San Juan, the capital, 32,048. 

An act providing for a civil government 
for Porto Rico was passed by Congress and 
received the assent of the President April 
12, 1900. 

Under this act a civil government was 
established, which went into effect May 1, 
1900. The following is a list of the gov¬ 
ernment officials: 

Governor, salary $8,000; Secretary, 
$4,000 ; Attorney-General, $4,000 ; Treas¬ 
urer, $5,000; Auditor, $4,000; Commis¬ 
sioner of Interior, $4,000; Commissioner 
of Education, $3,000. 

The above, with the exception of the 
Governor, together with five appointed by 
the Govenor, constitute the Executive Coun¬ 
cil, or “Upper House”. 

The House of Delegates, or Lower House, 
consists of thirty-five members, who were 
elected by the people at the election in 1900. 

The Judiciary for the island is as fol¬ 
lows : Supreme Court of Porto Rico—Chief 
Justice, salary $5,000; and four Associate 
Justices, at salaries of $4,500 each; and a 
Marshal, at a salary of $3,000. 

Hawaii was annexed to the United States 
by joint resolution of Congress July 6, 1898. 




576 


HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 


A bill to create Hawaii a Territory of the 
United States was passed by Congress and 
approved April 30, 1900. 

The area of the several islands of the 
Hawaiian group is as follows; Hawaii, 4,210 
square miles ; Maui, 760; Oahu, 600; Kauai, 
590 ; Molokai, 270 ; Lanai, 150 ; Niihau, 97 ; 
Kahoolawe, 63. Total, 6,740 square miles. 

At the time of the discovery of the islands 
by Captain Cook in 1778, the native popu¬ 
lation was about 200,000. This has steadily 
decreased, so that at the last census the 
the natives numbered but 31,019, which was 
less than that of the Japanese and Chinese 
immigrants settled on the islands. 

The first United States census of the 
islands was taken in 1900 with the follow¬ 
ing result: Hawaii Island, 46,843; Kauai 
Island, 20,562 ; Niihau Island, 172 ; Maui 
Island, 25,416; Molokai Island and Lanai 
Island, 2,504 ; Oahu Island, 58,504. Total 
of the territory, 154,001. The population 
of the city of Honolulu is 39,306. 

There are seventy-one miles of railroad 
and about 250 miles of telegraph in the 
islands. Honolulu, the capital, population, 
28,061, is lighted by electricity, and has 
most of the local features of an enterprising 
American city. The bulk of the business 
is done by Americans and Europeans. 

Of sugar, of which it is said the Hawaiian 
Islands are much more productive in a given 
area than those of the West Indies, the ex¬ 
portation was 520,158,232 pounds in 1897. 
Of coffee, the exportation was 337,158 pounds 
in 1897 ; of rice, the exportation was 5,499,- 
499 pounds in 1897. In imports, nearly all 
of the necessities of life, aside from sugar, 
fruits, and vegetables, are imported, the 
products of the United States being given 
the preference in nearly all cases. 

The new Territorial Government was in¬ 
augurated at Honolulu, June 14, 1900. 

Guam. —The island of Guam, the largest 
of the Marianne or Ladrone Archipelago, 
was ceded by Spain to the United States by 
Article II. of the Treaty of Peace, concluded 
at Paris December 10, 1898. It lies in a di¬ 
rect line from San Francisco to the southern 
part of the Philippines, and is 5,200 miles from. 
San Francisco, and 900 miles from Manila. 
It is about thirty-two miles long and 100 
miles in circumference, and has a popula¬ 


tion of about 8,661, of whom 5,249 are in 
Agana, the capital. The inhabitants are 
mostly immigrants or descendants of immi¬ 
grants from the Philippines, the original 
race of the Ladrone Islands being extinct. 
The prevailing language is Spanish. Nine- 
tenths of the islanders can read and write. 
The island is thickly wooded, well watered 
and fertile, having an excellent harbor. 

Tutuila the Samoan island which, with 
its attendant islets, became a possession of 
the United States by virtue of the three party 
treaty with Great Britain and Germany in 
1899, covers, according to the Bureau of Sta¬ 
tistics of the Treasury Department, fifty-four 
square miles, and has 4,000 inhabitants. It 
possesses the most valuable island harbor, 
Pago-Pago, in the South Pacific, and per¬ 
haps in the entire Pacific Ocean. Commer¬ 
cially the island is unimportant at present, 
but is extremely valuable in its relations to 
the commerce of any nation desiring to cul¬ 
tivate transpacific commerce. 

The Samoan Islands in the South Pacific 
are fourteen in number, and lie in a direct 
line drawn from San Francisco to Aukland, 
New Zealand. They are 4,000 miles from 
San Francisco, 2,200 miles from Hawaii, 
1,900 miles from Aukland, 2,000 miles from 
Sydney, and 4,200 miles from Manila. The 
inhabitants are native Polynesians and Chris¬ 
tians of different denominations. 

The Philippine Islands. —As a result 
of the war between the United States and 
Spain, in 1898, the Philippine Islands came 
into possession of the former country. 

The Philippine group, lying off the 
southern coast of Asia, between longitude 
120 and 130 and latitude 5 and 20 approxi¬ 
mately, number perhaps 1,200 islands, great 
and small, in a land and sea area of 1,200 
miles of latitude and 2,400- miles of longi¬ 
tude. The actual land area is about 140,000 
miles. The six New England States, New 
York, and New Jersey have about an equi¬ 
valent area. The island of Luzon, on which 
the capital city (Manila) is situated, is the 
largest member of the group, being about 
the size of the State of New York. Min¬ 
danao is nearly as large, but its population 
is very much smaller. The latest estimates 
of areas of the largest islands are as follows : 
Luzon, 44,400 ; Mindanao, 34,000; Samar, 



HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 


577 


4,000; Panay, 4,700; Mindoro, 4,000; 
Leyte, 3,800; Negros, 3,300; Cebu, 2,400. 

The estimates of population vary from 
7,500,000 to 10,000,000. A conservative 
estimate is 8,000,000. There are thirty dif¬ 
ferent races, all speaking a different dialect. 
The religion is largely Roman Catholic. In 
some of the smaller islands Mohammedan¬ 
ism prevails. 

The climate is one of the best known in 
the tropics. The islands extend from 5 0 to 
21 0 north latitude, and Manila is in 14 0 35'. 

Mineral Wealth .—Very little is known 
concerning the mineral wealth of the islands. 
It is stated that there are deposits of coal, 
petroleum, iron, lead, sulphur, copper, and 
gold in the various islands, but little or 
nothing has been done to develop them. A 
few concessions have been granted for work¬ 
ing mines, but the output is not large. The 
gold is reported on Luzon, coal and petro¬ 
leum on Cebu and Iloilo, and sulphur on 
Leyte. 

Agriculture. — Although agriculture is 
the chief occupation of the Filipinos, yet 
only one-ninth of the surface is under culti¬ 
vation. The soil is very fertile. 

The chief products are rice, corn, hemp, 
sugar, tobacco, cocoanuts, and cacao. 
Coffee and cotton were formerly produced 
in large quantities—the former for export 
and the latter for home consumption ; but 
the coffee plant has been almost extermi¬ 
nated by insects, and the home-made cotton 
cloths have been driven out by the competi¬ 
tion of those imported from England. 

In the fiscal year ending June 30, 1900, 
the exports from the United States to the 
Philippines had increased to $2,640,499, 
and the imports from the Philippines to 
$5,971,208. The total imports in the island 
in the fiscal year were $12,670,436, and ex¬ 
ports $8,305,530. 

The islands are at present governed by a 
military commission appointed by the Presi¬ 
dent. Local self-government will, no doubt, 
be given the islands as soon as the people 
are prepared for it. Aguinaldo, the leader 
of the Philippines, after several months ot 
active opposition, was captured in 1901, 
and afterward issued a proclamation advis¬ 
ing submission. 


Mexico. 

When the Spaniards discovered Mexico 
it was the home of the highest civilization 
in the New World. The Aztecs lived there 
and built large cities, mined copper and 
stone and other materials. Their King, 
Montezuma, was captured by Cortez, and 
the Aztecs, as a people, have disappeared. 

The present Republic of Mexico com¬ 
prises twenty-seven States, a federal district 
and the Territory of Lower California, em¬ 
bracing altogether 767,316 square miles and 
a population of 12,619,949. It is bounded 
on the north by the United States of America, 
south by Central America, west by the Pa¬ 
cific Ocean and Gulf of California, east by 
the Gulf of Mexico. The principal indus¬ 
tries are agriculture, mining and stock- 
raising. Climate, mild and heathful in the 
elevated interior, but hot and pestilential 
along the coast. The Mexicans are a very 
mixed race, 20 per cent, being of the Cau¬ 
casian race, 43 per cent, natives of mixed 
race, and 37 per cent. Indians. Religion 
—Prevailing religion, Roman Catholic, 
though by law there is toleration of all other 
religions. Protestant churches have about 
26,000 adherents. Government —A con¬ 
federate republic. Executive, the President. 
Legislative, the Congress, consisting of the 
House of Representatives with 227 members, 
and the Senate with fifty members. Edu¬ 
cation —9,000 elementary schools with over 
500,000 pupils, and 140 higher schools with 
17,000 scholars. Government grant, $3,- 
400,000. Finance —Revenue (estimated), 
$35,000,000 ; expenditures (estimated), $28,- 
100,000. Chief articles exported, precious 
metals, textile fibres. Industries —Chiefly 
mining and cattle-raising. Between 1821 
and 1880silver to the value of $900,000,000, 
and gold to the value of $4,841,000 were 
produced. Ninety-six cotton factories, with 
over 14,000 employees, were also in opera¬ 
tion in 1898. 

Mexico is a marvelously picturesque 
country. The surface is a high plateau 
crossed by several ranges of white-capped 
mountains. The rivers are shallow and 
rapid streams, none of them navigable above 
tide-water except the Rio Grande and Col¬ 
orado. Owing to the difference of elevation, 




578 


HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 


Mexico has a variety of climate and produc¬ 
tions. The coast regions are low, hot and 
pestilential. The elevated regions are cool 
and healthful. The city of Mexico, the 
capital, is a walled city, entered by gates. 
General Porfirio Diaz, the President ot Mex¬ 
ico, was born in 1830 and became President 
of the Republic in 1884. 

Central America. 

Central America comprises all of the 
mainland lying south of Mexico to the 
South American Continent, divided among 
five independent republics and the British 
colony of Balize, area and populations of 
which were given in the general list of re¬ 
publics at the beginning of the article on the 
American Continent. 

Guatamala , the most northern of the 
states, is about the size of Ohio. It has 
little trade, and is known as “Uncommercial 
Guatamala. * ’ Some interesting ruins of old 
cities are in this republic. Honduras has 
high mountains and dense forests of valuable 
woods. 

Salvador is the smallest but most densely 
populated Central American country, and 
has eleven volcanoes within its limits, Ni¬ 
caragua is the longest Central American 
state. The attention of the world has been 
attracted to it by the proposed ship canal 
across that country. 

Costa Rica is the most southerly of these 
little republics. Valuable forests cover its 
surface and mother-of-pearl is found in 
abundance along its shores. 

Balize , or British Honduras, is the only 
part of Central America that belongs to a 
foreign power. 

The population of this whole Central 
American country is principally composed 
of the descendants of Spaniards and of 
Indians and negroes, and mixed breeds of 
these with white men who have gone there 


to cut valuable timber in which the land 
abounds, or to engage in mining. The 
people more closely resemble those of Mexico 
than any other, and the Spanish language 
prevails, as does also the Roman Catholic 
religion. 

The Governments are Republican, modeled 
after the United States, but revolutions are 
frequent and government is unstable. 

The West Indies. 

The West Indies consist of about 1,000 
islands extending in two chains southeast 
from the coast of North America. Some of 
them are little more than coral rocks. 
Others large and very fertile. They are 
divided physically into the Bahamas, the 
Greater Antilles and the Lesser Antilles. 
They all lie between the latitudes of io° to 
27 0 north latitude, and consequently are all 
hot and tropical. Politically, until 1898, 
when the American war with Spain liber¬ 
ated Cuba and Porto Rico, they were all 
(except the island of Hayti) controlled by 
European powers. 

Porto Rico is now a colony of the United 
States. 

Cuba is an independent republic under 
the foster care or protection of the United 
States until its government can be estab¬ 
lished, which end the people of the island 
and the United States are both uniting their 
efforts to accomplish on a basis that will 
best serve the interest of Cuba and that of 
her great sister republic and protector. 

Hayti comprises two independent re¬ 
publics, Hayti and Santo Domingo. The 
people and rulers are principally negroes. 

Havana , the capital of Cuba, with a 
population of 200,000, is the principal city 
of the West Indies, and it ranks second 
among the cities of the New World in ex¬ 
tent of foreign commerce. 


SOUTH AMERICA 


The southern continent of the Western 
Hemisphere is joined to North America by 
the Isthmus of Panama, which at its nar¬ 
rowest part is only thirty miles wide. South 
America lies almost wholly in the torrid 
zone, which doubtless accounts for the 


lack of progress and enterprise manifested 
throughout this great and powerful conti¬ 
nent. Its area comprises roundly, 7,000,000 
square miles, nearly twice that of Europe, 
and one-eighth the entire land-surface of the 
globe. Like North America, South America 






HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 


579 


is triangular in form. It is, however, more 
compact and possesses a smoother coast line, 
fewer harbors and fewer islands than its 
northern neighbor. Toward the south, 
however, a large number of almost useless 
islands occur. The Terra del Fuego (or 
fire islands) are a positive injury to the con¬ 
tinent, since they imperil shipping, and are 
well-nigh worthless, with a degraded popu¬ 
lation. Morajo or Johannes Island, how¬ 
ever, is more elevated and furnishes rich 
pasture-land, as do also the Falkland Islands, 
which have a good harbor, and belong to 
Great Britain. The other islands worthy of 
mention are the Gallapagos Islands (where 
the largest turtles in the world are found— 
weighing from 1,000 to 1,500 pounds) and 
the Faster Islands, the latter situated in the 
Pacific Ocean west of Chili. 

The mountains of South America consist 
of a series of lofty ridges running parallel, 
uniting in mountain groups and inclosing 
long narrow plateaus. They are exceed¬ 
ingly wild and broken. Rushing torrents, 
deep gorges, jagged peaks, cliffs and impas¬ 
sable chasms abound. Sixty of the moun¬ 
tain peaks are active volcanoes, and the 
countries within the Andes are subject to 
frequent and destructive earthquakes. In 
the extreme South numerous glaciers come 
down to the water’s edge, as they do along 
the Alaskan coasts of North America. For 
3,000 miles along the Andes Mountains en¬ 
gineers say there is no gap or pass where a 
railroad could be built, and travelers must 
cross the mountains by winding paths, on 
foot or with donkeys, or llamas as beasts of 
burden. The railroad across these moun¬ 
tains in Peru is one of the greatest engineer¬ 
ing feats in the world. 

The plains and lowlands constitute four- 
fifths of the continent, and are divided into 
the Llanos , Pampas , and Selvas. 

The Llanos are treeless and very flat. 
During the wet season as far as the eye can 
reach the land is covered with the finest of 
vegetation, and seems like a great sea of 
grass. Beautiful flowers of every hue lift 
up their heads. The air is filled with in¬ 
sects. Herds of wild cattle and horses feed 
over the plains, and in places men on horse¬ 
back may be seen pursuing them with las¬ 
soes. When the sun moves away from 


overhead and the rain # ceases to fall, the 
grass dries up and the vast plain turns 
brown. The earth becomes dry and hard, 
and moving hills of sand make clouds of 
dust. The entire expanse of the llanos is 
less than 200 feet above the sea. These 
plains cover an area of 160,000 square miles. 

The Pampas are almost perfectly level, 
without stones and for the most part with¬ 
out trees. Instead of the fine rich grass of 
the llanos, they are covered with a very 
coarse grass and with clover and forests of 
thistle ten or twelve feet in height. The 
thistle-stalks are sometimes cut down for 
fuel. Millions of wild cattle and horses 
roam over these plains. 

The Selvas have an area of more than 
two million square miles. Here are the 
densest and most extensive forests in the 
world. The foliage in places is so thick 
and dark that the sun never penetrates it. 
A perpetual mist hangs over the lower 
Amazon, and all the colors of vegetation 
and of animal life are brilliant in the ex¬ 
treme. These forests present an almost 
numberless variety of trees, but the still¬ 
ness and gloom of their depths are almost 
painful. 

The principal rivers of South America 
are the Amazon and its tributaries, the La 
Plata and the Orinoco. The Amazon ex¬ 
ceeds in volume every other river on the 
globe, and discharges more water into the 
sea than the eight largest rivers of Asia. 
The name is derived from an Indian word 
meaning &?a/-destroyer, from the destructive 
tidal waves at its mouth. With its tribu¬ 
taries it affords 10,000 miles of interior 
navigation. 

The lakes of South America are few in 
number . Lake Titicaca is 240 miles in cir¬ 
cumference, and is famous as lying at the 
greatest elevation of any large navigable 
lake in the world. 

The climate of South America is of every 
variety. In the lowlands near the equator 
it is always summer; on the high moun¬ 
tains always like winter; on the elevated 
plains more like the usual spring and early 
fall of the temperate zone. 

The products vary with the climate, and 
resemble those of the West Indies and Cen¬ 
tral America, generally speaking. In the 



580 


HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 


torrid zone, where* rainfall is great, every¬ 
thing is very luxuriant. The animal life 
of the continent, like the vegetable, varies 
with the climate. South America is richer 
in birds and insects than any other conti¬ 
nent. Wild horses and cattle abound on 
the plains. Beasts of prey are less numer¬ 
ous than in North America, but the tapir, 
ant-eater, monkey, parrot, alligator, turtle, 
and condor live and flourish as nowhere 
else. 

Inhabitants .—South America was in¬ 
habited by Indians when the white man dis¬ 
covered it, and they still number several 
millions and in the interior are still sav¬ 
age. Indians and mixed races yet form the 
greater part of the population, but the ruling 
people are the descendants of the Portuguese 
and Spaniards who settled the continent. 
These number about one-third of the popu¬ 
lation. In Brazil negroes—descendants from 
former slaves—also form a large element of 
the population. The Roman Catholic faith 
is the prevailing form of religion. 

Industries. —Agriculture, including stock- 
raising, furnishes the principal employment 
of the people. Mining is carried on to 
some extent in the highlands, but the vast 
mineral wealth of the continent is barely 
touched. Manufacturing is of meagre im¬ 
portance. 

The political divisions of South America 
consist of ten republics and the provinces of 
Guiana. The republics are fashioned, like 
those of Central America, after the United 
States in their form of government, but their 
affairs are poorly handled, and few of them 
are prosperous. Political commotions have 


Country. 


Brazil.. 

Venezuela. 

Colombia. 

Ecuador. 

Peru. 

Bolivia. 

Chili.. 

Argentine. 

Uruguay. 

Paraguay. 

Guiana, British.... 

“ French... 

“ Dutch.... 

Falkland Islands. 
South Georgia. 


Capital. 


Area So- Popula- 
Miles. tion. 


Rio de Janeiro. 

Caracas. 

Bogota. 

Quito. 

Dima. 

Chuquisaca. 

Santiago. 

Buenos Ayres.. 
Monte Video.... 

Asuncion. 

Georgetown.... 

Cayenne.. 

Paramaribo_ 

Stanley.. 


Total. 


3 , 219,000 

566,159 

331,420 

248,380 

405,040 

472,000 

256,850 

1 , 095,013 

72,111 

92,000 

76,000 

46,880 

46,072 

6,500 

1,570 


18 , 000,000 

2 , 444,816 

4 , 600,000 

1 , 300,000 

3 , 000,000 

2 , 500,000 

3 , 110,085 

4 , 844,911 

559,668 

840,725 

600,000 

36,000 

71,800 

1,800 


6 , 934,995 


41 , 909,805 


interfered with the advance and success of 
the people. The countries are jealous and 
unfriendly in spirit toward one another. 
Some of the presidents are elected for six 
years and have practically the same power 
as monarchs. Revolutions are frequent. 

The above are the South American 
countries, with the latest obtainable statistics 
concerning their areas and population : 

From the above table it will be seen 
that the population of all South America 
amounts to about one-half that of the United 
States. But the great natural resources of 
the continent, its navigable rivers and fertile 
soil, make it possible for this continent to 
become one of the most populous and pro¬ 
ductive of the earth. 

Chronology of Great Historical Events. 

B. C. 

878 Carthage founded. 

776 Olympic Era began. 

753 Foundation of Rome. 

588 Jerusalem taken by Nebuchadnezzar. 

536 Restoration of the Jews under Cyrus. 

509 Expulsion of the Tarquins from Rome. 

480 Heroism of the Spartans at Thermopylae. 

55 Caesar conquered Britain. 

4 Birth of Jesus Christ. 

A. D. 

29 The Crucifixion. 

70 Jerusalem was destroyed by Titus. 

313 Constantine converted to Christianity. 

410 The Romans abandoned Britain. 

827 Egbert, first king of all England. 

1066 Battle of Hastings, Norman Conquest. 

1096 The Crusades began. 

1172 Ireland was conquered by Henry II. 

1215 King John granted Magna Charta, June 15. 
1265 First Representative Parliament in England. 
1415 Battle of Agincourt, Oct. 25. 

1431 Joan of Arc was burnt, May 30. 

>453 Constantinople taken by the Turks. 

1455 The Wars of the Roses began. 

1462 The Bible was first printed at Mentz. 

1471 Caxton set up his printing press. 
i486 The feuds of York and Lancaster ended. 

1492 Columbus discovered America, Oct. 12. 

1517 The Reformation began in Germany. 

1519 Cortez began the conquest of Mexico. 

1535 The first English Bible printed. 

1539 Monasteries were closed in England. 

1558 Accession of Queen Elizabeth, Nov. 17. 

1565 Revolt of the Netherlands began. 

1572 The St. Bartholomew Massacre, Aug. 24. 

1588 The Spanish Armada defeated. 

1600 East India Company first chartered. 

1603 Union of England and Scotland, March 24. 
1605 The Gunpowder Plot in England. 

I 1607 Jamestown, Va., was settled. 











































HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 


581 


1609 Hudson River first explored. 

1616 Shakespeare died, April 23. 

1618 Thirty Years’ War in Germany began. 

1620 Pilgrims by the Mayflower landed. 

1623 Manhattan Island settled. 

1634 Maryland settled by Roman Catholics. 

1636 Rhode Island settled by Roger Williams. 
1640 Cromwell’s Long Parliament assembled. 
1649 Charles I. was beheaded, Jan. 30. 

1653 Oliver Cromwell became Lord Protector. 
1660 Restoration of the Stuarts. 

1664 New York conquered from the Dutch. 

1664 The great plague of London. 

1666 The great fire of London began Sept. 2. 

1679 Habeas Corpus Act passed in England. 

1682 Pennsylvania settled by William Penn. 

1685 Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, Oct. 22. 
1688 James II. abdicated, Dec. 11. 

1690 Battle of the Boyne, July 1. 

1690 First newspaper in America; at Boston. 
I704 Gibraltar was taken by the English. 

1713 Peace of Utrecht, April 11. 

1714 Accession of House of Hanover, Aug. 1. 

1715 First Jacobite Rebellion in Great Britain. 
1720 South Sea Bubble. 

1745 Battle of Fontenoy, April 30. 

1745 Second Jacobite Rebellion in Great Britain. 

1756 Black Hole Suffocation in Calcutta. 

1757 Clive won Battle of Plassey in India. 

1759 Canada was taken from the French. 

1765 Stamp Act enacted. 

1773 Steam engine perfected by Watt. 

I773 Tea destroyed in Boston Harbor, Dec. 16. 
1775 Battle of Lexington, April 19. 

1775 Battle of Bunker Hill, June 17. 

1776 Declaration of Independence, July 4. 

1777 Burgoyne’s surrender, Oct. 17. 

1779 Capt. Cook was killed, Feb. 14. 

1781 Cornwallis’ surrender at Yorktown, Oct. 19. 

1788 First settlement in Australia, Jan. 26. 

1789 The French Revolution began July 14. 

1789 Washington first inaugurated President. 

1793 Cotton-gin invented by Whitney. 

1793 Louis XVI. of France executed, Jan. 21. 
1796 Vaccination discovered by Jenner. 

1798 The Irish Rebellion. 

1799 Battle of Seringapatam ; death of Tippoo. 
1799 Bonaparte declared First Consul, Nov. 10. 
1801 Union of Great Britain and Ireland, Jan. 1. 

1803 Louisiana purchased from the French. 

1804 Bonaparte became Emperor of France. 

1805 Battle of Trafalgar; death of Nelson. 

1807 Fulton’s first steamboat voyage. 

1812 Second war with Great Britain. 

1812 The French expedition to Moscow. 

1813 Perry’s victory on Lake Erie, Sept. 10. 

1814 The printing machine invented. 

1814 Scott’s “ Waverley ’’published. 

1815 Battle of New Orleans, Jan. 8. 

1815 Battle of Waterloo, June 18. 

1819 First steamship crossed the Atlantic. 

182c Missouri Compromise adopted. 


1823 Monroe Doctrine declared, Dec. 2. 

1828 First passenger railroad in the United States. 
1830 Revolution in France, Orleanist succession. 
1832 South Carolina Nullification Ordinance. 

1835 Morse invented the telegraph. 

1835 Seminole War in Florida began. 

1837 Accession of Queen Victoria, June 20. 

1845 Texas annexed. 

1846 Sewing machine completed by Elias Howe. 
1846 The Irish Potato Famine. 

1846 British Corn laws repealed, June 26. 

1846 War with Mexico began. 

1848 French Revolution, Republic succeeded. 

1848 Gold discovered in California. 

1851 Gold discovered in Australia. 

1851 First International Exhibition, London. 

1852 Louis Napoleon became Emperor, Dec. 2. 

1853 Crimean War began. 

1857 The Great Mutiny in India. 

1857 The Dred Scott decision. 

1859 John Brown’s raid into Virginia. 

1860 South Carolina seceded, Dec. 20. 

1861 Emancipation of the Russian serfs. 

1863 Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation, Jan. 1. 
1863 Battle of Gettysburg, July 1-3. 

1865 Lee surrendered at Appomattox, April 9. 

1865 President Lincoln assassinated, April 14. 

1866 Battle of Sadowa. Prussia beat Austria. 

1867 Emperor Maximilian of Mexico executed. 

1867 The Dominion of Canada established. 

1870 Franco-German War began, July 19. 

1870 Capitulation of French at Sedan, Sept. 1. 

1870 Rome became the capital of Italy. 

1871 The German Empire re-established. 

1871 The Irish Church was disestablished. 

1871 The great fire in Chicago, Oct. 8-11. 

1872 The great fire in Boston, Nov. 9. 

1876 Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia. 

1881 President Garfield shot. 

1882 British occupation of Egypt. 

1889 Brazil became a Republic. 

1893 World’s Columbian Exposition at Chicago. 

1894 Chinese-Japanese War began. 

1895 Cuban Revolution began, Feb. 20. 

1895 McKinley inaugurated President of the 
United States. 

1897 The Turkish-Greek War. 

1898 The Spanish-American War. 

1898 The Filipino War. 

1899 Universal Peace Conference. 

1899 The South African War. 

1900 Invasion of China by allied European and 

American forces. 

1901 Australia became a Federal Union, January 1. 
1901 Death of Queen Victoria. 

1901 Prince of Wales becomes King of England 
under title of Edward VII. 

1901 Marriage of Queen Wilhelmina. 

1901 McKinley inaugurated President United States 
second time. 

1901 Capture of Aguinaldo, leader of the Filipino 
rebellion—end of the Philippine War. 




532 


HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 


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5 8 4 


HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 



THE MAP OF THE WORLD AT BEGINNING OF 19th CENTURY 

Showing the possessions of the six great powers—Great Britain, Spain, France, Germany, Russia and the United States 
Of the Chinese F)mpire, Africa and Australia, little was known at the beginning of the old century. 



THE MAP OF THE WORLD AT THE BEGINNING OF 20th CENTURY 

Showing the political bouudaries of the six great powers at the beginning of the new century. Africa Australia and 
portions of China have been absorbed by one or more of the great powers. Spain has withdrawn from the 
Western Hemisphere, and South America is held by independent governments. 


j*. . 






















BOOK IX, 


FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS 

A BOOK OF VALUABLE INFORMATION, GATHERED FROM ALL SOURCES, 
AND CONVENIENTLY ARRANGED—INCLUDING THE FIRST THINGS, 
THE GREATEST THINGS, THE WONDERFUL AND MARVELOUS IN HIS¬ 
TORY, SACRED AND PROFANE—STRIKING FACTS OF LITERATURE, ART 
AND SCIENCE—STATISTICS AND TABLES FROM LATEST CENSUS REPORT, 


INFORMATION FOR ALL 






































































































































































































































































































































































Facts for the Curious 

REMARKABLE THINGS—PERSONAGES AND EVENTS IN THE WORLD’S 
ANNALS—IMPORTANT FACTS AND FIGURES FOR EVERY DAY USE 
—BOOKS, LITERATURE, ART AND ARTISTS—FACTS ABOUT 
THE BIBLE—SACRED BOOKS AND RELIGIONS 


THINGS WORTH KNOWING 


The Seven Bibles of the World. 

The chief sacred books of the world are 
the Scriptures of the Christians, the Tripi- 
taka of the Southern Buddhists, the Five 
Kings of the Chinese, the three Vedas of the 
Hindoos, the Koran of the Mohammedans, 
the Zendavesta of the Parsees, and the 
Eddas of the Scandinavians. 

The Koran is the most recent, having 
been written in the seventh century after 
Christ. It contains many excerpts from the 
Old and New Testaments and the Talmud. 

The Tripitaka contains sublime morals 
and pure aspirations. The author lived and 
died in the sixth century before Christ. 

The Five Kings contain wise sayings on 
the duties of life. The word ‘ ‘ King ’ ’ in 
the Chinese language means web of cloth. 
From this it is presumed that they were 
originally written on five rolls of cloth. 
They were written by a number of wise men 
some time not earlier than the eleventh cen¬ 
tury before Christ. 

The Vedas can not be proven to antedate 
the twelfth century before the Christian era. 

The Zendavesta is regarded among 
scholars as being the greatest and' most 
learned of all sacred writings, excepting the 
Christian Bible. It was written by Zoroas¬ 
ter in the twelfth century before Christ. 

The Eddas, a semi-sacred work of the 
Scandinavians, was first given to the world 


in the fourteenth century but is probably 
much older. 

Moses is claimed to have written the 
Pentateuch at least i ,500 years before Christ; 
if so, that portion of the Christian Bible is 
at least 300 years older than any other sacred 
writings. 

The Nine Religions of the World. 

There are estimated to be 1,000 forms of 
religious worship practiced in the world. 
The following table shows the nine grand 
divisions or creeds, which are each subdi¬ 
vided into numerous sects: 



Creeds. 

No. of 
Followers. 

I. 

Christianity. 

500,000,000 

2. 

Worship of Ancestors and Confuci¬ 



anism . 

256,000,000 

3 - 

Hinduism. 

190,000,000 

4 - 

Mohammedanism. 

180,000,000 

5 - 

Buddhism. 

147,900,000 

6. 

Taoism. 

43,000,000 

7 * 

Shintoism. 

14,000,000 

8. 

Judaism. 

8,000,000 

117,681,669 

9 - 

Polytheism. 


Distribution of the People of the Christian 
Religion. 

The leading faiths are represented by 
these figures: Protestant Christians, 200,- 
000,000 : Roman Catholic Christians, 195,- 
000,000; Greek Catholic Christians, 105,- 
000,000; non-Christians, 1,000,000,000. 

587 














588 


FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS 


The Name of God in Forty=Eight 
Languages. 


Hebrew. 

Chaldaic .... 
Assyrian .... 
Syrian and Turkish. 

Malay. 

Arabic. 


Eleah, Jehovah 
.... Eiliah 
.... Eleah 

.Alah 

.Alla 

.... Allah 


Languages of the Magi.Orsi 

Old Egyptian.Teut 

Armenian.Teuti 

Modern Egyptian.Teun 

Greek .Theos 

Cretan. Thios 

Aedian and Dorian.Ilos 


Latin. 

Low Latin . . . . 
Celtic Gaelic . . . 

French. 

Spanish. 

Portuguese . . . . 
Old German . . . . 
Provincial . . . . 
Low Breton . . . 

Italian. 

Irish. 

Olotu tongue . . , 
German and Swiss . 

Flemish. 

Dutch. 

English. 

Teutonic. 

Danish and Swedish 
Norwegian . . . . 

Slav. 

Polish.. 

Polacca . 

Lapp. 

Finnish. 

Runic. 

Zemblian. 

Pannonian . . . . 

Hindostanee . . . 
Coromandel . . . . 

Tartar. 

Persian. 

Chinese. 

Japanese. 

Madagascar . . . 
Peruvian. 


.... Deus 
.... Diex 

.Diu 

.... Dieu 
.... Dios 
.... Deos 

.Diet 

.... Dion 
.... Done 

.Dio 

.Dia 

.Deu 

.... Gott 

.God 

.God 

.God 

.... Goth 

.Gud 

.Gud 

.... Buch 

.Bog 

.... Bung 
. . . Jubinal 
. . Jumala 

.As 

. . . . Fetiza 

.Istu 

.... Rain 
... Brama 
. . . Magatai 

.Sire 

. . . Prussa 
• . . Goezer 
. . . Zannar 
Puchecammae I 


Mankind Naturally Religious. 

All men, wherever found, worship some 
higher power. Among the most savage 
races there exists some conception of a 
deity. Beginning with Fetishism—the wor¬ 
ship of animals, trees, insects, etc.—the re¬ 
ligious ideas advanced into personification 
and symbolism, and produced Idolatry or 
Paganism, and was an element of early civ¬ 
ilization. From this, in different lands, and 
among different races of men, diverged no¬ 
tions of religious theology, which eventually 
worked themselves into^systems, generally 
based upon a personality, or individual God¬ 
head or mediator. The chief religions of the 
world are the Jewish, the Christian, the Mo¬ 
hammedan, the Brahman, the Buddhistic 
and the Zoroastrian. Buddhism has the most 
followers and Christianity next. Brahman¬ 
ism and Mohammedanism each have a little 
more than one-fourth as many as Chris¬ 
tianity. The Jewish religion comes next, 
and the Zoroastrians or Fire-worshippers the 
smallest number. It is not possible to 
attempt to do more than outline the dif¬ 
ferent faiths. 

The Jewish Religion is the oldest of 
all organized forms of worship. And the 
teachers of its tenets have influenced the 
Jewish people, keeping their stock pure and 
unmixed though they are scattered in all 
countries. 

In their religious observances modern 
Jews adhere to the rules of the Mosaic dis¬ 
pensation.- Their service consists chiefly in 
reading the law in their synagogues, together 
with a variety of prayers. They abstain 
from the meats prohibited by the Levitical 
law, and they continue to observe the cere¬ 
monies of the Passover, as nearly as possible. 
They offer prayers for the dead, because 
they believe that the souls of the wicked go 
to a place of temporary punishment, where 
they remain under trial a year, and they 
think that very few will be condemned to 
suffer eternally. We give a summary of 
the confession of faith, in which all ortho¬ 
dox Jews must live and die. It is made up 
of thirteen articles, and was drawn up in the 
eleventh century by a celebrated rabbi 
named Maimonides. These articles declare 
in substance: (i) That there is one God, 




















































FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS 589 


creator of all things, who may exist with¬ 
out any part of the universe, but without 
whom nothing can maintain existence ; (2) 
that God is uncompounded and indivisible, 
but different from all other unities ; (3) that 
God is an immaterial being, without any ad¬ 
mixture of corporeal substance; (4) that 
God is eternal, but everything else had a 
beginning in time; (5) that God alone 
ought to be worshipped, without mediators 
or intercessors; (6) that there have been 
inspired prophets, and may be more; (7) 
that Moses was the grandest prophet that 
ever appeared; (8) that the law of Moses 
was in every syllable dictated by the 
Almighty, not only in its written letter but 
in traditionary exposition ; (9) that this law 
is immutable, neither to be added to nor di¬ 
minished ; (10) that God knows all our ac¬ 
tions and governs them as He will; (11) 
that the observance of the law is rewarded 
and its violation punished in this world, 
but in a greater degree in the next; (12) 
that a Messiah is yet to appear, the time of 
whose coming may not be prescribed or fore¬ 
told ; and (13) that God will raise the 
dead at the last day and pass judgment 
upon all. 

Fire=Worshippers.—The Parsees are at 
present the only devotees of Zoroaster, who 
is supposed to have founded the religion of 
the Fire-Worshippers about one thousand 
years before Christ. Its doctrines are set 
forth in the Zen da vesta, the sacred books 
of the Parsees, who are supposed to have 
been the “ Magi ” of the Scriptures. Tike 
the Koran of Mohammed, the Zendavesta is 
made up of the so-called inspired visions of 
the prophet Zoroaster, who preached Mono¬ 
theism (one God), added to which were 
the principles of Good and Evil, having 
power over Men, the Good being recognized 
in the blazing flame, the Evil in the burned- 
out wood or charcoal; Night and Day, 
Sleeping and Waking, Death and Fife. 
The Fire-Worshippers believed in the res¬ 
urrection of the body, and held the idea of a 
Messiah, who was to be the awakener and 
mediator ; they also recognized the doctrine 
of future rewards and punishments, and the 
efficacy of the prayers of the Good, who 


would become immortal, while for the 
wicked the end was annihilation. 

Buddhism is the religion of China, 
Japan, the Malay Peninsula, and the Poly¬ 
nesian Islands, and governs the largest 
number of souls of any existing faith. 
Buddhism originated in northern Hindu¬ 
stan, in the sixth century B. C., and was 
founded by a Prince Siddhartha, Gautama, 
or Sakya (see Arnold’s “ Light of Asia ”). 
To this prince, after the period of his ascetic 
and mendicant life, was given the name 
“Buddha,” meaning, “he to whom truth 
is known,” and from which is derived the 
name of the sect. The Buddhist faith is 
based upon belief in the doctrine of the 
transmigration of souls, by which every in¬ 
dividual changes the nature of his existence 
at death, for better or for worse, in accord¬ 
ance with his behavior during that exist¬ 
ence, being thus exalted or degraded, 
through all imaginable forms, from a clod 
to a divinity. This faith accepts no ulti¬ 
mate creator, and only finds final rest or 
happiness in annihilation. 

riohammedanism. 

Though founded nearly 600 years after 
Christianity, Mohammedanism is a religion 
of the sword, conquering the mind and body 
rather than winning the heart. 

The Mohammedan religion was started 
by Mohammed, of the tribe of Koreish, who 
was born in Mecca in 570 A. d., though it 
was not until he had reached his fortieth 
year that he first discovered the gift of 
prophecy, and began to see visions. He 
thereafter preached the doctrines which he 
claimed to have received by direct inspira¬ 
tion, and which are contained in the Koran, 
of which translations in French, English, 
and German can be found in the public 
libraries. Mohammedanism is made up of 
parts of Judaism and Christianity, the theory 
of its founder being that he was one (but 
the greatest) of a series of prophets, includ¬ 
ing both Abraham and Christ. It comprises 
belief in one God—‘ ‘ there is no God but 
God, and Mohammed is God’s Apostle.” 
It also peoples the unknown universe with 
angels—good and evil, and accepts the 
resurrection and the final judgment. It 




590 


FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS 


establishes a Paradise and seven Hells, the 
lowest and deepest of which is for the 
“Hypocrites: those who, outwardly pro¬ 
fessing a religion, in reality had none.” 
The Mohammedan belief further recognizes 
the inutility of ‘ ‘ works ’ ’ in influencing the 
final condition of man, assuming that it is 
not by these, but by God’s mercy, that he 
is saved, and not damned. Predestination 
is a part of the creed, man’s whole life and 
destiny being prefigured by Fate (Kismet). 
The efficacy of prayer is, however, estab¬ 
lished, and this form of worship enjoined 
upon “the Faithful;” this, with the sen¬ 
sual nature and characteristics of the Mo¬ 
hammedan Paradise, completes a superficial 
view of the peculiarities of this religion, as 
presented in the Koran. 

Fetishism is still practiced by certain 
tribes in Africa and by the Indians of the 
Arctic regions of America. 

Curiosities of the Bible. 

There is no date from beginning to end in 
the Bible. It comprises sixty-six docu¬ 
ments, or books and is supposed to have 
been written by about forty men; The 
Book of Isaiah has sixty-six chapters; 
fifty-four miracles are recorded in the Old and 
fifty-one in the New Testament; total 105. 
The shortest verse in the Old Testament is 
“Remember Tot’s wife.” The shortest 
one in the New Testament is John xi. 35, 
“Jesus wept,” in point of words, but not 
in letters, another verse is as short, viz : 
Thessalonians v. 16, “Rejoice evermore.” 
The longest verse is the ninth verse of the 
eighth chapter of Esther. Then there is 
one book, Esther, in which the Deity is 
not mentioned. 

The Bible contains 3,566,480 letters, 
773,746 words, 31,173 verses, 1,189 chapters 
and sixty-six books. The word “and” 
occurs 46,277 times. The word “Lord” 
occurs 1,855 times. The word ‘ ‘ Reverend ’ ’ 
occurs but once, which is in the ninth verse 
of the 1 nth Psalm. The middle verse is 
the eighth verse of the 118th Psalm. The 
21 st verse of the seventh chapter of Ezra 
contains all the letters of the alphabet, except 
the letter J. There are no words or names 
of more than six syllables. 


A Description of Hount Ararat. 

Ararat is divided into two peaks, Great 
Ararat on the northwest and Little Ararat’ 
on the southwest, whose bases blend while 
their summits are seven miles apart. The 
summit of Great Ararat is placed at 17,323 
feet above the level of the sea, and 14,320 
above its base; and for more than 3,000 feet 
below the summit it is always covered with 
ice and snow. Little Ararat is 13,000 feet 
above the sea level. The apex of Great 
Ararat was visited by Parrot, October 9, 
1829. Dr. Schaff, in common with Smith, 
says that Ararat in Scripture refers to the 
lofty plateau or mountain-highlands which 
overlook the plain of the Araxes. The same 
authority states that the mountains of 
Ararat (Gen. viii. 4) more properly refer to 
the entire range of elevated tableland in that 
portion of the Armenia, and that upon some 
lower part of this range, rather than upon 
the high peaks, the ark more probably 
rested ; and the following reasons are given 
in support of this view: This plateau or 
range is about 6,000 or 7,000 feet high; it is 
equally distant from the Euxine and the 
Caspian Seas, and between the Persian Gulf 
and the Mediterranean, and hence a central 
point for the dispersion of the race; the 
region is volcanic in its origin, does not rise 
into sharp crests, but has broad plains separ¬ 
ated by subordinate ranges of mountains; 
and the climate is temperate, grass and grain 
are abundant, and the harvests are quick in 
nature. These facts, he believes, illustrate 
the Bible narrative. 

New Testament Chronology. 

First published in 1899 by Zahn, the 
greatest of German Biblical scholars. 

Year 
a. D. 

Death and resurrection of Christ . . 30 

Events recorded, Acts i-viii. . . . 1-34 

Conversion of St. Paul. 35 

Three years’ sojourning of Paul in 
Damascus, interrupted once by a 
journey to Arabia, flight from 
Damascus. First visit to Jerusa¬ 
lem, and stay at Tarsus. 38 

Peter at Joppa and Caesarea, . ... 40 

Luke a church member at Antioch, 

Paul brought from Tarsus to 




FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS 


59i 


Antioch, by Barnabas, either the 

summer or autumn of. 

Death of Tames, son of Zebedee. 
Imprisonment of Peter. .Flight of 
the latter and other prophets from 

Jerusalem. 

Visit of Peter and others from Jeru¬ 
salem to Antioch. Letter of St. 

James. 

First mission tour of Paul, spring 50 

to fall. 

Apostles convene in Jerusalem, be¬ 
ginning of.. . 

Start of second mission tour of St. 

Paul, spring of. 

Arrival at Corinth, about November, 
Epistle to the Galatians, beginning of 
First Epistle to the Thessalonians, 

spring of. 

Second Epistle to the Thessalonians, 

summer. 

Journey from Corinth to Ephesus, 
before Pentecost, about May . . 
Beginning of the third mission tour 
from Antiochia to Ephesus, prob¬ 
ably summer. 

Arrival at Ephesus, about February, 
Short visit to Corinth, from Ephesus. 
Last Epistle of St. Paul to the 
Corinthians, end of 56 or begin¬ 
ning of. 

Letter of the Corinthians to St. Paul. 
First Epistle of Paul to the Corin¬ 
thians, Easter. 

Departure of Paul and Timothy from 
Ephesus by way of Troas to Mace¬ 
donia, about or after Pentecost . . 
Second Epistle to the Corinthians, 
about November or December . . 
Journey of Paul from Macedonia to 
Corinth, about New Year . . . 
Epistle to the Romans during a three 
months’ stay in Greece and Corinth 
Journey by way of Macedonia, Troas, 
Miletus, etc., to Jerusalem, and 
beginning of Captivity in Caesarea. 

Defense before Festus. 

Departure from Caesarea, September. 
Arrival at Rome, March . • . . 

Epistles to the Ephesians, Collos- 
sians, and Philemon, summer of . 
Second Epistle of St. Peter .... 
Matthew writes his Aramaic Gospel. 

38 C 


Epistle to Philippians, summer of . 63 

Paul free again, late in summer of . 63 

Journey of Paul to Spain, fall 63 or 

spring. 64 

Arrival of Peter in Rome, fall 63 or 

spring. 64 

First Epistle of Peter, spring of . . 64 

Mark in Rome, engaged on the com¬ 
pletion of his Gospel, summer of . 64 

Persecution under Nero and cruci¬ 
fixion of Peter, fall of. 64 

Return of Paul from Spain and visita¬ 
tion of the Eastern congregation, 

I Timothy and Titus, spring to fall 65 

of Stay at Nicopolis, winter of . . . 65-66 

Return of Paul to Rome, spring of . 66 

Arrest of Paul. II Timothy ; sum¬ 
mer of. 66 

Paul beheaded, end of 66 or begin¬ 
ning of. 67 

Publication of Gospel of Mark, be¬ 
ginning . 67 

Departure of St. John and other 
Apostles to the province of Asia, 

beginning of. 68 

Epistle of Jude, beginning .... 75 

Gospel and Acts of St. Luke, begin¬ 
ning . 75 

Epistle to the Hebrews, beginning . 80 

Origin of the Greek Matthew, be¬ 
ginning . 85 

Gospel and the Epistles of John, be¬ 
tween . 80-90 

Apocalypse of St. John, beginning . 95 

Death of St. John, beginning ... 100 


Supposed Fate of the Apostles. 

The following brief history of the fate of 
the Apostles may be new to those whose 
reading has not been evangelical: 

St. Matthew is supposed to have suf¬ 
fered martyrdom,or was slain with the sword 
in a city of Ethiopia. 

St. Mark was dragged through the streets 
of Alexandria, in Egypt, till he expired. 

St. Luke was hanged upon an olive tree 
in Greece. 

St. John was put in a caldron of boiling 
oil at Rome and escaped death. He after¬ 
ward died a natural death at Ephesus in 
Asia. 

St. James the Great was beheaded at 
Jerusalem. 


43 

44 

50 

5 i 

52 

52 

52 

53 

53 

53 

54 

54 

55 

57 

57 

57 

57 

58 

58 

58 

60 

60 

61 

62 

62 

62 


























592 


FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS 


St. James the Less was thrown from a. 
pinnacle or wing of the temple and then 
beaten to death with a fuller’s club. 

St. Philip was hanged up against a pillar 
at Hieropolis, a city of Phrygia. 

St. Bartholomew was flayed alive by the 
command of a barbarous king. 

St. Andrew was bound to a cross, whence 
he preached unto the people till he expired. 

St. Thomas was run through the body 


with a lance at Coromandel, in the Fast 
Indies. 

St. Jude was shot to death with arrows. 

St. Simon Zealot was crucified in Persia. 

St. Matthias was first stoned and then 
beheaded. 

St. Barnabas was stoned to death by 
Jews at Salania. 

St. Paul was beheaded at Rome by the 
tyrant Nero. 


ABOUT BOOKS AND WRITERS OF BOOKS 


Names for Different Sizes of Books. 

The name indicates the number of pages 
in the sheet, thus : In a folio book, 4 pages 
or 2 leaves = 1 sheet; a quarto, or 4to., 
has 8 pages or 4 leaves to a sheet; an octavo, 
or 8vo., 16 pages or 8 leaves to a sheet. 
In a i2mo., 24 pages or 12 leaves =1 
sheet, and the i8mo., 36 pages or 18 leaves 
= 1 sheet, and so on. The following are 
the approximate sizes of books : 


Demy. 

Super Imp. Quarto (4 to) 


19 

inches 

X 12 

18 

4 < 

X 11 

I5}4 

44 

XI3 

I2>£ 

4 < 

X 

10 

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Assumed Names of Well-known 
Writers. 

Many of the greatest men and women of 
the literary world have placed upon the title 
pages of their books, and signed their con¬ 
tributions with an assumed name, or nom de 
plume. The following table will identify 
most of such authors of note. For conve¬ 
nience, the men and women writers are en¬ 
tered on separate lists : 


NOM DR PlrfUME. 

A Country Parson, 
Agate, 

Alfred Crowquill, 
Americus, 

Artemus Ward, 

Asa Trenchard, 

Barry Cornwall, 

Benauly, 

Besieged Resident, 

Bill Arp, 

Blythe White, Jr., 
Bookworm, 

Boston Bard, 

Boz, 

Brick Pomeroy, 
Burleigh, 

Burlington, 

Carl Benson, 

Chartist Parson, 

Chinese Philosopher, 
Chrystal Croftangry, 
Country Parson, 
Danbury Newsman, 
Diedrich Knickerbocker 
Dow, Jr., 

Dr. Syntax, 

Dunn Browne, 

Edmund Kirke, 

Elia, 

Eli Perkins, 

English Opium-Eater, 
Ettrick Shepherd, 
Eugene Pomeroy, 
Falcoubridge, 

Fat Contributor, 

Father Prout, 

Frank Forrester, 

Gath, also Laertes, 

Geoffrey Crayon, 

George Fitzboodle, 
George Forest, 

Hans Breitmann, 

Hans Yokel, 

Harry Hazell, 


REAI, NAMR. 

Archbishop Whately. 
Whitelaw Reid. 

A. H. Forrester. 

Dr. Francis Lieber. 
Charles F. Browne. 
Henry Watterson. 

Bryan Walter Proctor. 
Benjamin Austin, and 
Lyman Abbott. 

Henry Labouchere. 
Charles H. Smith. 

Solon Robinson. 

Thomas F. Donnelly. 
Robert S. Coffin. 

Charles Dickens. 

Mark M. Pomeroy. 
Rev. Matthew Hale 
Smith. 

Robert Saunders. 

Charles A. Bristed. 

Rev. Charles Kingsley. 
Oliver Goldsmith. 

Sir Walter Scott. 

A. K. H. Boyd. 

J. M. Bailey. 

, Washington Irving. 
Elbridge G. Page. 
William Combe. 

Rev. Samuel Fiske. 
James Roberts Gilmore. 
Charles Lamb. 

Matthew D. Landon. 
Thomas DeQuincey. 
Janies Hogg. 

Thomas F. Donnelly. 
Jonathan F. Kelly. 

A. M. Griswold. 

Francis Mahoney. 

Henry W. Herbert, 
f George Alfred Town- 
1 send. 

Washington Irving. 
William M. Thackeray. 
Rev. J. G. Wood. 

Charles Godfrey Leland. 
A. Oakley Hall. 

Justin Jones. 

























FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS 


NOM DE PLUME- 
Harry Lorrequer, 
Hibernicus, 

Historicus, 

Hosea Bigelow, 
Howadji, 

Howard, 

Hyperion, 

Ik Marvel, 

Irenaeus, 

Isabel, 

Janus, 

Jay Charlton, 

Jedediah Cleishbotham, 
John Chalkhill, 

John Darby, 


REAL NAME- 
Charles Lever. 

De Witt Clinton, 
f William G. Vernon Har- 
\ court. 

James Russell Lowell. 
George William Curtis. 
Mordecai Manuel Noah. 
Josiah Quincy. 

Donald G. Mitchell, 
f Rev. S. Irenseus Prime, 
\ D. D. 

William Gilmore Simms. 
Dr. Dollinger. 

J. C. Goldsmith. 

Sir Walter Scott. 

Izaak Walton. 

J. C. Garretson. 

C. H. Webb. 


John Paul, 

John Phoenix,Gentleman,George H. Derby. 

Josh Billings, Henry W. Shaw. 

Joshua Coffin, H. W. Longfellow. 

Kirwan, Rev. Nicholas Murray. 

K. N. Pepper, James M. Morris. 

Laicus, Rev. Lyman Abbott. 

Launcelot Wagstaffe, Jr., Charles Mackay. 


Lemuel Gulliver, 

Major Jack Downing, 
Mark Twain, 

Max Adler, 

M. Quad, 

Mrs. Partington, 

M. T. Jug, 

Ned Buntline, 

Nym Crinkle, 

Old Bachelor, 

Old Cabinet, 

Old Humphrey, 

Old ’Un, 

Oliver Optic, 

Ollapod, 

Orpheus C. Kerr, 

Owen Meredith, 

Parson Brownlow, 

Paul Creyton, 

Pen Holder, 

Pequot, 

Perley, 

Peter Parley. 

Peter Pindar, 

Petroleum V . Nasby, 
Phoenix, 

Poor Richard, 

Porte Crayon, 

Private Miles O’Reilly, 
Robinson Crusoe, 
Runnyinede, 

Rustic Bard, 

Sam Slick, 
Sparrowgras, 
Teufelsdroeckh, 
Teutha, 

The Black Dwarf, 

The Celt, 


Jonathan Swift. 

Seba Smith. 

Samuel L. Clemens. 
Charles H. Clark. 

Charles B. Lewis. 

B. P. Shillaber. 

Joseph Howard. 

Edward Z. C. Judson. 

A. C- Wheeler. 

George William Curtis. 

R. Watson Gilder. 
George Mogridge. 

/ Francis Alexander Duri- 
l vage. 

William Taylor Adams. 
Willis G. Clark. 

Robert H. Newell. 

Lord Lytton. 

JWm. Gunnaway Brown¬ 
ie low. 

J. T. Trowbridge. 

Rev. Edward Eggleston. 
Charles W. March. 

Benj. Perley Poore. 

S. C. Goodrich. 

Dr. John Wolcot. 

D. R. Locke. 

Sir Henry Martin. 
Benjamin Franklin. 
David H. Strother. 
Charles G. Halpine. 
Daniel Defoe. 

Lord Beaconsfield. 
Robert Dinsmore. 
Thomas C. Halliburton. 
F. S. Cozzens. 

Thomas Carlyle. 

William Jerdan. 

Thomas J. Wooler. 
Thomas Davis. 


NOM DE PLUME. 
The Druid, 

The Governor, 

The Traveller. 
Theodore Taylor, 
Thomas Ingoldsby, 
Thomas Little, 
Thomas Rowley, 
Tiinon Fieldmouse, 
Timothy Tickler, 
Timothy Titccmb, 
Tom Brown, 

Tom Folio, 

Tom Hawkins, 
Trinculo, 

Tristam Merton, 

Two Brothers, 
Ubique, 

Uncle Hardy, 

Uncle John, 

Uncle Philip, 

Uncle Toby, 

Veteran Observer, 
Vigilant, 

Vivian, 

Vivian Joyeux, 
Walter Maynard, 
Warhawk, 
Warrington, 
Warwick, 

Waters, 

What’s His Name, 
Wilibald, Alexis, 
Wizard, 


NOM DE PLUME. 


Amy Lothrop, 
American Girl Abroad, 
Aunt Kitty, 

Aunt Mary, 

Christopher Crowfield, 


Cousin Alice, 

Cousin Kate, 

Charles Egbert Craddoc 

Currer Bell, 


{ 


Dolores, 

E. D. E. N. 

Eleanor Kirke, 
Elizabeth Wetherell, 
Eila Rodman, 

Ellis Bell, 

Fanny Fern, 

Fanny Fielding, 
Fanny Forester, 

Florence Percy, 

Gail Hamilton, 
George Eliot, 

George Sand, 

Grace Greenwood, 
Grace Wharton, 
Harriet Myrtle, 


593 

REAL NAME. 

Henry H. Dixon. 

Henry Morford. 

Isaac Stary. 

J. C. Hotten. 

Rev. R. H. Barham. 
Thomas Moore. 

Thomas Chatterton. 
William B. Rands. 

Robert Syme. 

Dr. J. G. Holland. 

Thomas Hughes. 

Joseph E. Babson. 
Theodore W. A. Buckley. 
John A. Cockerill. 

Thomas B. Macaulay. 

A. and C. Tennyson. 
Parker Gilmore. 

William Senior. 

Elisha Noyce. 

Rev. Dr. F. L. Hawks. 
Rev. Tobias H. Miller. 

E- D. Mansfield. 

John Corlett. 

George H. Lewes. 

W. M. Praed. 

William Beale. 

William Palmer. 

W. P. Robinson. 

F. O. Otterson. 

William H. Russell. 

E. C. Massey. 

William Haering. 

John Corlett. 

REAL NAME. 

Miss Anna B. Warner. 
Miss Trafton. 

MariaJ. Mackintosh. 
Mary A. Lathbury. 

Mrs. Harriet Beecher 
Stowe. 

Mrs. Alice B. Haven. 
Catherine D. Bell. 

:,Miss Murfree. 

Charlotte Bronte (Mrs. 

Nichols.) * 

Miss Dickson. 

Mrs. Emma D. E. N. 

South worth. 

Mrs. Nolly Ames. 

Susan Warner. 

Mrs. Eliza Rodman. 
Emily J, Bronte. 

Mrs. James Parton. 

Mary J. S. Upsher. 

Emily C- Judson. 

Mrs. Elizabeth Akers 
L Allen. 

Miss Mary Abigail Dodge. 
Mrs. Marian Lewes Cross. 
f Mine. Amantine Lucille 
( Aurore Dudevant. 

Mrs. Sarah J. Lippincott. 
A. T. Thompson. 

Mrs. Lydia F. F. Miller. 





'594 


FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS 


NOM DE PLUME- 
Hesba Stretton, 
Howard Glyndon, 

Ian the, 

Jennie June, 

John Oliver Hobbs, 
John Strange Winter, 
Kate Campbell, 
Louise Muhlbach, 
Marion Harland, 
Minnie Myrtle, 
Mintwood, 

Octave Thanet, 
Olivia, 

Ouida, 

Patty Lee, 

Perdita, 

Saxe Holm, 

Shirley Dare, 

Sophie May, 

Sophie Sparkle, 
Straws, Jr., 

Susan Coolidge, 

Una, 


REAL NAME. 

Miss Hannah Smith. 
Laura C. Redden. 
Emma C. Embury. 

Mrs. Jennie C. Croly. 
Mrs. Perry Cragie. 

Mrs. Stannard. 

Jane Elizabeth Lincoln. 
Clara Mundt. 

Mary V. Terhune. 

Miss Anna C. Johnson. 
Miss Mary A. E. Wager. 
Miss Alice French. 
Emily Edson Grigg. 
Louisa De La Rame. 
Alice Cary. 

Mrs. Mary Robinson. 
Miss Rush Ellis. 

Mrs. Susan D. Waters. 
Mrs. Eckerson. 

Jennie E. Hicks. 

Kate Field. 

Miss Woolsey. 

Mary A. Ford, 


Great Men’s Reading. 

Beethoven was fond of history and novels. 

Cowper read only his Bible and his 
prayer-book. 

Hallam said that Livy was the model 
historian. 

Chopin rarely read anything heavier 
than a French novel. 

Auber hated reading, and never read 
save tinder compulsion. 

Caesar Borgia had a library of works 
relating mostly to art. 

Titian read his player-b.ook and the 
Metamorphoses of Ovid. 

Voltaire’s favorite classical author was 
Juvenal, the satirist. 

Rossini, for nearly thirty years, read 
nothing but French novels. 

Jean Paul Richter had only five or six 
books, all philosophical. 

Paul Veronese thought there was no 
book equal to the “iEneid.” 

Ford Clive said that ‘ ‘ Robinson Crusoe ’ ’ 
beat any book he ever read. 

Franklin read all he could find relating 
to political economy and finance. 

Michael Angelo was fondest of the Books 
of Moses and the Psalms of David. 

Bach was no great reader, but much 
enjoyed books of jokes and funny stories. 

Hogarth was fond of joke-books and 
farces, and enjoyed them immoderately. 

Cherubini was a lover of botany, and 


made collections of works on the subject. 

Mario, the great tenor, read anything he 
could obtain relating to sports or hunting. 

George III., for many years of his life, 
read nothing but his Bible and prayer-book. 

“Papa” Hadyn liked stories, and he 
said, “ The more love there is in them the 
better. ’ ’ 

St. John Chrysostom never tired of read¬ 
ing or of praising the works of the Apostle 
John. 

Da Vinci read Pindar, and thought him 
the noblest poet who ever wrote in any 
language. 

Swift made a special study of the Latin 
satirists, and imitated their style and lan¬ 
guage. 

Heine seldom read anything but poetry, 
but he read that with the most scrupulous 
attention. 

Baxter read only the Bible, and best 
enjoyed the Prophecies of Isaiah and the 
Psalms. 

Wordsworth was fond of the poetry of 
Burns, but said the latter was too rough 
and uncouth. 

Moliere was a reader of romances. His 
plays give many evidences of his excellent 
memory. 

Wagner was a close student of musical 
history, and made that line of reading a 
specialty. 

Bulwer - Lytton’s favorite author was 
Horace. He always carried a small edition 
in his pocket. 

Charles II., of England, delighted in 
Chaucer, and thought him the greatest poet 
that ever lived. 

Carlyle had a very large library, relating 
principally to German and French literature 
and history. 

Lablache, the stout basso, was a student 
of botany, and had quite a collection of 
botanical works. 

Tennyson was a close student of the old 
English tales, and had a large library of such 
literature. 

Landseer was a student of anatomy and 
zoology, and made collections of books on 
these subjects. 

James I., of England, was a lover of the 
classics, and very familiar with most of the 
Latin writers. 



FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS 


595 


Bunyan read little besides his Bible, and 
often said that Christians would do well to 
read no other book. 

Vandyke, the painter, was fond oi the 
Decameron, and often, in conversation, 
quoted from its pages. 

Bolingbroke was a warm admirer of the 
French philosophical writers, and had a 
large collection of their works. 

Hannah More made a collection of edu¬ 
cational works, and read extensively on the 
line of female education. 

Cardinal Richelieu once said that Tibul¬ 
lus, the Latin erotic poet, was the most 
natural of all the ancients. 

Louis XIV. thought that Ovid’s “Art 
of Love ’ ’ was one of the most charming 
books that had ever been written. 

Goethe once said that his literary life was 
determined oy a volume of folk-lore tales he 
read when a child. 

Julius Caesar was a close student of 
Homer, and said that all military science 
was comprised in its pages. 

David, the French historical painter, was 
a student of French history, to the exclu¬ 
sion of almost all other reading. 

Salvator Rosa liked any kind of poetry, 
but more especially that relating to the 
country or to country scenes. 

Mrs. Siddons gave much attention to the 
history of the drama, and had an extensive 
library of this kind of matter. 

Tolstoi is said to have a large library of 
sociology, and to read attentively any book 
bearing on some new social fad. 

Addison’s specialty was the history of 
medals and coins, and he eagerly perused 
anything treating of this subject. 

Mendelssohn was a close student of Jew¬ 
ish history and remarkably well informed as 
to every particular of Jewish annals. 

Twelve Greatest Books of the 
Nineteenth Century. 

The following are generally conceded to 
be the twelve greatest books of the nine¬ 
teenth century: Darwin’s, “ Origin of the 
Species Hegel’s “ Logic,” and “ Philos¬ 
ophy of Religion;” Goethe’s, “Faust;” 
Emerson’s, “Essays;” Harriet Beecher 
Stowe’s,” Uncle Tom’s Cabin ;” Sir Walter 


Scott’s, “Historical Novels;” William 
Wordsworth’s, “Poems;” Alfred Tenny¬ 
son’s, “In Memoriam;” Victor Hugo’s, 
“Les Miserables John Ruskin’s,“Modern 
Painters;” Thomas Carlyle’s, “Sartor Re- 
sartus ;” Strauss’, “ Life of Jesus.” 

Newspapers in the United States and the 
World. 

In 1775 there were only twenty-seven 
newspapers published in the United States. 
Ten years later, in 1785, there were seven 
published in the English language in Phila¬ 
delphia alone, of which one was a daily. 
The oldest newspaper published in Phila¬ 
delphia at the time of the Federal conven¬ 
tion was the Pennsylvania Gazette , estab¬ 
lished by Samuel Keimer, in 1728. The 
second newspaper in point of age was the 
Pe?insylva 7 iia Journal, established in 1742 
by William Bradford, whose uncle, Andrew 
Bradford, established the first newspaper in 
Pennsylvania, the American Weekly Mercury , 
in 1719. Next in age, but the first in im¬ 
portance, was the Pennsylvania Packet , 
established by John Dunlap in 1771- In 
1784 it became a daily, being the first daily 
newspaper printed on this continent. 

Statistics for the Year 19oo. 

Rowell’s “American Newspaper Direc¬ 
tory ” for 1900 reports the number of news¬ 
papers published in the United States and 
Canada as 21,789. Of these, 924 were Can¬ 
adian publications. The following was 
the frequency of issue: Weekly, 15 , 375 ; 
monthly, 2,939; daily, 2,279; semi-monthly,, 
296; semi-weekly, 470; quarterly, 180; bi¬ 
weekly, 76; bi-monthly, 68; tri-weekly, 52 
'—total, 21,789. 

The total number of newspapers puo- 
lished in the world at present is estimated 
at about 50,000, distributed as follows: 
United States and Canada, 21,789; Ger¬ 
many, 7,000; Great Britain, 9,000; France* 
4,300; Japan, 2,000; Italy, 1,500; Austria- 
Hungary, 1,200; Asia, exclusive of Japan, 
1,000; Spain, 850; Russia, 800; Australia, 
800 ; Greece, 600 ; Switzerland, 450 ; Hol¬ 
land, 300; Belgium, 300; all others, 1,000. 
Of these more than half are printed in the 
English language. 



596 


FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS 


Lubbock’s List of the Hundred Best 
Books. 

The Bible. 

Confucius, Analects. 

Aristotle, Ethics. 

Apostolic Fathers. 

Pascal, PensSes. 

Comte, Positive Philosophy. 

Jeremy Taylor, Holy Living. 

Keble, Christian Year. 

Plato’s Dialogues. 

Demosthenes’ De Corona. 

Horace, Poems. 

Homer, Iliad and Odyssey. 

Virgil, Aeneid. 

Malory, Morte d' Arthur. 

Haha-Bharata, Ramayana. 
iEschylus, Prometheus. 

Sophocles,- Edipus , Trilogy. 
Aristophanes, The Knights. 

Xenophon, Anabasis. 

Tacitus, Germania. 

Gibbon, Decline a?id Fall. 

Grote, Greece. 

Smith, Wealth of Nations. 

Humboldt, Travels. 

Shakespeare. 

Dante, Divina Commedia. 

Dry den’s Poems. 

Gray, Poems. 

Wordsworth, Poems. 

Pope, Poems. 

Swift, Gulliver's Travels. 

A?'abian Nights. 

Burke, Political Writings. 

The English Essayists. 

Sheridan, Dramas. 

Smiles, Self Help. 

George Eliot, Adam Bede. 

Marcus Aurelius, Meditations. 

Green, Short History of England. 

Mill Logic and Political Economy. 
Descartes, Discours sur la Methode. 
Lewes, History of Philosophy. 

Goethe’s Faust and Wilhelm Meister. 
Thackeray, Vanity Fair and Pendennis. 
Bulwer-Lytton, Last Days of Pompeii. 
Thomas a Kempis, Imitation. 

Spinoza, Tractatus Theologico-Politicus. 
Bunyan, Pilgrim's Progress. 

Epictetus, Philosophy. 

(St. Hilaire), Le Bouddha. 


Mahomet, Koran. 

Butler, Analogy. 

Aristotle, Politics. 

Lucretius, Philosophical Poems . 

Plutarch, Lives. 

Nibelu 7 igen Lied. 

She-king (Chinese Odes'). 

Firdusi, Shah-Nameh. 

Trilogy , or Persae. 

Euripides, Medea. 

Herodotus, History. 

Thucydides, History. 

Livy, History. 

Hume, England. 

Bacon, Novum Organum. 

Darwin, Origin of Species. 

Locke, On the Understanding 
Cook, Voyage. 

Milton, Paradise Lost. 

Spenser, Fczrie Queene. 

Chaucer, Canterbury Tales. 

Burns, Poems. 

Scott, Poems. 

Heine, Poems and Tales. 

Goldsmith, Vicar. 

Southey, Poems. 

Defoe, Robinson Crusoe. 

Cervantes, Don Quixote. 

Boswell, fohnson. 

Moliere, Dramas. 

Voltaire, Zadig. 

Carlyle, Past and Prese?it. 

Kingsley, Westward Ho ! 

Scott, Novels. 

Kingsley, Heroes ; Water Babies. 
Hawthorne’s Tanglewood Tales. 
Hawthorne’s Wonder Book. 

Kingsley’s Madame How and Lady Why. 
Marryatt, faphet in Search of a Father. 
Alice's Adventures in Wonderland. 
Lanier, Boy's King Arthur. 

Love Me Liitle , Love Me Long. 

Irving, Knickerbocker's New York. 
Cicero, De Ojficiis , De Amicitia and De 
Senectute. 

Carlyle, French Revolution. 

Berkeley, Human Knowledge. 

Darwin, Naturalist in the Beagle. 

White, Natural History of Selbourne. 
Miss Austen, Emma , or Pride and Preju¬ 
dice. 

Dickens, Pickwick and David Copper- 
field. 



FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS 


597 


The Ten Greatest Preachers. 

Paul. 

Spurgeon. 

Whitefield. 

Beecher. 

Massillon. 

Fuller. 

Bossuet. 

Taylor. 

Luther. 

Knox. 

The Ten Greatest Philosophers. 

Aristotle. 

Descartes. 

Plato. 

Berkeley. 

Seneca. 

Hamilton. 

Bacon. 

Le Comte. 

Locke. 

Spencer. 

The Ten Greatest Reformers. 

Luther. 

Tohn Huss. 

Wycliffe. 

Savonarola. 

Calvin. 

Cranmer. 

Wesley. 

Melanchthon, 

Knox. 

Zwingli. 

The Ten Greatest Historians. 

Herodotus. 

Thucycides. 

Gibbon. 

Livy. 


THINGS REMARKA 

The Largest Bell in the world is the great 
bell of Moscow, at the foot of the Kremlin. 
Its circumference at the bottom is nearly 68 
feet, and its height more than 21 feet. In 
its stoutest part it is 23 inches thick, and its 
weight has been computed to be 443,772 
pounds. It has never been hung, and was 
probably cast on the spot where it now 
stands. A piece of the bell is broken off. 
The fracture is supposed to have been occa¬ 
sioned by water having been thrown upon it 
when heated in consequence of the building 
erected over it being on fire. 

The Largest Theatre in the world is the 
new Opera-house in Paris. It covers nearly 
three acres of ground; its cubic mass is 
4,287,000 feet; it cost about 100,000,000 
francs. The largest suspension bridge is the 
one between New York City and Brooklyn ; 
the length of the main span is 1,595 feet 6 
inches; the entire length of the bridge is 
5,980 feet. The loftiest active volcano is Po- 
pocatapetl—-‘ ‘ smoking mountain ’ ’—thirty- 
five miles southwest of Puebla, Mexico ; it 
is 17,748 feet above the sea-level, and has a 
crater three miles in circumference, and 


Hume. 

Tacitus. 

Macaulay. 

Hallam. 

Brancroft. 

Froude. 

The Ten Greatest Poets. 

Aeschylus. 

Tasso. 

Homer. 

Dante. 

Virgil. 

Milton. 

Chaucer. 

Shakespeare 

David. 

Camoens. 

The Ten Greatest 

Painters. 

Michael Angelo. 

Reynolds. 

Raphael. 

Da Vinci. 

Titian. 

Veronese. 

Rubens. 

Guido. 

West. 

Rembrandt. 

The Ten Greatest 

Sculptors. 

Phidias. 

Flaxman. 

Praxiteles. 

Thorwaldsen. 

Michael Angelo. 

Donatello. 

Cellini. 

Powers. 

Canova. 

Crawford. 


iLE AND CURIOUS 

1,000 feet deep. The longest sfan of wire in 
the world is used for a telegraph in India 
over the River Kistnah. It is more than 
6,000 feet in length, and is 1,200 feet high. 

The Greatest Fortress from a strategical 
point of view, is the famous stronghold of 
Gibraltar. It occupies a rocky peninsula 
jutting out into the sea, about three miles 
long and three-quarters of a mile wide. One 
central rock rises to a height of 1,435 feet 
above the sea-level. Its northern face is 
almost perpendicular, while its east side is 
full of tremendous precipices. On the south 
it terminates in what is called Europa Point. 
The west side is less steep than the east, and 
between its base and the sea is the narrow, 
almost level span on which the town of Gib¬ 
raltar is built. The fortress is considered 
impregnable to military assault. The regu¬ 
lar garrison in time of peace numbers about 
7,000. 

The Biggest Cavern is the Mammoth 
Cave, in Edmonson County, Kentucky. It 
is near Green River, about six miles from 
Cave City, and twenty-eight from Bowling 
Green. The cave consists of a succession of 




598 


FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS 


irregular chambers, some of which are large, 
situated on different levels. Some of these 
are traversed by the navigable branches of 
the subterranean Echo River. Blind fish 
are found in its waters. 

The Longest Tunnel in the world is that 
ol the St. Gothard, on the line of railroad be¬ 
tween Lucerne and Milan. The summit of 
the tunnel is 900 feet below the surface at 
Andermatt, and 6,600 feet beneath the peak 
of Kastlehorn, of the St. Gothard group. 
The tunnel is 26 % feet wide, and is 18 feet 
10 inches from the floor to the crown of the 
arched roof. It is 9^ miles long. 

The Biggest Trees in the world are the 
mammoth trees of California. One of a 
grove in Tulare County, according to meas¬ 
urements made by members of the State 
Geological Survey, was shown to be 276 
feet in height, 108 feet in circumference at 
base, and 76 feet at a point 12 feet above 
ground. Some of the trees are 376 feet 
high, and 34 feet in diameter. Some of the 
largest that have been felled indicate an age 
of from 2,000 to 2,500 years. 

The Largest Library is the Bibliotheque 
National, in Paris, founded by Louis XIV. 
It contains 1,400,000 volumes, 300,000 pam¬ 
phlets, 173,000 manuscripts, 300,000 maps 
and charts, and 150,000 coins and medals. 
The collection of engravings exceeds 1,300,- 
000, contained in some 10,000 volumes. 

The Largest Desert is that of Sahara, a 
vast region of Northern Africa, extending 
from the Atlantic Ocean on the west to the 
valley of the Nile on the east. The length 
from east to west is about 3,000 miles, its 
average breadth about 900 miles, its area 
about 2,000,000 square miles. In summer 
the heat during the day is excessive, but 
the nights are often cold. 

First Things. 

The first steamboat plied the Hudson in 
1807. 

The first sawmakers’ anvil was brought 
to America in 1819. 

The first use of a locomotive in this 
country was in 1820. 

Kerosene was first used for lighting pur¬ 
poses in 1826. 

The first horse railroad was built in 
1826-7. 


The first lucifer match was made in 

1829. 

The first iron steamship was built in 

1830. 

The first steel pen was made in 1830. 

Omnibuses were introduced in New 
York in 1830. 

Ships were first ‘ ‘ copper-bottomed ’ ’ in 
1837- 

Envelopes were first used in 1839. 

Anaesthetics were discovered in 1844. 

The first steel-plate was made in 1830. 

The entire Hebrew Bible was printed in 
1488. 

Gold was first discovered in California 
in 1848. 

Christianity was introduced into Japan 
in 1549. 

First almanac printed by George Von 
Furback in 1460. 

Percussion arms were used in the United 
States Army in 1830. 

The first glass factory in the United 
States was built in 1780. 

The first complete sewing-machine was 
patented by Elias Howe, Jr., in 1846. 

The first temperance society in this 
country was organized in Saratoga County, 
N. Y., in March, 1808. 

The first daily newspaper appeared in 
1702. The first newspaper printed in the 
United States was published in Boston on 
September 25, 1790. 

The first telegraph instrument was suc¬ 
cessfully operated by S. F. B. Morse, the 
inventor, in 1835, though its utility was not 
demonstrated to the world until 1842. 

The first Union flag was unfurled on the 
1st of January, 1776, over the camp at Cam¬ 
bridge. It had thirteen stripes of white 
and red, and retained the English cross in 
one corner. 

When Captain Cook first visited Tahiti, 
the natives were using nails of wood, bone, 
shell, and stone. When they saw iron nails, 
they fancied them to be shoots of some very 
hard wood, and, desirous of securing such 
a valuable commodity, they planted them 
in their gardens. 

In 1750 the “shoe-black” came into 
vogue. The poet Gay, in his day, refers to 
the business, and describes a mother as in¬ 
structing her son in this calling. 




Connecting the Mediterranean and Red Seas. Was projected by the great engineer, Ferdinand de Lesseps, and completed in 1869. It is ninety-two miles long, 195 to 325 feet broad, 

and 30 feet deep, and cost about $102,750,000. 



























TOPOGRAPHICAL VIEW OF NICARAGUA CANAL ROUTE 

Projected to connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, using the waters of Lake Nicaragua. Total distance from ocean to ocean 189.9 miles; depth of canal, 30 feet; least width at bottom 

100 feet; time transit from ocean to ocean, 44 hours; length of Lake Nicaragua, 110 miles ; average width, 40 miles ; surface area, about 2,600 square miles ; 

area of watershed of lake, about 8,000 square miles. 










FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS 


599 


The 19th Century in a Nutshell. 

The Nineteenth century received from its 
predecessors the horse; we bequeathed the 
bicycle, the locomotive, and the motor car. 

We received the goose quill and be¬ 
queathed the typewriter. 

We received the scythe and bequeathed 
the mowing machine. 

We received the hand printing press ; 
we bequeathed the cylinder press. 

We received the painted canvas; we 
bequeathed lithography, photography and 
color photography. 

We received the hand-loom; we be¬ 
queathed the cotton and woolen factory. 

We received gunpowder ; we bequeathed 
lyddite. 

We received the tallow dip; we be¬ 
queathed the electric lamp. 

We received the galvanic battery ; we 
bequeathed the dynamo. 

We received the flint-lock; we bequeathed 
Maxims. 

We received the sailing ship ; we be¬ 
queathed the steamship. 

We received the beacon signal fire; we 
bequeathed the telephone and wireless teleg¬ 
raphy. 

We received ordinary light; we be¬ 
queathed Roentgen rays. 

The Paris Exposition of 1900. 

The Paris Universal International Ex¬ 
position of 1900 was formally declared open 
by President Eoubet April 14, and closed 
its doors November 12. During its exist¬ 
ence 50,000,000 paying visitors passed 
through its gates. The largest attendance 
in one day was 600,000. (The number of 
paying visitors at the Chicago Fair of 1893 
was 27,529,000 ; the largest number of visit¬ 
ors in one day over 700,000.) The French 
exhibitors at Paris were naturally the most 
numerous and received the largest number 
of prizes, but the following is a statement 
of the awards to the exhibitors of the four 
foreign nations having the largest repre¬ 
sentation : 

In the electrical department, Group 5, the 
United States led the world, receiving 94 awards, 
of which 6 were grand prizes. Germany came 
next in this section, but received only 49 prizes. 

In transportation the United States led, receiv¬ 
ing 130 awards, with Germany next, 123 prizes, and 


Great Britain third, having 119 prizes. There 
were many surprises when the final awards were 
made, and none more so than in the Department 
of Foodstuffs, Group 10, in which Italy surpassed 
all other nations, with 306 awards. The United 
States came fifth, with 177 awards. 


Nation. 

.X 

P4 

S3 

<3 

O 

Gold. 

Silver. 

Bronze. 

Honorable 

Mention. 

Total 

Awards. 

Total No. Ex¬ 

hibitors. 

United States 

215 

547 

593 

501 

348 

2,204 

6,916 

Germany . . 

236 

5io 

575 

321 

184 

1,826 

2,689 

England . . 

183 

406 

5 U 

410 

208 

E 727 

2,959 

Russia . . . 

209 

346 

411I 

1 321 

206 

D 493 I 

2,285 


In Group 11, Mining and Metallurgy, the United 
States surpassed all nations. This American dis¬ 
play was a magnificent one, commanding the ad¬ 
miration of every visitor, and the awards were 133, 
of which 34 were grand prizes. 

The jury of final appeal in the matter of prizes 
to be awarded by the Exposition Management 
closed its work in September. The statement pre¬ 
pared for the United States committee shows that 
America received the highest number of awards of 
any nation save France, and that she also received 
more awards in each classification, except grand 
prizes, in which Germany secured 236, against the 
United States 215. These figures, excepting for 
France, are shown in above table. 

Owners of Land in America. 

Nearly 22,000,000 acres of land are 
owned by men who owe allegiance to other 
governments. To be exact, there are 
21,241,900 acres of land under the direct 
control and management of thirty foreign 
individuals or companies. There are 2,720,- 
283 acres of land in Massachusetts, so that 
the men living in other countries and owing 
allegiance to other powers own land enough 
to make about ten States like Massachusetts, 
more than the whole of New England, more 
land than some governments own to sup¬ 
port a king. The largest amount of land 
owned by any one man or corporation is 
by a company called the Holland Land 
Company. There is twice as much land 
owned by aliens in the United States as 
there is owned by Englishmen in Ireland. 

Principal Battles of the Civil War. 

Dates, Commanders, and Number 
Killed on Both Sides. 

Bull Run (first), July 21, 1861—North, 
General McDowell; killed, 481; South, 






















6oc 


FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS 


General Beauregard ; killed, 269. Shiloh, 
April 7, 1862—North, General Grant; 

killed, 1,735; South, General A. S. John¬ 
ston; killed, 1,728. Seven Pines and Fair 
Oaks , May 31 and June 1, 1862—North, 
General McClellan; killed, 890; South, 
General J. E. Johnston ; killed, 2,800. 
Seven Days, June 25-July 1, 1862—North, 
General McClellan; killed 1582; South, 
General Lee ; killed unknown. Second Bull 
Run , August 29-30, 1862—North, General 
Pope ; South, General Lee ; no exact esti¬ 
mate. Antietam, Sept. 16 and 17, 1862— 
North, General McClellan; killed, 2,010; 
South, General Lee ; killed, 3,500. Corhith, 
October 3-4, 1862—North, General Rose- 
crams; killed, 315; South, General Van 
Dorn ; killed, 1,423. Perryville , October 8, 

1862— North, General Buell; killed, 820; 
South, General Bragg; killed, 1,300. 
Fredericksburg , December 11-15, 1862— 
North, General Burnside; killed, 1128; 
South, General Lee; killed, 1,200. Mur¬ 
freesboro, December 31, 1862, January 1, 

1863— North, General Rosecrans ; killed, 
1,474; South, General Johnston; killed, 
unknown. Chancellorville, May 2 and 3, 

1863— North, General Hooker; killed, 
1,512; South, General Lee; killed, 1,581. 
Gettysburg, July 1, 2 and 3, 1863—North, 
General Meade; killed, 2,834; South, Gen¬ 
eral Lee; killed, 3,500. Vicksburg, July 3 
and 4, 1863—North, General Grant; killed, 
545 ; South, General Pemberton; killed, 
unknown. Chickamauga , Sept. 19-23, 1863 
—North, General Thomas; killed, 1,644; 
South, General Bragg; killed, 2,389. Look¬ 
out Mountai?i and Missionary Ridge, Novem¬ 
ber 23-25, 1863—North, General Grant; 
total loss, 4,000 ; South, General Bragg ; 
total loss, 4,000. Wilderness , May 5-7, 

1864— North, General Grant; killed, un¬ 
known ; South, General Lee; killed, un¬ 
known. Spottsylvania, May 8-18, 1864— 
North, General Grant; killed, 2,261; 
South, General Lee; killed, unknown. 
Cold Harbor, June 1, 1864—North, General 
Grant; total loss, 10,000 ; • South, General 
Lee ; total loss, 8,000. Franklin, Novem¬ 
ber 30, 1864—North, General Schofield; 
killed 189; South, General Hood; killed 
1750. Nashville, December 1-14, 1864— 
North, General Thomas; total loss, 6,500 ; 


South, General Hood ; total loss, 23,000. 
Five Forks, April 1, 1865; North, General 
Grant; total loss, 7,000; South, General 
Lee ; total loss, 15,000. 

Growth of the United States. 

This country began the present century 
with 5,308,483 people. In the year 1810 
the population was 7,239,881, an increase of 
36.28 per cent.; in 1820 it was 9,633,822, 
an increase of 33.66 per cent. ; in 1830 it 
was 12,866,020, an increase of 32.51 per 
cent. ; in 1840 it was 17,069,453, an in¬ 
crease of 32.52 per cent. ; in 1850 it was 
23,191,876, an increase of 35.83 percent.; 
in i860 it was 31,443,321, an increase of 
35.11 per cent. ; in 1870 it was 38,558,371, 
an increase of 22.65 P er cent. ; in 1880 it 
was 50,154,783, an increase of 30.08 per 
cent.; in 1890itwas62,622,250, anincreaseof 
about 28 per cent. ; in 1900 it was 76,295,- 
220. This is exclusive of the islands of 
Porto Rico, the Hawaiian and the Phillip- 
pine islands, which bring about 10,000,000 
more people under our dominions. 

This great growth is shown by a few 
comparisons. The British Islands began 
the present century with three times as 
many people as the United States, and yet 
its present population is less than three- 
fifths of our own. Of all the civilized coun¬ 
tries, Russia has the most people, but at our 
rate of increase it will not be many years 
before this country passes Russia. Another 
interesting fact is that the English language 
is spreading twice as rapidly as any other 
tongue, so that the future promises to the 
United States not only leadership in popu¬ 
lation, but in the language of the world. 

In this connection it will be interesting 
to compare and note 

How the Great Powers Have Changed 

Rank in 100 Years. 

The change of the seats of power will 
be seen by a comparison of the relative 
populations of 1800 and 1900. 

In 1800 the great powers of the world were thus 
grouped: 

Russia.38,140,000 

France. 27,720,000 

Germany.22,330,000 

Austria.21,230,000 

United Kingdom. 15,570,000 








FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS 


601 


Italy.13,380,000 

Spain.10,440,000 

United States. 5,310,000 

In the year 1900 we have the following figures: 

Russia.130,896,628 

United States.76,295,220 

Germany.53,000,000 

Austria-Hungary.42,660,906 

United Kingdom. 49 . 559.954 

France . 38 , 517.975 

Italy.31,000,000 

Spain.18,250,000 


Of this population the English-speaking races 
in Great Britain and Ireland, with the Eng¬ 
lish-speaking colonies, and the United States, 
number 130,000,000, offsetting Russia’s 130,896,628. 

Politics of the Presidents. 

The subjoined table will be found inter¬ 
esting as a reference to many of our read¬ 
ers. Of course, the name of Washington 
heading the list does not mean that he was 
the candidate of any party or faction, but is 
placed there to complete the roll: 

Name. Inauguration. Politics. 

George Washington . April 30, 1789 Unanimous. 

John Adams.March 4, 1797 Federal. 

Thomas Jefferson . . . March 4, 1801 Democrat. 
James Madison . . . March 4, 1809 Democrat. 
James Monroe .... March 4, 1817 Democrat. 
John Quincy Adams . March 4, 1825 Compromise 
Andrew Jackson . . . March 4, 1829 Democrat. 
Martin Van Buren . . March 4, 1837 Democrat. 
William H. Harrison . March 4, 1841 Whig. 

John Tyler.April 6, 1841 Whig. 

James K. Polk .... March 4, 1845 Democrat. 
Zachary Taylor . . . March 5, 1849 Whig. 

Millard Fillmore . . . July 9, 1850 Whig. 

Franklin Pierce . . . March 4, 1853 Democrat. 

James Buchanan . . . March 4, 1857 Democrat. 

Abraham Lincoln . . March 4, 1861 Republican. 
Andrew Johnson . . . April 15, 1865 Republican. 

U. S. Grant.March 4, 1869 Republican. 

R. B. Hayes.March 5, 1877 Republican. 

James A. Garfield . . March 4, 1881 Republican. 
Chester A. Arthur . . Sept. 20, 1881 Republican. 
Grover Cleveland . . March 4, 1885 Democrat. 
Benj. Harrison .... March 4, 1889 Republican. 
Grover Cleveland . . . March 4, 1893 Democrat. 
William McKinley . . March 4, 1897 Republican. 
William McKinley . . March 4, 1901 Republican. 

Education of Presidents. 

Washington—Fair English education. 
Adams—Harvard College. 

Jefferson—William and Mary. 

Madison—Princeton College.' 

Adams, J. Q.—Harvard College. 
Jackson—Limited education. 

Van Buren—Academic course. 


Harrison, W. H.—Hampden College. 

Tyler—William and Mary. 

Polk—University of North Carolina. 

Taylor—Slight, the rudiments. 

Fillmore—Eimited education. 

Pierce—Bowdoin College. 

Buchanan—Dickinson College. 

Lincoln—Education limited. 

J ohnson—Self-educated. 

Grant—West Point. 

Hayes—Kenyon College. 

Garfield—Williams College. 

Arthur—Union College. 

Cleveland—Hamilton College. 

Benj. Harrison—Miami University. 

McKinley—Allegheny College. 

Religion of the Presidents. 

Washington, Garfield, and Harrison 
were the only Presidents who were church 
members, but all, one excepted, were men 
who revered Christianity. Adams married 
a minister’s daughter, and was inclined to 
Unitarianism. Jefferson was not a believer, 
at least while he was Chief Magistrate. 
Madison’s early connections were Presby¬ 
terian. Monroe is said to have favored the 
Episcopal Church. John Quincy Adams 
was like his father. Jackson was a Presby¬ 
terian and died in the communion of that 
church. Van Buren was brought up in the 
Reformed Dutch Church, but afterward in¬ 
clined to the Episcopal Church. Harrison 
leaned toward the Methodist Church, and 
Tyler was an Episcopalian. Polk was bap¬ 
tized by a Methodist preacher after his term 
of office expired. Taylor was inclined to 
the Episcopal communion. Fillmore at¬ 
tended the Unitarian Church, and Franklin 
Pierce was a member, but not a communi¬ 
cant, of a Congregational Church at Con¬ 
cord. Buchanan was a Presbyterian, as 
was also Benjamin Harrison. General 
Grant attended the Methodist Church, and 
President Garfield the Church of the Disci¬ 
ples. Cleveland, the son of a Presbyterian 
minister, remained in that faith, while Mc¬ 
Kinley, from boyhood, was an active worker 
in the Methodist Church. 

Cabinet Facts of Interest. 

There were six Secretaries of State 
who afterward became Presidents, namely, 



















602 


FACTS FOR 1 HE CURIOUS 


Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, John Quincy 
Adams, Van Buren, and Buchanan. Mon¬ 
roe was Secretary of War for a short time 
after he had served in the State Depart¬ 
ment, and General Grant was Secretary of 
War ad interim. There have been no Sec¬ 
retaries of the Treasury, the Navy, or the 
Interior, nor any Postmasters or Attorney- 
Generals who have become President. Jeff 
Davis was Secretary of War under President 
Pierce. 

Salaries of United States Officers, Per 
Annum. 

President, Vice-President and Cabi¬ 
net. —President, $50,000 ; Vice-President, 
$8,000 ; Cabinet Officers, $8,000 each. 

United States Senators. —$5,000 
with mileage. 

Congress . —Members of Congress, $5,000 
with mileage. 

Supreme Court. —Chief Justice, $10- 
500; Associate Justices, $10,000. 

Circuit Courts. —Justices of Circuit 
Courts, $6,000. 

Heads of Departments. —Supt. of 
Bureau of Engraving and Printing, $4,500; 
public printer $4,500; Supt. of Census, 
$6,000 ; Supt. of Naval Observatory, $5,000 ; 
Supt. of the Signal Service, $4,000; Direc¬ 
tor of Geological Surveys, $6,000; Director 
ofthe Mint, $4,500 ; Commissioner of General 
Eand Office, $4,000; Commissioner of Pen¬ 
sions, $5,000; Commissioner of Labor, $5000; 
Commissioner of Indian Affairs, $4,000; 
Commissioner of Education, $3,000; Com¬ 
mander of Marine Corps, $3,500; Supt. of 
Coast and Geodetic Survey, $6,000. 

United States Treasury. —Treasurer, 
$6,000; Register of Treasury, $4,000 ; Comp¬ 
troller of Customs, $4,000. 

Post-Office Department Washington. 
— Four Assistant Postmaster-Generals, 
$4,000; Chief Clerk, $2,500. 

Postmasters. —Postmasters are divided 
into four classes. First class, $3,000 to 
$4,000 (excepting New York City, which is 
$8,000); second class, $2,000 to $3,000; 
third class, $1,000 to $2,000; fourth class 
less than $1,000. The first three classes are 
appointed by the President, and confirmed 
by the Senate; those of fourth class are ap¬ 
pointed by the Postmaster-Geneial. 


Diplomatic Appointments. — Ambas¬ 
sadors , at $17,500, to France, Great Britain, 
Germany, Mexico and Russia. Envoys 
Extraordinary and Ministers Plenipotentiary , 
at $12,000; to Austria-Hungary, Brazil, 
China, Italy, Japan and Spain; at $10,000 
to Argentine Republic, Belgium, Chili, 
Columbia, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Peru, 
Netherlands, Turkey and Venezuela; at 
$7,500 : to Denmark, Hayti, Paraguay and 
Uruguay, Portugal, Sweden and Norway, 
Switzerland; at $5,000: to Bolivia, Ecquador; 
at $6,500: to Greece. Ministers Resident at 
$7,500 : Corea and Siam ;• at $5,000 : Persia. 
Then four Consuls-Generals at $6,000, three 
at $5,000, six at $4,000, and eight at $3,500 
to $2 ,oooi; also seventy-two Consuls at $1,000 
up to $3,500. 

Army Officers. — General, $13,500; 
Lieut.-General, $11,000; Major-General, 
$7,500; Brigadier-General, $5,500; Colonel, 
$3,500; Lieut.-Colonel, $3,000; Major, 
$2,500; Captain, mounted, $2,000; Captain, 
not mounted, $1,800; Regimental Adjutant, 
$1,800; Regimental Quartermaster, $1,800; 
First Lieutenant, mounted, $1,600; First 
Lieutenant, not mounted, $1,500; Second 
Lieutenant, mounted, $1,500; Second Lieu¬ 
tenant, not mounted, $1,400; Chaplain, 
$1,500. 

Navy Officers. — Admiral, $13,500; 
Vice-Admiral, $9,000; Rear-Admirals, 
$6,000; Commodores, $5,000; Captains, 
$4,500; Commanders, $3,500 ; Lieut.-Com¬ 
manders, $2,800 ; Lieutenants, $2,400 ; Mas¬ 
ters, $1,800; Ensigns, $1,200; Midshipmen, 
$1,000; Cadet Midshipmen, $500; Mates, 
$900 ; Medical and Pay Directors and Medi¬ 
cal and Pay Inspectors and Chief Engineers, 
$4,400; Fleet Surgeons, Fleet Paymasters, 
and Fleet Engineers, $4,400 ; Surgeons and 
Paymasters, $2,800; Chaplains, $2,500. 

Popular and Electoral Votes for 
Presidents. 


year candidates 

1832 .Andrew Jackson. 

1832 .Henry Clay. 

1832 .John Floyd. 

1832 .William Wirt. 

1836 .Martin Van Buren.. 

1836 .W. H Harrison. 

1836 .Hugh L. White. 

1836 .Daniel Webster. 

1836 .W.P. Mangum. 

1840 .Martin Van Buren.. 

1840 . W. H. Harrison. 


Popular Elec’l 
party Vote Vote 

.Democrat. 687,502 219 

.Nat. Republican... 530,189 49 

• Whig. ii 

.Whig. 7 

.Democrat. 761,549 170 

Whig.'i f 73 

. Wh ig.].. [ 736,656 -j 

•Whig. J 111 

.Democrat.1,128,702 48 

• Whig.1,275,017 234 




































FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS 


603 


„ Popular Elec’l 

YEAR CANDIDATES party Vote Vote 

l 844 .James K. Polk.Democrat. 1 , 337,243 170 

.Henry Clay. .Whig. 1 , 299,068 105 

J ^ 48 .Zachary lay lor.Whig. 1 , 360,101 163 

4848 .Lewis Cass.Democrat. 1,220 544 127 

1848 .Martin Van Buren.Free Soil. 291 263 

48 ^2 .Franklin Pierce.Democrat. 1 , 601,474 254 

1852 .Winfield Scott.Whig.1386 578 42 

1852 .John P. Hale.....'.Free Soil. 156,149 ... . 

1856 .James Buchanan.Democrat. 1 , 838,169 174 

1856 .John C Fremont.Kepublican. 1 , 341,262 114 

1856 .Millard Fillmore.American. 874,534 8 

I 860 .Abraham Lincoln.Kepublican. 1 , 866’352 180 

I 860 .Stephen A. Douglas.Democrat. 1 , 375,157 12 

I860.John C. Breckenriage....Democrat. 845,763 72 

I 860 .John Bell.Union. 589,581 39 

1864 .Abraham Lincoln.Kepublican. 2 , 216,067 212 

1864 .George B. McClellan.Democrat. 1 , 808,725 21 

1868 .U. S. Grant...Renublican. 3 . 015,071 214 

1868 .Horatio Seymour.Democrat. 2 , 709,613 80 

1872 .U. S. Grant.Republican. 3 , 597,070 286 

1872 .Horace Greely.Liberal and Dem., 2 , 834,079 . 

1872 .James Black.Prohibition. 5,608 . 

1876 .R. B. Hayes.Kepublican. 4 , 038,950 185 

1876 .Samuel J. Tilden.Democrat. 4 , 284,885 184 

1876 .Peter Cooper.Greenback. 81,740 . 

1876 .G. C. Smith.Prohibition. 9 522 . 

1880 .James A. Garfield.Republican,.'.. 4 , 449,053 214 

1880 .Winfield S. Hancock.Democrat. 4 , 442,035 155 

1880 .James B. Weaver.Greenback. 307,306 . 

1884 .Grover Cleveland.Democrat. 4 , 911,017 219 

1884 .James G. Blaine.Kepublican. 4 , 848,334 182 

1884 .Bei j. F. Butler.Greenback. 133,825 . 

1884 .John P.St. John.Prohibition. 151,800 . 

1888 .Benjamin Harrison.Republican. 5 , 441,902 233 

1888 .Grover Cleveland.Democrat. 5 , 538,560 168 

1888 .Fisk.Prohibition. 219,937 . 

1888 .Labor Vote. 147,521 . 

1392 .Grover Cleveland.Democrat. 5 , 553,142 277 

1892 .Benjamin Harrison.Kepublican. 5 , 186 , 931 - 145 

1892 .James B. Weaver.People’s. 1 , 030,128 22 

1892 .Tohu Bidwell.Prohibitory. 268,361 . 

1896 .Wm. McKinley.Republican. 7 ,’ 07,980 271 

1896 .Wm. Jennings Bryan....Democrat. 6 , 509,056 176 

1896 .John M. Palmer.Gold Democrat. 132,056 . 

1896 .Joshua Levering.Prohibition. 127,174 . 

1896 .C. H. Matcheite.Socialist-Labor. 36,426 . 

1900 .Wm. McKinley.Republican. 7 , 263,266 292 

1900 .Wm. Jennings Bryan..„Democrat. 6 , 415,887 155 

Eleven Great Wonders in America. 

Croton Aqueduct, in New York City. 

City Park, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 
The largest park in the world. 

Lake Superior. The largest lake in the 
world. 

Mammoth Cave, in Kentucky. 

Niagara Falls. A sheet of water three- 
quarters of a mile wide, with a fall of 175 
feet. 

Natural Bridge, over Cedar Creek, in 
Virginia. 

New State Capitol, at Albany, N. Y. 

New York and Brooklyn Bridge. 

The Central Park, in New York City. 

Washington Monument, Washington, 
D. C., 555 feet high. 

Yosemite Valley, California; fifty-seven 
miles from Coulterville. A valley from eight 
to ten miles long, and about one mile wide. 
Has very steep slopes about 3,500 feet high ; 


has a perpendicular precipice 3,089 feet 
high ; a rock almost perpendicular, 3,270 
feet high ; and waterfalls from 700 to 1,000. 

Noted American Trees. 

The big tree of California. 

“ Old Liberty Elm,” at Boston. 

“The Burgoyne Elm,” at Albany, N. Y. 

The immense ash trees planted by Gen¬ 
eral Washington at Mount Vernon, and now 
the admiration of visitors. 

The weeping-willow over the grave of 
Cotton Mather in Cop’s burying-ground, 
near Bunker Hill, taken from a tree that 
shaded the grave of Napoleon at St. Helena. 

The Cary tree, planted by the roadside 
in 1832 by Alice and Phoebe Cary, is a large 
sycamore, standing on the turnpike from 
College Hill to Mount Pleasant, Hamilton 
County, Ohio. 

The Washington elm still stands at Cam¬ 
bridge, Mass. It is on Garden street, a short 
distance from the colleges, and is a large, 
well-preserved tree. An iron fence is built 
around it, and on a stone in front is the fol¬ 
io w;ing inscription : ‘ ‘ Under this tree George 
Washington took command of the American 
Army, July 3, 1775.” 

The Great Famines of History. 

Walford mentions 160 famines since the nth 
century, namely : England, 57 ; Ireland, 34 ; Scot¬ 
land, 12 ; France, 10; Germany, n ; Italy, etc., 36. 
The worst in modern times have been : 


Country. Date. No. of Victims. 

France.1770 48,000 

Ireland.1847 1,029,000 

India.1866 1,450,000 


Deaths from hunger and want w 7 ere recorded as 
follows in 1879, according to Mulhall : Ireland, 
3,789; England, 312 ; London. 101.; France, 260. 
The proportion per 1,000 deaths was, respectively,. 
37.6, .6, 1.2, .3. 

Remarkable Plagues of Modern Times. 


Date. Place. Deaths. Weeks. Deaths 


1656 . Naples. 

. 380,000 

28 

per Week. 
13,600 

1665 . London. 

, . 68,800 

33 

2,100 

1720 . Marseilles . . . . 

• 39 ) 100 

36 

1,100 

1771 . Moscow. 

. 87,800 

32 

2,700 

1778 . Constantinople . 

. 170,000 

18 

9 - 5 °° 

1798 . Cairo. 

. 88,000 

25 

3 . 5 oo 

1812 . Constantinople. . 

. 144,000 

13 

11,100 

1834 . Cairo. 

. 57,000 

18 

3,200 

1835 . Alexandria . . , 

, . 14,900 

17 

900 

1871 . Buenos Ayres . , 

, . 26,300 

11 

2,400 



































































































































































604 


FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS 


Great Financial Panics. 

The most remarkable crises since the 
beginning of the present century have been 
as follows: 

1814. England, 240 banks suspended. 

1825. Manchester, failures 2 millions. 

1831. Calcutta, failures 15 millions. 

1837. United States, “Wild-cat” crisis; 
all banks closed. 

1839. Bank of England saved by Bank of 
France. Severe also in France, 
where 93 companies failed for 6 
millions. 

1844. England. State loans to merchants. 

Bank of England reformed. 

1847. England, failures 20 millions; dis¬ 
count 13 per cent. 

1857. United States, 7,200 houses failed for 
hi millions. 

1866. London, Overend-Gurney crisis; fail¬ 
ures exceeded 100 millions. 

1869. Black Friday in New York (Wall 
street), September 24th. 

1873. Many banks failed, and great com¬ 
mercial enterprises where driven 
to the wall in the United States. 

1 893-95. The money question of a silver 
and gold, or the single gold stand¬ 
ard was greatly agitated, and the 
United States passed through a 
financial crisis which wrecked thou¬ 
sands of business firms and brought 
on a disastrous financial stringency. 

The Greatest Floods in History. 

The Thames destroyed a great number 
of the inhabitants of its banks, nine years 
after Christ; another which destroyed all 
the inhabitants in Ferae Island, seven miles 
southwest from Holy Island, 323; 5,000 
people lost in Cheshire by an eruption, 353 ; 
another of the Dee which drowned forty 
families, 415 ; an inundation of the sea in 
Norfolk, Suffolk, and Essex, 575 ; an inun¬ 
dation at Edinburgh, which did great dam¬ 
age, 73° ; an inundation at Glasgow, which 
drowned above 400 families, 738 ; an inun¬ 
dation of the Tweed, which did immense 
damage, 836 ; an inundation of the Medway, 
861; an inundation at Southampton, which 
destroyed many people, 935 ; an inundation 
of the Severn, which drowned hundreds 
of cattle, 1046; the sea overflowed 4,000 


acres of Earl Godwin’s land, in Kent, since 
called Godwin Sands, 1100 ; a great part of 
Flanders overflowed by the sea, 1108; dn 
inundation of the Thames for above six 
miles at Lambeth, 1243; another, since 
named the Dollert Sea, 1277 ; at Winchel- 
sea 300 houses were overthrown by the sea, 
1280; 120 laymen, and several priests, be¬ 
sides women, were drowned by an inunda¬ 
tion at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 1339; at the 
Texel, which first raised the commerce of 
Amsterdam, 1400 ; the sea broke in at Dort, 
and drowned 72 villages and 100,000 peo¬ 
ple, and formed the Zuyder Sea, 1421 ; in 
1530 the Holland dykes broke, 400,000lost; 
in February, 1735, at Dagenham, and upon 
the coast of Essex, which carried away the 
sea walls, and drowned several thousand 
sheep and black cattle ; in Spain, and did 
3,000,000 livres damage, at Bilboa, April, 
1762; at Naples, where it carried away a 
whole village, and drowned 200 of the in¬ 
habitants, November 10, 1773; ia Spain, 
Navarre, September, 1787, where 2,000 lost 
their lives, all the buildings of several vil¬ 
lages carried away by the currents from the 
mountains; a terrible inundation by the 
Liffey, in Ireland, which did very consider¬ 
able damage in Dublin and its environs, 
November 12, 1787 ; at Kirkwald, in Scot¬ 
land, by breaking the Dam-dykes, October 
4, 1788, which nearly destroyed the town; 
almost throughout England by the melting 
of the snow, and the greater part of the 
bridges were either destroyed or damaged, 
February, 1795 ; at St. Domingo, which 
destroyed 1,400 persons, October, 1800; on 
the coast of Holland and Germany, Novem¬ 
ber, 1801 ; in Dublin and parts adjacent, 
December 2 and 3, 1802 

The Johnstown Flood , in June, 1889, at 
Johnstown, Pa., was caused by the break¬ 
ing of a dam on the upper waters of the 
Conemaugh River, which confined a great 
lake on top of the Alleghany Mountains. 
The flood swept down the valley faster than 
a railroad train in speed. Several small 
towns and the city of Johnstown were swept 
away, and 6,111 persons perished. 

The Galveston Flood. — In September, 
1900, a hurricane along the southern coast 
of the United States reached the climax of 
its fury near Galveston, Texas, at 1 o’clock 





FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS 


605 


at night, literally blowing the Gulf waters 
over the island on which Galveston is situ¬ 
ated, causing a loss of life and property 
unparalleled by any similar disaster in the 
United States. The city of Galveston was 
well-nigh annihilated, 7,000 lives being lost, 
and $30,000,000 worth of property destroyed 
in the city and near by on the mainland. 
This appears the more frightful in view of 
the fact that less than 40,000souls inhabited 
Galveston. Thousands escaped by clinging 
to the wreckage of houses and ships which 
the wind blew far inland on the high tide. 
About $ 1,000,000 was subscribed for relief 
throughout the country, and the rebuilding 
of the city was begun promptly after the ruins 
were sufficiently cleared away. 


The Greatest World’s Fairs. 


WHERE HELD 

Year. 

Area 

Cov¬ 

ered.* 

Exhi¬ 

bitors 

Visitors.! 

1 Days 

1 Open. 

Receipts! 

London. 

Paris. 

London. 

Paris. 

Vienna. 

Philadelphia. 

Paris. 

Sydney. 

Melbourne 

1851 

1855 

1862 

1867 

1873 

1876 

1878 

1879 

1880 

1883 

1884 

1885 

1886 
1888 
1889 
1893 
1900 

Acres 

21 

24^ 

23^ 

37 

40 

60 

60 

26 

13,937 

20,839 

28,653 

50,226 

50,000 

30.864 

40,366 

9,345 

6,039,195 

5,162,330 

6,211,103 

8,805,969 

6,740,500 

10,164,489 

16,032,723 

1,117,536 

1,330,279 

2,703,051 

4,153,390 

3,760,581 

5,550,745 

5,748,379 

28,149,353 

27,539,521 

50,000,000 

141 

200 

171 

217 

186 

159 

194 

210 

210 

147 

151 

163 

164 
161 
185 
184 
212 

$1,780,000 

644,100 

1,614,260 

2,103,675 

1,032,385 

3,813,724 

2,531,650 

200,000 

Fisheries Exhibi¬ 
tion, London. 

Health Exhibition, 
Lon <1 011 --- 

9 

3,000 

585,000 

892,545 

750.000 

1,025,000 

566,330 

8.300,000 

14,000,000 

Inventions Exhibi¬ 
tion, London. 

Colonial andlnland, 

London. 

Glasgow. 

Paris. 

Chicago. 

Paris. 

13 

75X 

633 

55,000 

75,501 


♦Buildings and covered structures. 

f The largest number of visitors in any one day was 400,000 
in 1889 in Palis, and 716,881 in Chicago in 1893, and 600,000 in 
Paris in 1900. It will be noticed that the Paris Exposition ol 
1900 admitted the largest number of paying visitors—50,000,000 
—ever attending any exposition, almost doubling thetotal num¬ 
ber of paying visitors attending the Chicago Exposition. 


The Highest Buildings, Monuments, etc. 


Feet. 


Eiffel Tower, Paris. 9§9 

Washington Monument. 555 

City Hall, Philadelphia, Pa. 54 8 

Pyramid, Cheops, Egypt. 543 

Cathedral, Cologne. 5 11 

“ Antwerp. 47 6 

“ Strassburg. 474 

Tower, Utrecht. 4^4 

Steeple, St. Stephen’s, Vienna .... 460 
Pyramid, Khafras, Egypt. 45 6 


St. Martin’s Church, Bavaria .... 456 

Chimney, Port Dundas, Glasgow . . 454 

St. Peter’s, Rome.* . . . 448 

Notre Dame, Amiens.422 

Salisbury Spire, England.406 

Cathedral, Florence.380 

“ Cremona.372 

“ Freiburg.367 

St. Paul’s, London.365 

Cathedral, Seville.360 

Pyramid, Sakkarah, Egypt.356 

Cathedral, Milan.355 

Notre Dame, Munich.348 

Invalides, Paris.347 

Parliament House, London.340 

Cathedral, Magdeburg.337 

St. Patrick’s New York.328 

St. Mark’s, Venice.328 

Statue of Liberty, New York .... 321 

Cathedral, Bologna.306 

“ Norwich, Eng.309 

“ Chichester > Eng.300 

“ Lincoln, Eng.300 

St. James’ Cathedral, Toronto . . . . 316 

Capitol, Washington.300 

Trinity Church, New York.283 

Cathedral, Mexico.280 

“ Montreal.280 

Campanile Tower, Florence.276 

Column, Delhi.260 

Cathedral, Dantzic.250 

Porcelain Tower, Nankin ..... 248 

Custom House, St. Louis.240 

Canterbury Tower, England.235 

Notre Dame, Paris.232 

Chicago Board of Trade.230 

St. Patrick’s, Dublin.226 

Cathedral, Glasgow ..225 

Bunker Hill Monument.220 

Notre Dame, Montreal.220 

Cathedral, Lima.220 

“ Rheims.220 

“ Garden City, L. 1 .219 

St. Peter and Paul, Philadelphia, Pa. . 210 

Washington Monument, Baltimore . . 210 


Famous Giants and Dwarfs. 

The most noted giants of ancient and 
modern times are as follows: 

Name. Place. Height, Feet. Period. 

Goliath .... Palestine 11.0 B. C. 1063. 
Galbara .... Rome 9.9 Claudius Caesar. 

John Middleton, England 9.3 A. D. 1578. 

















































































6o6 


FACTS FOR THE CURIOUS 


Name Place. Height, Feet. Period. 

Frederick Swede, Sweden 8.4 . 

Cajanus .... Finland . 7.9 . 

Gilly.Tyrol . . S.i . 

Patrick Cotter . Cork . . 8.7 1806. 

Chang Gow . . Pekin . . 7.8 1880. 

Many of the great men of history have 
been rather small in stature. Napoleon was 
only about five feet four inches, Washington 
was five feet seven inches. One of the great¬ 
est of American statesmen, Alexander H. 
Stephens, never excelled 115 pounds in 
weight, and in his old age his weight was 
less than 100 pounds. 

The more notable human mites are named 
below: 

Name. Height, inches. Date of Birth. Place of Birth. 


Count Borowlaski 
Tom Thumb (Chas. 

39 

1739 

Warsaw. 

S. Stratton) . . . 

3 i 

1837 

New York. 

Mrs. Tom Thumb . 

3 2 

1842 

<< 

Che-Mah. 

25 

1838 

China. 

Lucia Zarate . . . 

20 

1863 

Mexico. 

General Mite . . . 

21 

1864 

New York. 


Remarkable Genius in Youth. 

Handel had produced an opera before he 
was fifteen. 

Corneille had planned a tragedy before 
he was ten. 

Auber wrote an operetta for the stage 
before he was fourteen. 

Pitt was Chancellor of the Exchequer 
before he was twenty-five. 

Schiller was widely known as a poet be¬ 
fore the age of twenty. 

Kaulbach at seventeen was pronounced 
the first artistic genius in Germany. 

Kant began his philosophical and meta¬ 
physical speculations before the age of eigh¬ 
teen. 

Goethe had produced a considerable 
number of poems and several dramas before 
he was twenty. 

Raphael showed his artistic abilities at 
the early age of twelve, when he was widely 
known as an artist in oil. 


Remarkable riemories. 

Magliabechi, of Florence, called “The 
Universal Index and Riving Cyclopaedia ” 
(1633-1714). 

P. J. Beronicius, the Greek and Latin 
improvisator, who knew by heart Horace, 
Virgil, Cicero, Juvenal, both the Plinys, 
Homer, and Aristophanes. He died at 
Middleburgh, in 1676. 

Andrew Fuller, after hearing 500 lines 
twice, could repeat them without a mistake. 
He could also repeat verbatim a sermon or 
speech ; could tell either backward or for¬ 
ward every shop sign from the Temple to 
the extreme end of Cheapside, and the arti¬ 
cles displayed in each of the shops. 

Woodfall could carry in his head a de¬ 
bate, and repeat it a fortnight afterward. 

Thompson could repeat the names, 
trades, and particulars of every shop from 
Ludgate Hill to Piccadilly. 

William Radcliff, the husband of the 
novelist, could repeat a debate the next 
morning. 

Blind Tom, the famous negro pianist, 
could repeat any speech he heard uttered. 
He could also play any piece of music from 
memory after once hearing it. In some 
respects his mind was very weak. 

At the Palmer House , Chicago, is a 
colored man who stands at the door of the 
dining-room and receives the hats, coats, 
and umbrellas of the hundreds of guests 
who go in to each meal. As they come 
out, he, without error, hands each guest 
the articles intrusted to him on entering. 
In many years’ service it is declared he has 
not made a dozen errors. In view of the 
fact that he gives no checks, but depends 
entirely on his memory of faces, and must 
associate the articles with the individual 
leaving them, and that he must thus deal 
with hundreds of strangers every day, and 
has kept it up daily for many years, his feat 
of memory is one of the most remarkable on 
record. 













SEP 11 1902 

i con DEI. *o CAT. DIV. 
SEP. 11 1902 

SEP. .15 1902 




























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